Management activity is the most important and determining link in the functioning of organizations; This is a kind of quintessence of management practice in general. But the very concept of “activity” is at the same time one of the most important general psychological categories; therefore, it is through it that management theory and psychology are synthesized, management psychology itself becomes possible as a scientific discipline. Because of this, it is traditionally believed that management activity is the “core” of all management psychology (or even its subject as a whole),
Management activity is a type of professional activity, the specifics of which are determined by its main task - the need to organize people according to a hierarchical principle to achieve common goals. It is characterized by a number of basic psychological features. 1.
Managerial activity is a unique type of activity, since it cannot be attributed to any of the other types of activity known in psychology (individual and joint). It is an organic synthesis of individual and joint activities: the first (the activity of the leader) is aimed at organizing the second (the joint activities of performers), and that, in turn, serves as a subject for the first. 2.
The indicated synthesis of two types of activity is carried out in management activities on the basis of the hierarchy mechanism, i.e. subordination relations between the manager and subordinates. 3.
This activity is characterized not by a direct, but by an indirect connection with the final results of the functioning of a particular organization. The manager usually does not have to participate in creating the final results himself. This is how management activities differ from executive activities. 4.
It is specific in its subject. They are presented with objects that are so peculiar (and even unique) in all respects, such as other people. Therefore, in managerial activity, the subject and object of labor are not only identical in their complexity, but also identical in their basic – primarily psychological – characteristics. In this regard, it is classified as a “subject-subject” activity. 5.
Management activities are specific in their process. Its essence is the organization of the activities of other people, i.e. “activity but the organization of activity” (as if “second-order activity”). This property is considered in theory.
Management activity is a type of professional activity, the specifics of which are determined by its main task - the need to organize people according to a hierarchical principle to achieve common goals.
ries in general as the main thing - attributable to management activities. Therefore, it can be designated as a meta-activity, 6.
In terms of its content, management activities represent the implementation of certain universal management functions (planning, forecasting, motivation, decision-making, control, etc.). The system of these functions is inherent in any management activity, regardless of its specific type, although the degree of expression in each case may vary. Therefore, the invariant system of management functions is another of its main characteristics. 7.
Organizational systems belong to a special type of system – sociotechnical. They are qualitatively heterogeneous in the composition of their components and include “technological” and “human” components. Therefore, the work of a manager includes two main, but fundamentally different aspects - ensuring technological process and facilitating interpersonal interactions. 8.
Managerial activity is also specific in terms of the organizational status of its subject – the manager. This status is twofold. The leader is simultaneously a member of the organization (group) and, as it were, stands outside it - above it (due to his hierarchical position). 9.
Managerial activity is quite specific in its typical conditions. They are divided into external and internal. External conditions include, first of all, strict time conditions, chronic information uncertainty, high responsibility, unregulated work, a constant shortage of resources, and the frequent occurrence of extreme (stressful) situations. Internal conditions, in particular, include: the need to simultaneously perform many actions and solve many problems; the inconsistency of regulatory (including legislative) regulations, their uncertainty, and often simply their absence; lack of clear formulation of evaluative criteria for performance effectiveness; multiple subordination of the manager to various higher authorities and the resulting contradictory requirements for him; almost complete non-algorithmization of labor, etc.
10. An important feature of management activity is the significant differences in its content depending on the level of management. There are three such levels - the levels of lower, middle and senior managers. Low-level managers belong to the organizational level that is directly above their subordinates. A typical example is a foreman or head of a department. The middle manager coordinates and controls the work of the “junior bosses”. This type of leader is the most numerous. An example would be a dean at a university or a branch director at a company. Senior managers are those who head large industrial, social and government organizations. Their number is much smaller than the number of managers of the two previous levels, but it is they who have a disproportionately greater influence on the functioning of organizations.
The position about the functional nature of a manager’s activity, i.e., that its essence lies in the implementation of some of the most important management functions, is one of the main ones in managerial psychology. From the point of view of modern ideas, the structure of management functions is revealed as follows.
A combination of three main criteria is used as the basis for this structure. They are determined by the very content of managerial activity and are captured in the concept of “main dimensions of managerial work.” Firstly, this is a dimension associated with the organization and regulation of management activities itself (the activity-administrative dimension). Secondly, this is a dimension associated with the impact on the most important, most specific component of management activity (on other people, on staff) - the personnel dimension. Thirdly, this is a dimension associated with the focus of management activities on the organization of the technological process itself - the production and technological dimension. These three dimensions form three “vectors” of management activity and define its general “space”. They are also the basis for identifying three main categories of management functions. In addition, their real interconnectedness and complexity requires the identification of another category of functions - synthetic, complex, i.e., derived from the interaction of the three noted categories of functions.
In connection with the above, all management functions form a structure that includes four main groups: 1)
activity-administrative functions: goal setting, forecasting, planning, organizing execution, motivation, decision making, communication, control, correction; 2)
personnel functions: personnel management, disciplinary, educational, arbitration, psychotherapeutic; 3)
production and technological functions: operational management, logistics, innovation, marketing; 4)
derivative (synthetic, complex) functions: integration, strategic, representative, expert advisory, stabilization.
One of the most important features functions of the first group - administrative - is that in their totality they form an integral management cycle, which can be implemented on both macro- and microscales of time. This control cycle, starting with the goal-setting function and then passing through other functions, ends with the control and correction function.
Goal setting is defined as the development or selection of a goal for the functioning of an organization, as well as its specification with the identification of subgoals and their coordination. As a result of this, the so-called “tree of goals” of the organization is formed, and the most important requirements for them are significance, feasibility, consistency, objectivity, and validity.
The essence of the forecasting function is to anticipate possible changes in the external and internal environment of the organization and take them into account during management. The meaning of this function is that it is a decisive factor in the transition from the strategy of “passive response” to changing conditions to the strategy of “active proactive
of these changes and timely preparation for them, and then for measures to prevent the most negative ones. A key role in forecasting is played by the so-called planning assumptions, which are understood as the results of the forecasting process in the form of certain forecasts of the future development of events in the external and internal environment of the organization.
The planning function as a process of developing strategies and tactics for achieving goals, as well as a program for their implementation, has two main meanings - narrow and broad. In a narrow sense, this is a stage of the management cycle located between forecasting and developing a program of specific actions. IN in a broad sense planning is close to management in general; it, for example, underlies one of the most promising approaches to organizing all management activities - “strategic planning”, on which, in turn, strategic management is based. The planning function is implemented through a sequence of the following main stages: -
defining the organization's mission; -
formulation of main goals; -
analysis of the external environment; -
management survey of strong and weaknesses organizations; -
exploring strategic alternatives; -
choosing a strategy based on the chosen strategic alternative; -
implementation of strategy (including the development and implementation of tactics, policies, rules and procedures of action).
