• What danger were heresies and heretics for the Catholic Church?

§ 13.1. The strength and weakness of the church

In the Middle Ages, it was firmly believed that earthly history has its beginning and its end. The beginning is the creation of the world and the first man, and the end will come with the second coming of Christ to earth. The time of the Last Judgment will come, when the dead will rise and everyone will receive what he deserves. Sinners will be condemned to eternal torment in hell, while the righteous will experience heavenly bliss forever. The hope of salvation and fear of the destruction of the soul and hellish torments constantly accompanied believers in life. The Church taught that no Christian could be saved on his own, without observing the Christian sacraments - special rituals performed by a priest. It was believed that at the time of the sacrament, divine grace was transmitted to the faithful through the priest.

Baptism introduced the newborn to the Christian world, older children were strengthened in the faith with the help of confirmation, the sacrament of marriage created a new family, and unction prepared the dying to meet God. The sacrament reminded believers of the sacrifice made by Christ for people. The sacrament of repentance consisted in the fact that a believer who repented of his sins, confessing, received absolution from God through a priest. Finally, the priesthood was the ordinance of ordination.

The ministers of the church thus proved to be the necessary mediators between man and God. It was believed that the church received from Christ the right to forgive the sins of believers with the help of special letters - indulgences (translated from Latin - mercy). Having bought indulgence, the believer moved forward on the path to salvation. This was also helped by good deeds, following the rules of Christian morality, donations to the church and the poor, as well as making pilgrimages to the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, to the tomb of St. Peter in Rome and to other famous Christian shrines.

The power of the church was based not only on its influence on the souls of believers. Enormous wealth was concentrated in her hands - about 1/3 of all cultivated land, not to mention precious items for worship. They got to the church in different ways. Lands, privileges, jewels were bestowed upon bishops and abbots by sovereigns and secular lords. And any pious person tried to give the church a feasible gift. In addition, the entire working population paid a church tax - tithe. Money was collected for performing rituals, for indulgences. Finally, the bishops and abbots skillfully managed the economy, increasing the income from their holdings.

The wealth of the church aroused envy, and in the era of feudal fragmentation, a significant part of them fell under the control of secular lords. They put their relatives or servants in lucrative church positions, sold these positions, and demanded obedience from the ministers of the church. It was not difficult for them to achieve this, because the influence of the church declined, church rules and monastic statutes were often not followed. Church ministers and even some popes were often secular.

The abduction of the relics of St. Mark. Venice, XII century

In the 10th century, only a few monasteries strictly observed the charter of St. Benedict. Among them, the Abbey of Cluny in France stood out. The Clunyans wanted to free the church from the power of secular people and force all its ministers to strictly abide by church rules. They thought with the help of the renewed church to transform the whole world. The Cluny reform was rapidly gaining momentum.

Monks chopping wood. Miniature 12th century

The growing influence of the church was also manifested in the fact that from the end of the 10th century it strove to limit wars and called for "God's peace." Battles on church holidays, fasting, or Sunday were considered sinful. Now it was impossible to attack unarmed pilgrims, church ministers, peasants, women. The traveler could have escaped an attack both in the church and at the roadside stone crosses. Violators of "God's peace" faced severe punishment.

Lesson in the 6th grade from the textbookGeneral history. History of the Middle Ages. Grade 6: textbook. For general education. Institutions / E.V. Agibalova, G.M. Donskoy. - 2nd ed. - M .: Education, 2013

Chapter: "Catholic church in the 11-13th centuries. Crusades"

Lesson type: generalization of the material.

Lesson technologies: interactive, activity-based, cooperation.

Forms of student work: individual-group (answering questions, working with text, working with pictures, historical concepts, performing a creative task)

Target: check, summarize and consolidate knowledge of this chapter; contribute to the broadening of horizons.

Learning task:

To systematize the knowledge gained on the changes in the Christian church in the 11-13 centuries and the crusades.Show the role of the church in containing the love of freedom in medieval society.Give definitions;

Educational task:

Awaken interest in self-problem solving

Promote a culture of business communication

Contribute to the creation of a favorable psychological and emotional climate in the lesson

Developing task:

To develop the mental operations of students: comparison, analysis, synthesis;

the formation of the ability to use additional, comparative literature;

Develop the ability to draw independent conclusions;

Develop general educational skills and abilities: work according to plan, with a textbook;

Develop the ability to analyze;

To develop attention, various types of memory, the ability to concentrate.

During the classes: The guys are in teams of 4 people. We work with cards. We work shoulder to shoulder, face to face. The result is read by 1 person.

Teacher: Let's remember the history of the Middle Ages

Prosperity and decline and growth of cities,

Crusades sad sunset,

We scroll back the history of the book.

Remember 1 team, which estates appeared during this period of time in Western Europe

Answer:

1. The clergy are those who pray.

2. Nobility - those who fight.

3. The third estate - the peasants and the rest of the population - those who work.

Remember team 2 sources of wealth for the Catholic Church.

Answer:

1 ... Fee for rituals.

2. Church tithe.

3. Sale of indulgences.

4. Sale of church offices.

5. Fee for touching church relics.

Remember Team 3 on the division of the church (see textbook document p. 130 Emperor Henry IV was forced to plead for forgiveness from Gregory 7).

Answer:

The division of the Christian church into western and eastern took place in 1054. The Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople quarreled over dominion over the Christian Church. Prayer in the western church was read in Latin.

Remember team 4 definitions for words and expressions:

Answer:

- conclave (council of cardinals who elect the pope);

- Christian morality (the rules of conduct that the church ordered the believers to observe);

- dogma (a position taken blindly, on faith, not subject to criticism);

- "Go to Canossa ..." (“To confess to your enemy, to be subjected to terrible humiliation”).

Teacher: Oh people! The church is mired in vices, it is corrupted, the clergy must give up earthly possessions and riches. The Pope is the viceroy of the devil, not God: the only source of faith is the gospel, and not the teaching of the official church, the church has perverted the words of Christ and the apostles and does not follow their teachings: earthly wealth prevents salvation, poverty is needed for salvation. Guys, who could have written this? (heretics).

1 team tell - Who are the heretics?

Answer:

The heretic is the opponent of the dominant doctrine of the church. The heretics argued that the church was corrupted, they rejected expensive church rituals, condemned priests and monks, called the pope the viceroy of the devil, not God. They demanded that the clergy give up tithes, their riches and possessions. Their teachings were recognized as heretical, i.e. harmful and dangerous. The heretics did not think of keeping ideas secret. They spoke openly, looking for people's understanding. And this was the most dangerous from the point of view of the church, as it could undermine the authority of the church, turn believers away from it. The number of heretics grew.

What are the methods of fighting the heretics of the church 2 team .

Answer:

1. Excommunication. The excommunicated was completely deprived of rights.

2. The imposition of a ban on worship, on a country, region, city. In such places, babies were not baptized, newlyweds were not married, and the dead were not buried.

3. Military campaigns in areas where there were especially many heretics.

4. Inquisition.

3 team - tell us about the inquisition?(illustrations on the topic "Inquisition" will help)

Answer:

The Inquisition is a tribunal of the Catholic Church, which carried out detective, judicial and punitive functions; has a long history. Its emergence is associated with the struggle against heretics - those who preached religious views that did not meet the dogmas established by the church. The first known heretic to be burned at the stake for his convictions in 1124 was Peter of Bruy, who demanded the abolition of the church hierarchy. No "legal" basis has yet been laid down for this act. It began to take shape at the end of the XII - the first third of the XIII centuries. The verdict of the secret court of the Inquisition could be a public abdication, a fine, imprisonment and, finally, burning at the stake - the church has applied it for 7 centuries. The last execution took place in Valencia in 1826. The burning is usually associated with the auto-da-fe - the solemn announcement of the verdict of the Inquisition, as well as its execution. Such an analogy is quite legitimate, since all other forms of punishment were handed down by the Inquisition more routinely.

4 team - tell about the mendicant orders of monks.

Answer:

The papacy managed to win over to its side many people who vacillated between heresy and Catholicism. They were united with heretics by the desire to find their way to God. But they did not criticize the church and therefore did not evoke hatred in her. Innocent III was able to appreciate two such people. He approved the statutes of the new monastic orders - Franciscans and Dominicans. The orders were named after their founders - Francis of Assisi and Dominique de Guzman.