The function of the organization is also multifaceted. It consists, in particular, in the process of creating a certain organizational structure, i.e., choosing the type of structure, its differentiation into divisions in accordance with goals and objectives. In addition, organization also means functional division, as well as subsequent coordination of the main types of work between individuals in a managed system. In this regard, processes of delegation of authority play a key role.
Accept function management decisions is the most specific for the activities of a manager and at the same time the most significant. It permeates the entire content of this activity, manifesting itself in various forms. IN general view this function is defined as the implementation by the manager of so-called organizational decisions. These are decisions that directly follow from the system of responsibilities, status and content of the manager’s activities. The standard (normative) process of developing organizational and management decisions has a certain structure and includes the following main stages: 1)
identification of a problem situation; 2)
formulation of alternatives; 4)
assessment of alternatives according to a system of formulated criteria in accordance with the main goals of the activity; 5)
choice of alternative; 6)
implementation decision taken; 7)
control of execution and evaluation of its effectiveness; 8)
correction (if necessary) of the solution.
The most general typology of decision forms is their division into two main categories - individual and collegial. Management decisions can be made by the manager individually. At the same time, they are implemented as if autonomously from the group (organization), although while maintaining its influence on decisions. However, management decisions are very often made in a joint – collegial – form. It is characteristic that the collegial form of decisions in many cases is prescribed normatively; even if the manager wants to make a decision personally, he does not have the right to do so.
Management decisions are also classified depending on what strategy is used in collegial selection processes. There are several main strategies for collectively made decisions - majoritarian (simple majority strategy), consensus strategy and “imposed choice” strategy. In the latter case, the manager, although he adjusts his opinion taking into account collegial factors, retains the right of the final decision.
In relation to all types of management decisions, a number of regulatory requirements. They set a certain normative-rationalistic optimum and are considered as “signs of a good solution.” Let us note the most important of them. 1.
Efficiency of the solution. The accepted alternative must ensure constructive overcoming of the problem situation and be the best among all potentially possible; Only if this condition is met will the effectiveness of management activities be maximized. 2.
Validity of the decision. The accepted alternative must not only adequately reflect the features of the real situation and show specific ways to overcome it, but also be understandable to the performers. To do this, the decision made must undergo an organizational justification procedure. 3.
Timeliness of the solution. There are no “absolutely correct” decisions - they are all correct or incorrect only in relation to specific situations that arise in a given period of time, which dynamically replace each other. Therefore, a decision that is good in itself can be erroneous simply due to the untimeliness of its adoption - either delay or unjustified “running ahead.” 4.
The feasibility (feasibility) of a solution is the most important requirement for management decisions (in some cases, even more important than efficiency). Any decision, even the best, justified, timely and possessing all conceivable advantages, will be useless if it is not implementable. In practice, the key role of the property of feasibility leads to the fact that management decisions almost always act as the product of a compromise between the abstractly best and realistically feasible options. 5.
A combination of rigidity and flexibility. There is a rule according to which the process of developing a solution should be flexible, but the process of its implementation should be rigid. Once a decision is made, it must be implemented. 6.
Specificity and regulation of the solution. A good solution not only provides a general (principled) solution to a problem situation, but also includes a plan - specific ways implementations and their sequence. It regulates the use
execution of actions by individual departments and employees. This is at the same time a prerequisite for the effective implementation of subsequent monitoring of the results of the decision, without which it, in principle, cannot be effective and constructive.
The essence of the motivational function is to ensure that the manager has the proper interest of performers in realizing the overall goals of the organization and in stimulating their individual activity. The implementation of this function is based on two main principles. Firstly, the motivation system should be focused not on part of the employee’s needs (usually material), but on all the types and types of needs inherent in him. Secondly, it must adequately identify and take into account the real contribution of each performer to the final result and provide incentives proportional to this contribution. This function places the greatest demands on the psychological competence of the leader; it is considered the most “psychological” of all functions.
The communicative function is revealed through the concept of an “end-to-end process” of an organization, i.e. a process (more precisely, a whole system of processes) that ensures the coordination of joint activities during the functioning of the organization based on the exchange of information between its members. The main task of the manager is to provide a “communicative space” for the organization, i.e., an extensive system of communications of various types and forms aimed at promoting the achievement of the overall goals of the organization. To do this, a manager must know the basic types of communication and be able to use them competently. Among the main types of communications, there are, in particular, external and intra-organizational communications, vertical and horizontal, “upward” and “downward”, formal and informal, directive and advisory, etc.
The essence of the control and correction function is the systematic monitoring of intermediate and final results of the functioning of the managed system, making the necessary adjustments and achieving on this basis the goals of the system. Of key importance is the combination of three main types of control - proactive, current and final, as well as compliance with the basic principles of implementing the control and correction function: timeliness, strategic focus, flexibility, result orientation, efficiency, objectivity, activity, openness, adequacy to the content of the activity. .
The main management functions of the second group - personnel - in management psychology are usually ordered on the basis of a “chronological criterion,” i.e., the time of their implementation in the process of organizational functioning. They can be described with varying degrees of detail, but most often the following areas and stages of labor resource management are noted: -
formation personnel policy organizations; -
personnel planning, development of professional and qualification requirements for personnel; -
recruitment; -
personnel selection; -
determination of the wage and benefit system;
organization of an incentive system; -
professional adaptation; -
selection and placement of personnel; -
professional training and retraining of personnel; -
personel assessment; -
promotion, demotion, transfer, dismissal of personnel; -
training of management personnel; -
management of career advancement and relocation.
Each of these areas, in turn, includes a whole range of general and specific activities, relatively independent of the content of the activities of a particular organization.
For example, personnel planning (“resource planning”) includes three main stages: assessment of available human resources; assessment of future staffing needs; developing a program to meet future needs.
A special role in the structure of personnel management is played by the personnel selection stage (as general process implementation of personnel functions). It is carried out by selecting from a potential reserve those candidates who, in terms of their business (professional) and personal (psychological) characteristics, most satisfy the developed system of professional and qualification requirements for personnel. Such selection, in principle, should be comprehensive and include measures of both organizational and psychological nature. Organizational selection is associated with resolving the issue of professional, cultural, general educational, and legal suitability of candidates for vacant positions. Psychological selection is associated with resolving the issue of the professional suitability of candidates for these positions. Psychograms must be developed for the main activities in the organization. A psychogram is a system of requirements that a profession places on the basic psychological qualities of a subject. It is subsequently used as a comprehensive criterion for the professional selection of candidates. When conducting professional selection, the test method is often used, as well as other psychological methods selection. In addition, a “personal hiring interview”, carried out either by the manager himself or by special employees in the organization, plays a big role. Mastering its technique should be part of the entire arsenal of management skills and knowledge. This, as well as the ability to take into account the features psychological state interlocutor at the time of examination is extremely important for the implementation of the general personnel function of the manager.
When implementing all of the specified personnel functions, the manager must also carry out whole line specific functions - educational, disciplinary, arbitration, psychotherapeutic and expert advisory. Thus, the essence of the arbitration function consists primarily in resolving and eliminating conflicts and labor disputes in the organization. The essence of the psychotherapeutic function is defined as the creation by the manager or the administration as a whole of an atmosphere of a kind of psychological comfort in the team, the main elements of which are the feeling of safety of workers, their lack of anxiety and “worry about tomorrow”, an optimistic view of events occurring in the team, the desire to maintain membership In the organisation.
A psychogram is a system of requirements that a profession places on the basic psychological qualities of a subject.
The need for the management functions of the third group - production and technological - is due to the fact that the activities of almost any organizational system are ultimately aimed at creating certain products, obtaining socially significant values - goods, services, etc. Therefore, any organization includes as its main link, the so-called operating system, directly aimed at creating the final product of activity. By regulating it, the manager implements the operational management function, as well as the closely related marketing and innovation functions. An important position has been formulated in management psychology, according to which the higher the hierarchical status of the manager, the less he should be involved in the direct implementation of production functions. And vice versa, the lower the level of management, the greater (and at the lowest levels, the main) role in management activities these functions play. In other words, the severity of this function is inversely proportional to the hierarchical position of the manager in the overall management continuum.
The overall operational management function includes a number of main subfunctions. This is, first of all, rationing, coordination, regulation, dispatching, logistics and raw materials (as well as even more specialized functions of assigning work, monitoring the timing of their completion, scheduling). The study of these functions currently constitutes an independent and important direction of modern management theory - production management, which is a synthesis of strategic and operational production management and organizational functioning.
The essence of the innovation function is to manage the development of an organization based on the current implementation and future development (and adaptation) of new means and forms of production (technologies), as well as new forms of organizational functioning.
Content marketing function The manager is to organize and coordinate activities in the following areas: studying the domestic and foreign markets, planning the product range, developing measures to fully satisfy the consumer, identifying unsatisfied demand, planning and implementing sales, influencing the organization and management of production.
Finally, another group of management functions is highlighted - derivative, complex. In terms of their content, they are derived from all other groups of functions and are built on the basis of their combination. The essence of the so-called integration function is to coordinate all - private and general aspects, tasks, functions of management activities and give them, if possible, a more holistic and consistent character. The other - strategic - function is most typical for senior managers and is defined as “management management” (which, in turn, is completely atypical for lower-level managers). Carrying out a representative function, the manager protects the interests of the organization and (or) group he heads. various levels internal
reorganizational vertical, as well as in the organization’s interactions with the external environment. In addition, this group also includes such generalized functions as administrative, stabilization, and disciplinary.
Review questions 1.
What is the subject of study of management psychology? 2.
Indicate the main approaches (schools) of management psychology, 3.
Define organizational structure and explain the main types of organizational structures. 4.
Describe the specifics of management activities. 5.
What is a “managerial function”? 6.
Describe the structure of key management functions. 7.
What are the requirements for management decisions? 8.
Indicate the main personnel functions of the manager. 9.
Define the subject of management.
What's happened " social perception“and how is it related to the effectiveness of a manager? eleven.
Name and explain the main phenomena of social perception. 12.
What is the specificity of practical thinking and the activities of a leader? 13.
Define “individual management concept”. 14.
What is "managerial ability"? 15.
What are the features of emotional-volitional regulation of states in the activities of a leader? 16.
What are “power relations” and what types of “power” are known? 17.
Describe the main methods for studying the activities of a leader.
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9. Structure of management activities
9.1. General features of management activities. 9.2. Forms of management activity. 9.3. Methods of management activities. 9.4 Stages of management activity. 9.5. The concept of management technology.
9.1. General features of management activities
Bodies of state power and local self-government carry out the goals and functions government controlled through management activities- specific type of people's work requiring adequate professional training and implementation in appropriate techniques, methods, forms
max, methods, etc. In public administration, management activities bear its properties, in particular, connection with state power, consistency, object universality and others. At the same time, it is identical to the activities performed in other types of management, since it reflects and organizes the internal life activity and external manifestations of any subject of management. Unlike formalized goals, functions and management structures, management activity is the very thought, feeling and work of a person in management processes, mainly from the outside control components. This topic therefore reveals the general structure of management activities, adjusted, of course, for its specifics in public administration.
Management activity as an object of research has attracted the closest attention of scientific thought in the last century. The main judgments on management expressed in the works of G. Ford, F. Taylor, G. Emerson, A. Fayol and all their followers up to the present day are devoted precisely to management activities - connection in the management of scientific knowledge, technical means, labor and heuristic abilities of a person. It was here that huge reserves for rationalizing and increasing the efficiency of management were discovered and put into operation, and on its basis and with its help - the entire public and private life of people. Extensive and diverse scientific literature is devoted to management activities, which every manager should study. Here are offered only some conclusions from it.
Management activity is a phenomenon applied nature, for it has no intrinsic value, but is designed to serve the implementation of the goals and functions of management, to ensure the preparation and implementation of management decisions and actions. It can be defined as a set (set) of human skills, abilities, methods, and means of expedient actions and actions developed by historical experience, scientific knowledge and talent in the field of management.
Management activities are different intellectual content, since it is always aimed at the development, adoption and practical implementation of management decisions designed to change in the desired sense the state and course of social processes, consciousness, behavior and activities of people. It must be able to reflect social reality and everything that happens in it, reveal the resources, means and reserves available in it, find optimal ways to
improvement and transfer to a new level. Its main meaning is to receive new quality controlled process, which is impossible without serious creative efforts. But this is often not understood, and in managerial activities much is revealed that is routine, monotonous, and formal, which is why its objective results are very low.
In terms of its subject matter, with which it is inextricably linked, management activity is informational. This is the receipt, comprehension, systematization, storage, issuance of social and, above all, management information. There are great difficulties in obtaining what constitutes information useful for public administration. The chaos of facts, events, given during their subjectivist commentary, is not information at all. In fact, information can only be that which characterizes a particular social process as a whole, identifying the causes and driving forces that determine its state and dynamics. Otherwise, the necessary control actions cannot be developed. Management activity is fundamentally devoted to the search, selection, consolidation (fixation) and introduction of management information into social processes, into the consciousness, behavior and activities of people. Accordingly, it is adapted to this and should be improved with changes in the volume, content and structure of information necessary for quality public administration.