Francis prayed passionately, and Jesus and the Mother of God began to appear to him in visions. When Francis began to preach, his naive interpretations of the gospel were ridiculed by learned theologians. But Francis's humility disarmed even his enemies, and in his sermons such a deep and sincere faith in God, love for him and all his creatures sounded that soon followers began to gather around Francis. Then Francis went to Rome, where the Pope approved the charter for his brotherhood.The Franciscans were different from other monastic orders. First, it was a mendicant order; its members were to live on alms. Secondly, the Franciscans did not confine themselves to the walls of monasteries, but wandered with the preaching of the Gospel. Third, they themselves led the way of life to which they called others, and therefore their speech sounded convincing. They strove to help the laity, looked after the sick and crippled.

The Spaniard Dominic de Guzman, known as Saint Dominic (1170-1221), preached for a long time against the Albigensians, and then decided to create an order to fight heresies. In 1216, the Dominican charter was approved by the pope.The Dominicans diligently pursued the sciences in order to successfully negotiate theological disputes with heretics. They taught at universities and played a major role in the Inquisition. Dominicans traveled all over the world preaching the Gospel.

Teacher:

So many facts and names.

Keeps the history of the monastery

One of them sounds "Clermont"

Many years have passed since then,

But then the 11th century

A huge crowd stood

There are 40 thousand people here.

And before us is the pope

Urban was the second to perform here.

He called to leave the West

He called everyone to the East.

This is how the crusaders came into being

Soldiers of the army of Christ.

There were eight trips in total

And all under the banner of the cross.

They went on campaigns of their own free will,

Eager to seize wealth

And everyone wanted a better life

There is nothing to catch in Europe.

There are many beggars and hungry

And the poor knights are countless.

And even the children went hiking

Everyone there wanted to eat deliciously.

There everyone wanted to burn and plunder,

Everyone there wanted to kill.

Send the infidels to the next world

Conquer Jerusalem.

And the states burst into flames

Mosques, temples, cities.

And again, leaving the west

They were going east then.

Frederick Barbarossa was there

An old German ruler.

King Philip Augustus of France,

And the King of England, Sir Richard.

They died in the fire of fires,

But everyone went to the East then.

So in Syria and Palestine

Crusader states emerged

Jerusalem was considered the main

The time has come for tragedy and slavery.

What are the approaches of those consequences

That went on for nearly three hundred years.

They brought only disasters to the peoples

East and West, there is no difference.

And yet they did not pass without a trace

Science and trade revived.

New products and services in Europe

Rice, buckwheat, even baths appeared.

In the distant past, those crusades

But they cannot be deleted from history.

And forever will be in the memory of the people

Urban II, crosses, Clermont and France!

1 team - Name the goals of the participants in the crusades.

Answer:

1. Liberation of the main Christian shrine from the hands of Muslims.

2. The spread of the power of the popes and the receipt of new income from the eastern countries.

3. Capturing new lands.

4. Enrichment by robbing other countries and peoples.

5. Relief from debt, getting rid of hunger and poverty,

b. The withdrawal of peasants from serfdom.

2 team - Explain what the members of the spiritual-knightly orders did, list them?

Answer:

1. Franciscans. 2. Dominicans. 3. Templars. 4. Hospitallers. 5. Teutonic Order

1. With arms in hand, they fought against the "enemies of the Christian faith."

2. Expanding the possessions of the crusaders and defending them.

3. Taking care of the pilgrims.

4. Were treated sick and wounded.

5. Engaged in trade.

6. Owned sea ships and cakes

3 command - List the main reasons for the end of the Crusades by the end of the XIII century .

Answer:

1. Wars in the East claimed many lives, the possessions of the crusaders were reduced, and improvements in agriculture brought the feudal lords constant income.

2. Strengthening their power, the kings hired knights in their army to decide state affairs in Europe.

3. Good harvests saved the peasants from hunger, and they no longer looked for happiness in a foreign land.

4 command - List the consequences of the Crusades for Western Europe.

Answer:

1 ... During the Crusades, Western Europe suffered huge human losses.