Management activities are complex socio-psychological phenomenon with a pronounced dominant will. Each person engaged in it almost constantly performs mental and volitional operations of analysis, assessment, choice, decision, subordination and execution, command and control, etc. and so on. This creates a special socio-psychological microclimate in the collectives of state authorities and local self-government, which actively influences the consciousness, feelings, life orientations of a person and forms a certain type of behavior and activity. It's not even a coincidence appearance"a man of power" is very different from one who has never possessed it. Constant tension of will, the burden of responsibility, discipline, subordination of one’s own “I” to the performance of a public office - these are the natural features that are inherent in management activities in a normal government body. If this is not the case, then the control actions formed and implemented by such a body can hardly enjoy authority among people and to some extent influence their consciousness, behavior and activities.
It should be noted that management activities always act collectivist, because it is carried out in the collective of any state body and at the same time presupposes interaction with groups of people in other government bodies vertically and horizontally, it takes place specialization on certain subjects, content and types of work, which requires cooperation for the purpose of comprehensive implementation of the competence of the state body and, in general, the functions of public administration. Formal construction of the organ? by divisions and positions creates only a logical scheme for collective management activities, which each time, taking into account the properties of specific people, must be put into practice. However, sometimes the moment of collectivity is underestimated; leaders focus on themselves or those close to them. Management activities lose their potential and reduce management efficiency. The moment of collectivity is especially relevant in large teams of government bodies, where there are hundreds, or even thousands of government positions.
Management activities are multifaceted in their manifestations. These are people, knowledge, information, and technical means that form a complex complex phenomenon. You can receive a lot of information, but not be able to process it due to lack of knowledge or technical means. It is possible to have (according to the staffing table) a significant management team, but due to the low professionalism of its composition, it is not able to ensure the implementation of the competence of the state. organ. Only measured, balanced implementation everyone elements of management activity can give it rationality and efficiency. Thus, complexity can and should be considered the most important general feature of management activity.
At the same time, despite the predetermination of managerial activity by the properties and motives, professional training and vital activity of human nature, in public administration it receives legal specificity, clarity and expressibility. This is an activity that the relevant state bodies and officials are obliged to carry out, and in such a way as is required to implement the competence of each specific state body, and within it - each public position. Therefore, many elements of management activity are not only legally described, but also “tied” to government bodies, enshrined in their legal status in
form of procedural rules. Hence the identification of elements of management activity with elements of the management process.
The division of labor in any society goes in two different directions:
1) horizontal division, which differentiates the entire volume of labor performed by the organization into separate “portions”, tasks issued to individuals or groups (departments). Each task corresponds to the number of individuals in the group, and each individual “portion” corresponds to their ability to work, work skills, etc.;
2) vertical division of labor arises from the need to coordinate the work of individuals and groups.
Social management is social activity people to coordinate the work of individuals, social groups, organizations, and society as a whole.
As society grows and differentiates, activities to manage it become increasingly difficult to carry out unprofessionally, “at random”. Hence the need to highlight management activities. Even in a separate organization, for its smooth functioning, management activities must be separated from other types of labor. Moreover, the creation of large organizations only became possible when management activities and management structures were clearly separated from the technical, commercial, and other structures producing the products of a given organization.
American sociologist P. Drucker believes that management is special kind activities that transform a disorganized crowd into an effective, focused and productive group.
It is management characteristic feature organization, i.e. the presence of management, as well as structure and goals, turns social group to the organization.
The larger the organization, the more management work must be done to achieve its goals. It follows that the managers themselves need to be structured, and such structuring will be both horizontal (i.e., the placement of heads of related departments) and vertical in nature (the placement of managers) (Fig. 6).
The vertical division of the level of management activity is called the management level.
How many levels of management are needed for an organization to operate effectively?
Roman Catholic Church, which numbers hundreds of millions of people, has only 4 levels of government between the pope and the parish priest.
The US Army has 7 levels and 20 ranks, separating the Joint Chiefs of Staff generals from the privates. In the Russian Army there are 9 levels of management and 20 ranks.
Rice. 6. Levels of organization management
Regardless of management levels, managers are traditionally divided into three categories. T. Parsons examined these categories of managers from the point of view of the functions they perform in the organization (Fig. 7):
at the technical level, people deal with the daily operations necessary to ensure efficient work s without breakdowns;
at the managerial level, managers are involved in coordinating and directing the activities of individual units within the organization;
at the institutional level, managers develop long-term plans, formulate goals, i.e., adapt the organization’s activities to the external environment (nature and society).
In addition, all management personnel are divided into:
lower level managers. These are operational, primary managers, immediate managers workers, performers (master, head of department, head of department, department commander). This is the majority of managers. A characteristic feature of their work is tension and frequent changes of actions. The implementation period for decisions is short, usually about two weeks. The focus of their activities is on subordinates, to a lesser extent on communication with their peers, and even less on their superiors; middle managers. They coordinate and control the work of lower-level managers. Behind Lately In all organizations, the role of this level has increased significantly, and the number of middle managers has also increased. In some organizations, middle managers are divided into:
upper middle management;
lower middle level.
Thus, a four-link control scheme is formed. Practice shows that to effectively implement decisions, you should have no more than three or four levels of management. Therefore, in large and super-large organizations it is necessary to draw up complex circuits management, assign individual tasks to independent units.
Typical positions of middle managers are: head of department (in production organizations), dean of faculty (in educational organizations), in the armed forces - all officer positions from lieutenant to colonel, in the church - up to bishop.
The nature of the work of middle managers varies greatly depending on their rank and type of organization. In some cases it is similar to the nature of the activities of lower-level managers, in others it approaches the work and responsibility of senior managers.
The typical role of such a manager is that of a transmission link, a buffer between senior and lower-level managers. Middle managers spend most of their working time communicating with other middle and lower managers.
Computerization and the development of office equipment in general reduces the number of middle managers; computers take on such functions as preparing information for decision-making and transferring decisions to the lower level. At the end of the 1980s. corporation
Chrysler, through the introduction of office equipment, reduced the number of middle managers by 40% without reducing production efficiency. In general, this category of managers is the first to be cut during campaigns to de-bureaucratize state organizations both in Russia and in the West. She is most often blamed for the ineffectiveness of the organization, for failures in carrying out reforms (for example, Gorbachev in the late 1980s - early 1990s in the USSR).
Senior managers are responsible for making critical decisions affecting the organization as a whole or individual parts of it. Authoritative senior managers leave the imprint of their personality on the activities of any social organization, be it a state, a political party or an industrial corporation. Their role in the efficiency of organizations is very high, in fact decisive. Their activities are very intense. Neither at home nor on vacation, senior managers cannot escape from problems; they are constantly connected with it mentally and using means of communication. Work week 60–80 hours is not uncommon for them.