2. Venice and Genoa won primacy in trade in the Mediterranean.

3. The ideas of Europeans about the life of their eastern neighbors have expanded.

4. Europeans began to grow useful and newfor themplants: watermelons, lemons, apricots, rice, buckwheat.

5. They began to eat sugar and spices.

6. There were many windmills borrowed from the East.

7. The inhabitants of Western Europe began to make fabrics from silk, glass mirrors, improved metal processing.

8. Feudal lords began to observe the rules of personal hygiene: wash in baths and wash their hands before eating, change linen and outerwear.

9. The luxury of the East fell in love with the Europeans, and they strove for expensive clothes, exquisite food, carpets, high-quality weapons. This contributed to the development of trade.

Let's draw conclusions together - I start a sentence, and you finish -

So Christianity was divided into (Orthodox and Catholic)

the Catholic Church sought to expand its influence. She feuds with (kings), fights (with heretics)

organizes what? (Crusades).

during this period, the Catholic Church became a very influential force, since (the boundaries of the Christian world expanded as a result of the Crusades).

Home assignment:

Homework update:

Create a crossword puzzle on a topic using concepts

Write a story about being a crusader or a heretic.

Draw a picture of the crusaders

Catholic Church in the XII-XIII centuries

The process of formation and development of cities in the X-XIII centuries. completed the formation of the basic structures of the feudal system. The period of the mature (classical) Middle Ages was the heyday of feudalism. By the XIII century. the Catholic Church, which took the most active part in the formation of the feudal order, was not only a powerful hierarchically organized structure with its own financial resources, its own administrative and judicial apparatus, chancellery, but was also an important component of the economic and socio-political system, which owned a third of the cultivated land Western Europe. The Church was the main mentor not only in religion and related culture, but also in all spheres of life, both for society as a whole and for the individual.

The church sermon reflected the most important events of Christianity, and the change of seasons, and the cycles of work; identified key moments in the life of believers; attention was paid to the baptism of infants, the upbringing and socialization of children; issues of marriage, family life, and other pressing problems were covered (Fig. 12.5).

Rice. 12.5.

Fresco from the Monastery of Santi Quattro Coronati. XIII century Rome

The plot illustrates the text of a forged document - the so-called Konstantinova's gift(made in the VIII-IX centuries), which, from the point of view of the papacy, substantiated the supreme rights of the Holy See over the secular authorities

The scale of virtues and sins developed in Christianity largely reflected the universal human norms of morality and had a fruitful influence on generations of people. The Church in the Middle Ages determined the values ​​and ethical norms of human behavior, created the image of the world, the hierarchy of space, where the Earth was the center of the Universe, told about the origin of the human race and predicted its future. The Church has accumulated tremendous experience not only in preserving powerful conservative traditions, but also in maneuvering, adapting to new living conditions, and the ability to find ways in them for gaining benefits.

Reforms of the Clunyans, the struggle for investiture, the conflict of the papacy with Frederick Barbarossa, like many other things in church politics, by the beginning of the 13th century. gave the result. It was not by chance that the pontificate of Innocent III (1198-1216) became the pinnacle of the theocratic achievements of the era (Fig. 12.6). Innocent managed to turn the kings of England, Aragon, Portugal, the king of Bulgaria, the ruler of Serbia into his vassals; imposed interdicts on entire countries - England and France; was able to achieve the defeat of the Albigensian heretics in the south of France, organizing a special crusade for this.

Rice. 12.6.

Sacro Speko Church in Subiaco Monastery. Italy

Pope Innocent was preparing the Fourth Crusade, which led to the defeat of Byzantium and the creation of the Latin Empire; encouraged the expansion of German knighthood in the lands of the Baltic tribes; founded two new mendicant monastic orders - Franciscans and Dominicans, which soon became one of the main instruments of the church and the papacy in the fight against heretics. The pontiff promoted the activities of the universities in Paris and Oxford, seeing in them the scientific support of theology and law, especially ecclesiastical law; held the IV Lateran Council, the largest in the Middle Ages, in 1215, renewing church legislation, and with it a number of church orders aimed at combating heresies and disbelief.