We have become familiar with the structure of social management, now we will consider the functions, or roles, of managers.
Sociologist G. Mintzberg identified ten such roles:
the main leader, i.e. the symbolic head of the organization;
leader, i.e. responsible for motivating, stimulating the activity of subordinates, recruiting and training new employees;
a connecting link that ensures the functioning of a network of external contacts and obtaining information;
“information receiver” is a kind of “nerve center”; all external and internal information is received by it, which it uses in the interests of the business;
information disseminator – transmits and interprets external and internal information;
representative – transmits information to external contacts regarding the plans, policies, actions, results of the organization’s work;
entrepreneur - seeks opportunities inside and outside the organization, develops reform projects, controls certain projects;
eliminating violations - correcting actions individual divisions, eliminating social conflicts and disruptions in the organization’s activities;
resource allocator;
negotiator.
An individual personality can influence the nature of the role, but not its content, notes G. Mintzberg. He differentiates all roles into three categories:
Interpersonal roles arise from the status and authority of the leader in the organization and cover the scope of his interaction with people (see roles 1–3).
Information roles arise from interpersonal ones, from the position of the leader as an information processing center (see roles 4, 5, 6).
3. Decision-making roles are a consequence of the first two categories of roles (see roles 7-10).
The founder of the classical, or administrative, school of management was the head of a large French coal mining company, Henri Fayol. Representatives of this school were themselves administrators and managers and sought to achieve maximum efficiency work of their companies, with little regard for the social problems of workers. This school actively developed in 1920–1950. Her goal was to create universal management principles that were supposed to clarify two aspects:
development of a rational management system for the organization, i.e. the best way differentiating it into divisions, coordinating and monitoring the performance of each of them;
building the structure of organization and employee management, i.e. the practical implementation of rational schemes and principles.
A. Fayol, as a result of his theoretical and practical activities, formulated 14 principles of management:
division of labor;
authority and responsibility, i.e. where there is authority, there is responsibility;
discipline. Obedience and respect for agreements between management and employee. Fairly applied sanctions;
unity of command. Each worker receives orders and reports to only one boss;
unity of direction. Each department should have one plan and one leader;
subordination of personal interests to general ones;
staff remuneration. Fair salary;
centralization, understood as proportion with decentralization;
scalar chain, i.e., a single control signal from a top manager to a lower-level manager;
order: everything is in its place;
justice. A combination of kindness and justice;
job stability for staff. Lack of staff turnover, i.e. we need those who hold on to their place, even if they are less talented;
initiative. Developing a plan and ensuring its implementation;
corporate spirit. The union of managers and managed as a result of harmonious work.
These principles form the basis of the classical (scientific) school of management.
In addition to the set of interrelated roles, management activities and social management can be considered as a process that consists not in the simultaneous, but in the sequential implementation of management functions - planning, organization, motivation, control. In this case, social management should be understood as a process or dynamic system with feedback(Fig. 8).
Rice. 8. Social management process
Let's consider how individual functions are implemented in the management process.
Planning. This function decides what goals the organization has and what departments and people should do to achieve the goals. A plan is the direction of the efforts of all members of the organization to achieve its goals. Planning must be ongoing as goals change and the future is uncertain.
Organization. To organize means to create some kind of structure. Every structural element must receive a task that is distributed among specific people. The manager delegates tasks and authority, as well as the right to use resources and distributes responsibility for completing the task. Delegation is a method of leadership, carrying out work with the help of other people.
Motivation. The purpose of this function is to ensure that members of the organization perform work in accordance with delegated tasks, in accordance with the plan, showing diligence and responsibility.
Leaders have always performed a motivating function, whether they realized it or not. WITH late XVIII At the beginning of the 20th century, for example, it was believed that the more opportunities to earn money, the more people would work. This approach to motivation was developed by the school scientific management(1885–1920). The founders of this school, Frederico Taylor, Frank and Lilia Gilbert, began their activities as simple workers. Therefore, their method of scientific management was based on the analysis of labor operations and the identification of their most rational types. F. Taylor, for example, scrupulously measured the amount of iron ore and coal that could be lifted with shovels various sizes. The Gilberts invented a microchronometer device for recording time intervals down to 1/2000 s. They used it in conjunction with a movie camera to measure the time a worker spent making each movement. Stimulating labor consisted of establishing a completely feasible, scientifically based norm; If the norm was exceeded, workers were given bonuses.
American sociologist Elton Mayo (1880–1949), during the famous Hawthorne experiments (they took place at the Western Electric plant in the Chicago suburb of Hawthorne in 1927–1932), discovered that clearly designed work operations and good salary did not always lead to increased productivity. The forces that arose during the interaction of performers sometimes exceeded the efforts of managers, that is, workers reacted much more strongly to pressure from team members than to improving working conditions. Productivity did not increase when others believed that the employee should not “give all his best” so that the salaries of others would not suffer. On the contrary, productivity increased simply because team members knew they were participating in an experiment. At the same time, labor productivity was almost unaffected by such incentives from the scientific school of management as changes in the frequency of breaks, illumination of the workplace, bonuses for exceeding the norm, etc. Another paradigm in management theory began with the research of E. Mayo - the school of “human relations”.
Subsequently, the research of Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) helped to better understand and appreciate the importance of the “human” factor. A. Maslow created the so-called hierarchy, i.e. vertical correspondence, of human needs, which shows the sequence of occurrence of the following needs while satisfying the previous ones (Fig. 9).
Rice. 9. Hierarchy of human needs (according to A. Maslow)
Human needs, especially high level, are not satisfied only with money and improved working conditions. Every person needs recognition of his successes and merits, a certain communication environment that contributes to the realization of his creative aspirations. The more satisfied primary material needs are, the more people need to realize higher needs.
From the point of view of the school of human relations, labor motivation should include not only material, but also moral incentives: recognition of the authority of leading workers, consultations with them, direct communication between bosses and performers, democratization of management style and general relations in organizations, etc.
Control. It's about not about social, but about production control, which refers to the process of comparing labor results and set goals. However, production control is one way or another included in the system of production, i.e., social, relations and in this sense can be considered part of the system of social control.
Control includes the correction of initial plans in response to changes in external (in environment, in society) or internal conditions. Revision of plans and activity goals is always carried out in the direction of their realism, adequacy, and compliance with changing conditions.
Management styles
Management (leadership) styles as a sociological problem have been studied since the beginning of the 20th century. Systematic research using empirical methods has been carried out since the 1930s. Currently, several methodological approaches to the study of management styles have been developed.
The approach from the position of personal qualities aims to identify the properties and personal characteristics outstanding people, managers. According to personality theory leadership (“great man theories”) such qualities as intelligence and knowledge, impressive appearance, honesty, common sense, initiative, social and economic education, self-confidence, are possessed by most leaders.
From the point of view of the behavioral approach, the effectiveness of leadership is determined not so much by personal qualities as by the manager’s behavior and his relationships with subordinates.
But more recent studies of leadership styles have led to the conclusion that the behavior of a leader, in order for leadership to be effective, must change depending on the situation.
The situational approach studies leadership styles in specific situations, i.e., with different relationships between leaders and managed and different conditions controls created by the environment.
One of the first to study the effectiveness of leadership styles was the German-American social psychologist Kurt Lewin (1939). He studied the performance of 10-year-old boys assigned to different groups led by adult leaders with different management styles. He formulated and described following styles manuals:
democratic style provides for the division of power and participation in management of subordinates, while responsibility is not concentrated, but distributed between them;
liberal style implies minimal participation of the leader in management; the group has complete freedom to make its own decisions.
Levine found that authoritarian managers got more work done than democratic ones. But at the same time, low motivation at work, less originality in manners, decreased friendliness, lack of groupthink, greater aggressiveness (both towards the leader and other group members), anxiety and, at the same time, more dependent and submissive behavior were observed.
Under liberal leadership, compared to democratic leadership, the volume of work decreased even more, the quality decreased, and more elements of the game appeared. In surveys, those led gave preference to a democratic leader.
More recent behavioral studies have not been able to fully confirm the findings that authoritarian leadership has higher productivity, but have shown that it has lower satisfaction than democratic leadership.
American social psychologist Douglas McGregor (1960) called the premises of authoritarian leadership “Theory X.” Here are the main postulates of this theory:
people initially do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible;
What people want most is security;
coercion, control, and the threat of punishment must be used to force people to work.
It follows from these provisions that the autocrat centralizes powers, structures the work of subordinates, and does not give them freedom to make decisions; he closely manages all the work and, in order to ensure its implementation, can apply psychological pressure and threaten.
A softer autocratic leader, whom McGregor called a “benevolent autocrat,” often replaces administrative pressure with rewards and manifestations of concern for the mood and well-being of subordinates, including their participation in task planning. But all real power lies in the hands of the leader.
D. McGregor called the ideas of a democratic leader “theory Y.” Their essence is as follows:
labor is a natural process. If conditions are favorable, people will not only accept responsibility, but will also strive for it;
if people are committed to organizational goals, they will use self-management and self-control;
initiation is a function of the reward associated with goal achievement;
The ability to creatively solve problems is common, and even the average person's intelligence is only partially used.
Thus, a democratic leader appeals to higher-level needs (subordinates’ belonging to the organization, awareness of its goals, their autonomy and self-expression). He avoids imposing his will on his subordinates. Moreover, he prefers to decentralize powers. He welcomes active participation in decision making, freedom in the performance of tasks by subordinates, and determination of one’s own goals in accordance with the goals of the organization. What is characteristic here is not strict control over the labor process, but evaluation based on the results of work (of course, with effective control). The leader spends most of his time ensuring that the group's goals are aligned with the goals of the organization as a whole and finding the necessary resources. He is the connecting link of the overall activity. He makes the duties of subordinates more attractive (since motivation is carried out by higher needs), and uses self-motivation. In this case, subordinates solve most of the problems on their own. The leader creates an atmosphere of openness and trust, in which they do not hesitate to ask for help. This is achieved through two-way communication and people-oriented activities of the leader. He tries to teach his subordinates to delve into the problems of the organization, provide adequate information and show how to look for alternative solutions.
The theoretical premises of K. Levin and D. McGregor are on approximately the same methodological plane, and the styles they highlight form the so-called autocratic-liberal continuum of leadership styles (Fig. 10).
Rice. 10. Autocratic-liberal continuum of leadership styles
Further discussion by sociologists, social psychologists, and management specialists complemented the theories of Lewin and McGregor:
autocratic leadership style, especially benevolent-autocratic, is more effective, since in this case the sole power of the leader is reinforced and his ability to influence subordinates is increased, encouraging them to achieve the goals of the organization;
focusing on work (tasks) gives maximum productivity, since a manager can do a lot to improve labor efficiency, while he is powerless to change human nature.
minimizes management errors;
increases management effectiveness;
improves the quality of work.
A democratic leader believes that a people-centered approach ensures maximum productivity because people are able to quickly reorganize work and achieve improved performance. Additionally, this leadership style increases employee satisfaction. He also believes in the validity of the following algorithm:
However, the democratic style does not always lead to increased labor efficiency. It should be remembered that the participation of employees in decision-making, reduced control, and delegation of authority sometimes reduce work efficiency.
American social psychologist Ransis Likert (1961) classified styles depending on the direction of the leader’s activity (Fig. 11).
A task-oriented leader takes care of setting goals, developing a reward system, increasing work efficiency and product quality (a classic example is F. Taylor).
For a people-centered leader, people are the main concern, and he increases the effectiveness of the organization through improving human relations. He places emphasis on mutual assistance and the participation of subordinates in solving production problems; he avoids petty supervision, takes into account the needs of people, ensures their professional growth and solves their personal problems.
R. Likert brought up four basic systems leadership styles:
System 3: consultative democratic. The leader provides significant, but not complete, trust and listens to the opinions of subordinates. He uses two-way communication, accepts some of their decisions. But the most important questions are considered "at the top".
System 4: democratic. This system is based on the participation of everyone in decision making. The leader completely trusts his subordinates. The relationship between the manager and subordinates is friendly and trusting. Communication is two-way, sometimes not traditionally hierarchical. This style is adequately described by Theory “Y”. This, according to Likert, is the most effective management system. A two-dimensional interpretation of leadership styles. Many practicing managers were disappointed with the results of the transition to a people-oriented style, since this leadership style did not lead to a radical increase in productivity.
Therefore, since 1945, a comprehensive study was conducted at Ohio State University that found that a leader can be both task-oriented and people-oriented. Here, a system was developed that classifies the behavior of a manager according to two parameters: the structure of production and attention to subordinates. Thus, the leader influences subordinates by planning and organizing their activities (structure) and his relationships with them (attention to subordinates). Attention to subordinates is understood as behavior that influences them, appeals to higher-level needs, and establishes relationships based on trust, respect, human warmth and contact.
This two-dimensional system of leadership style can be presented in the form of a table (Table 10).
Table 10
The two-dimensional interpretation was modified by Robert Blake and Jean Mouton (1964), who identified 5 leadership styles and combined them into the so-called management grid.
The vertical axis of this grid ranks “concern for people” on a scale from 1 to 9. The horizontal axis ranks “concern for production” (also from 1 to 9) (Fig. 12).
Rice. 12. Leadership styles (according to R. Blake and J. Mouton)
R. Blake and J. Mouton described the four extreme and middle positions of the “lattice” (Fig. 13).
Rice. 13. Management grid
Note. 1.1 – “fear of poverty.” Only minimal effort is required from the manager to achieve the quality of work that will avoid dismissal.
1.9 – “rest house”. The manager focuses on good, warm human relations, but cares little about the efficiency of completing tasks.
9.1 – “authority – submission”. The manager cares a lot about the efficiency of work, but little about the normal mood of his subordinates. 5.5 – “organization”. The leader finds a balance between efficiency and good morale.
9.9 – “team”. Subordinates consciously become involved in the goals of the organization. This ensures high morale and high efficiency.
These models of “leader-subordinate” relationships are built on the basis of a behavioral approach to leadership, which, as we know, comes from the behavior and style of the leader, while the latter is, as it were, an unchangeable quantity.
The situational approach to leadership makes it possible to analyze changes in leader behavior depending on the situation.
Situation model Fred Fiedler operates with not one (task orientation) and not two (people and task orientation), but three criteria, factors of leader behavior:
relationships between the leader and team members. Loyalty of subordinates and trust in the leader, attractiveness of the leader;
task structure. Its familiarity, clarity and consistency;
official powers. The amount of legitimate power of a leader and the level of support from his subordinates.
F. Fiedler believes that each situation has its own leadership style, although the style of a particular leader remains generally constant; Since a person cannot adapt his style to every situation, it is necessary to place him in situations that suit his stable style. Fiedler conducted a survey on Least Preferred Leadership Traits (LQTs). It turned out that managers with high ratings want to build relationships on a personal basis and mutual assistance with subordinates, while those managers who have low ratings focus on the task and worry more about production. Fiedler identified eight situations (Table 11).
Obviously, the most preferable for the manager (and from the point of view of the organization’s performance) is situation 1; least preferred - situation 8. The most preferred leadership style is task-oriented, provided that subordinates interact well with the leader and willingly obey. In other situations, when interaction and subordination are worse, a style aimed at motivating subordinates through a “human” attitude towards them is more preferable.
But situation 1, when the potential disadvantages of authoritarian tactics are minimal, rarely occurs (despite the severity of the leader, he is still loved). It follows that when the work does not require creative approach, then a task-oriented style is effective. But task orientation and dictatorship are not the same thing. In the absence of cooperation, the influence of informal groups increases, whose goals will contradict the goals of the organization. This can make management ineffective and the task impossible.
In situation 8, the power of the manager is so small that the performers can resist any influence when the opportunity arises. The most effective here is the authoritarian style, since it maximizes the manager’s control, which is necessary to direct the efforts of subordinates. In this situation, the manager “keeps his distance”, compensating with authoritarianism for the shortcomings of his competence in professional knowledge or the ability to work with people. People-oriented styles are most effective in situations that are moderately favorable to the leader.
The path-goal approach by T. Mitchell and R. House. The term path-goal is taken from expectancy theory. Its meaning is that a leader can influence subordinates by increasing the expectation of their personal benefit in achieving the organization's goals. Hence, the tasks of the manager are as follows:
clarifying what is expected of subordinates;
providing support, mentoring, eliminating interference;
directing the efforts of subordinates to achieve the goal;
creating in subordinates such needs as are within the competence of the manager;
satisfaction of needs when the goal is achieved.
This approach allows us to identify (taking into account the situation and the prevailing expectations of subordinates on the path to the goal) the following leadership styles:
support style (similar to the person-oriented style);
instrumental style (similar to task orientation style);
a style that encourages participation (participatory), when the leader shares information and uses the ideas of subordinates to make decisions. The emphasis here is on consultation with the governed;
achievement-oriented style. It involves setting a challenging goal and expecting subordinates to work to the fullest. The leader instills confidence in them that everyone is capable of working highly effectively.
Theory life cycle Paul Hersey and Ken Blashard (1982).
This theory belongs to the class of situational ones. Its meaning is that the most effective styles depend on the “maturity” of the performer (but not on his age), i.e., the ability to bear responsibility for achieving the goal, his education, and experience. But maturity depends on the situation, on the task being performed. Individuals and groups exhibit different levels of maturity. The leader determines maturity, evaluates the desire to achieve the goal, other motives, and chooses one of four leadership styles (Table 12).
The situational approach identifies several ways to improve leadership effectiveness:
reorganization of groups for psychological compatibility subordinates with the personality of a leader;
task redesign;
modification of the manager's job responsibilities.
The most effective leadership style is adaptive, or what Chris Argyris called the reality-oriented style, as it helps to change positions, that is, to make a career from the bottom up or move:
from units with structured tasks to units with unstructured tasks;
from departments with high responsibility to departments with low responsibility;
from organizations located in one subcultural environment to organizations of another subculture or culture of the country.
Thus, the manager must learn to use different styles and apply them depending on the existing conditions, to develop what is called an adaptive style, or a reality-oriented style.
Questions for self-control
What is meant by social control.
What types of informal control do you know?
What are the types of formal social control according to Parsons?
What elements does a formal systemic control system consist of?
What are the causes of aggression and what is their relationship with social control?
What is social management?
Name the levels of management.
List the functions (roles) of a manager.
List the principles of management according to A. Fayol.
What is the management process?
How are the functions of planning, organization, motivation and control implemented in the management process?
What is the essence of the position of the administrative school of (scientific) management and the school of “human relations”?
Name the management styles formulated by K. Levin.
What are McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y?
How did F. Likert classify management styles?
What are two-dimensional and three-dimensional interpretations of management styles?
What is an adaptive leadership style?
The organizational structure of management is the internal structure of any production and economic system, that is, the way of organizing elements into a system, a set of stable connections and relationships between them. The management structure is the form within which changes occur, and prerequisites appear for the transition of the system as a whole to a new quality.
Management structures are constantly being supplemented with new varieties, allowing any enterprise to choose for itself the most effective structure or combination of them.
The organizational structure of management is the internal structure of any production and economic system, that is, the way of organizing elements into a system, a set of stable connections and relationships between them.
Hierarchical (bureaucratic) management structures are the first systematically developed models of organizational structures and remain the main and dominant forms. The bureaucratic organizational structure is characterized by a high degree of division of labor, a developed management hierarchy, a chain of command, the presence of numerous rules and norms of personnel behavior, and selection of personnel based on their business and professional qualities. Bureaucracy is often referred to as a classical or traditional organizational structure. Most modern organizations are variations of hierarchical structures. The reason for such a long and widespread use of the bureaucratic structure is that its characteristics are still quite well suited for most industrial firms, service organizations and all types of government agencies. The objectivity of decisions made allows an effectively managed bureaucracy to adapt to ongoing changes. Promotion of employees based on their competence allows for a constant flow of highly qualified and talented technical specialists and administrative workers into such an organization.
Hierarchical management structures come in many varieties. During their formation, the main attention was paid to the division of labor into individual functions. Hierarchical ones include linear and functional organizational structures management.
Let's take a closer look at functional structures.
For functional structure management is characterized by the creation of structural divisions, each of which has its own clearly defined, specific task and responsibilities. Consequently, under the conditions of this structure, each management body, as well as the performer, is specialized in performing certain types of management activities (functions). A staff of specialists is being created who are responsible only for specific area work.
The functional management structure is based on the principle of complete management: compliance with the instructions of the functional body within its competence is mandatory for departments. Functional management carried out by a certain set of units specialized in performing specific types work required for decision-making in a linear control system.
The idea of functional structures is that the performance of individual functions on specific issues is assigned to specialists, i.e. Each management body (or executive) is specialized in performing certain types of activities.
In an organization, as a rule, specialists of the same profile are united in specialized structural units (departments), for example, a marketing department, a planning department, an accounting department, etc. Thus, common task management of an organization is divided, starting from the middle level, according to functional criteria. Hence the name - functional management structure.
Functional management exists alongside linear management, which creates double subordination for performers.
As can be seen from Fig. 1.1., instead of universal managers (with linear structure management), who must understand and perform all management functions, a staff of specialists appears who have high competence in their field and are responsible for a certain area (for example, planning and forecasting). This functional specialization of the management apparatus significantly increases the effectiveness of the organization.
Performers
The functional management structure has its advantages and disadvantages (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of a functional management structure
In its most universal form, the principle of functional specialization, without conflicting with the principle of unity of command, is implemented in linear-functional structures. Most of them essential characteristic is that general resource management and goal setting are the responsibility of line managers, and management of the processes of achieving set goals within the allocated resources and some other restrictions is assigned to the heads of functional services and departments.
The division of labor in any society goes in two different directions:
- 1. horizontal division, which differentiates the entire volume of labor performed by the organization into separate “portions”, tasks issued to individuals or groups (departments). Each task corresponds to the number of individuals in the group, and each individual “portion” corresponds to their ability to work, work skills, and goals of the organization.
- 2. vertical division of labor arises from the need to coordinate the work of individuals and groups.
Social management is the social activity of people to coordinate the work of individuals, social groups, organizations, and society as a whole.
As society grows and differentiates, activities to manage it become increasingly difficult to carry out in a non-professional manner. Hence the need to highlight management activities. Even in a separate organization, for its smooth functioning, management activities must be separated from other types of labor. Moreover, the creation of large organizations only became possible when management activities and management structures were clearly separated from the technical, commercial, and other structures producing the products of a given organization.
American sociologist P. Drucker believes that management is a special type of activity that turns an unorganized crowd into an effective, focused and productive group.
It is management that is a characteristic feature of an organization, i.e. The presence of management, as well as structure and purpose, turns a social group into an organization. The larger the organization, the more management work must be done to achieve its goals.
A science appears, which began to be called management - this is a set of principles, methods, means and forms of managing the production of an organization.
The management structure depends on the scale of the organization; the most extensive structure, of course, is in organizations such as the church or the army. For example, in the army of the Republic of Belarus there are 9 levels of management and 20 ranks. Management structuring can be carried out both horizontally and vertically. The vertical division of the level of management activity is called the management level.
There are three levels of management, each of which has its own management features. Top management forms the strategic goals of managing the organization. For their work, information about the achievement of set goals, the results of an analysis of external and internal factors influencing them, and various planned indicators are important. At the middle level of management (these are the heads of specific departments), an operational strategy for implementing the long-term development goals of the organization is formed, since employees at this level manage specific areas of the organization’s activities. On lowest level management are the employees who directly ensure the implementation of plans and the implementation of a given strategy. These are the foreman of workshops, shifts, etc. The primary groups of workers are subordinate to them.
T. Parsons also distinguishes three categories of managers depending on the functions they perform in the organization:
- 1.) at the technical level, people are engaged in the daily operations necessary to ensure efficient work without disruption;
- 2.) at the management level, managers are involved in the coordination and direction of the activities of individual units within the organization;
- 3.) at the institutional level, managers develop long-term plans, formulate goals, i.e. adapt the organization’s activities to the external environment (nature and society).
Practice shows that a three-tier control scheme is the most effective.
For the concept of social management, it is very important to correctly define its functions or roles. So sociologist G. Mintzberg identified ten functions:
- 1. main leader, i.e. symbolic head of the organization;
- 2. leader, i.e. responsible for motivating, stimulating the activity of subordinates, recruiting and training employees;
- 3. a link that ensures the operation of a network of external contacts and the receipt of information;
- 4. “receiver of information” - a kind of “nerve center”. He receives all external and internal information, which he uses in the interests of the business;
- 5. information disseminator - transmits and interprets external and internal information;
- 6. representative - transmits information to external contacts regarding plans, policies, actions, results of the organization’s work;
- 7. entrepreneur - seeks opportunities inside and outside the organization, develops reform projects, controls certain projects;
- 8. eliminating violations - corrects the actions of individual departments, eliminating social conflicts and violations in the activities of the organization;
- 9. resource distributor;
- 10. negotiator.
An individual personality can influence the nature of the role, but not its content, notes G. Mintzberg. He differentiates all roles into three categories:
- 1. Interpersonal roles arise from the status and powers of the leader in the organization and cover the scope of his interaction with people (see roles 1-3).
- 2. Information roles arise from interpersonal ones, from the position of the manager as the center of information (roles 4, 5, 6).
- 3. Roles associated with decision making (roles 7-10).
The founder of the classical or administrative school of management was the head of a large French coal mining company, Henri Fayol. Representatives of this school set as their goal the creation of universal principles of management, which were supposed to clarify two aspects:
- 1.) development of a rational management system for the organization;
- 2.) building the structure of the organization and employee management, i.e. practical implementation of rational schemes and principles.
A. Fayol, as a result of his theoretical and practical activities, formulated 14 principles of management: division of labor; authority and responsibility4 discipline; unity of command; unity of direction; subordination of personal interests to general ones; remuneration; centralization; scalar chain (single management signal from top to bottom)4 order; justice; job stability; initiative; corporate spirit.
These principles form the basis of the classical school of management.
In addition to the set of interrelated roles of management activities, social management can be considered as a process that consists not in the simultaneous, but in the sequential implementation of management functions - planning, organization, motivation and control. In this case, social management should be understood as a process or dynamic system with feedback.