The teachings of the Catholic Church became the basis, albeit not yet clearly understood, for the formation of a cultural community of various ethnic groups and territories of Western Europe. Despite the difference in living conditions, languages, psychological, emotional, behavioral and other characteristics, each person who was subject to spiritual nourishment in the name of caring for his salvation expected from birth to the grave the same cult order in different countries. Everywhere the church relied on the sense of guilt inspired by religion, which goes back to the dogmas of original sin and its consequences, and the fear of the believer before the omniscient and almighty God, before the future responsibility for each of his thoughts, desire, word, deed. However, these foundations were inseparable from another powerful set of concepts associated with the concepts of Christ's mortal sacrifice for the salvation of people, the mercy of the Mother of God, love for one's neighbor, caring for the poor, oppressed and suffering, and the help of saints. Duality was also manifested in the combination of the preaching of the equality of all believers before God and the actual justification of social inequality as inevitable phenomena of earthly life.

The Catholic Church was distinguished by its categorical rejection of religious tolerance, considered itself the only true church, and fostered in its believers a sense of deliberate superiority over everything that bore the stamp of paganism and faith. It had an exceptionally great orientation towards recognized church authorities, which led to endless references to them, repetitions of everything canonical, fears of novelty, which gave rise to a slow pace of cultural development. The ban on independent reading and interpretation of the Bible played an important role. The preaching of their understanding of the texts was forbidden to everyone except the clergy, which, in addition to the ban, was also hindered by the fact that only the canonized Latin translation of the Holy Scriptures, the Vulgate, was in use.

Despite the all-encompassing control of the church over the morality of society and the individual (in the latter case, the obligation and uplifting role of confession and repentance was especially important), everyday practice constantly showed examples of violations among the clergy and monastics of their own rules of life behavior. This resulted not only in criticism from society, but also in internal church self-criticism.

Monastic movementsX- first halfXIv. The idea of ​​church reform. In the X century. against the background of a deep crisis in church life, the first attempts are being made to revive ascetic values. The initiator of the renovation was monasticism, in the depths of which movements for the reform of monasteries took shape, which prepared by the middle of the 11th century. and general church reform. Monasticism drew its strength from the widespread expectation of the end of the world among the laity - first in the millennium of Christmas, and then the resurrection of Christ. Exactly reformed monasticism becomes in the second half of the X-XI century. the most authoritative force in Christendom.

The greatest influence among various monastic movements was already by the middle of the 10th century. acquired Clunyans. The Monastery of Cluny in Burgundy was founded in 910. Unlike other abbeys, Cluny was from the very beginning outside the scope of the "right of the private church". Its founder, the Duke of Aquitaine, forever renounced his rights to the monastery, transferring it under the patronage of the Pope, which also ensured independence from the bishop of diocese. The liberation of monasticism from outside influence, be it on the part of a bishop or a secular lord, became the basis of Cluny's reform program. This did not mean that the Clunyans were pushing for the abolition of the "right of the private church." On the contrary, they themselves used this right to carry out the reform of monasteries, receiving them as a gift for the salvation of their souls, buying or entering into joint ownership with the lord. The Clunyans directed their efforts primarily towards eliminating those obvious violations of the Benedictine charter that were caused by the communion of monasteries at the end of the 9th-10th centuries. It is no coincidence that the Clunyans chose black for their robes, symbolizing the rejection of everything worldly. The main task of monasticism was to pray for the laity before God, to unite with him in prayer contemplation. Mass in Cluny did not stop for a second during the day and was especially solemn.

Gradually, a powerful association of monasteries was formed around Cluny, the head of which was the Abbot of Cluny himself, and the basis of monastic life - Klyunshsky custom, supplementing the statute of St. Benedict. Cluny was subject to hundreds of monasteries throughout Europe. The Clunyans played a special role in the Christian states of Spain, where they helped to oust the Mosarabian liturgical traditions by the Roman ones and to establish the authority of the pope. Cluny's unification was not limited to the sphere of political interests of this or that seigneur, as, say, the unification of the monasteries of the Carolingian Empire around the ruling dynasty (see Chapter 7). Cluny monasteries were removed from the authority of local bishops. The Abbot of Cluny, who later received the insignia of episcopal rank from Rome, was, as it were, the bishop of the "Cluny Church" subordinate to him. Cluny monasteries, free from the power of lords and bishops, formed a kind of sovereign monastic state, the head of which was often called "king" by contemporaries.

In the X - early XI century. attempts to reform monasticism were also made in the German Empire. But if the Cluny movement developed from below, at the initiative of individual ascetics from among the monks themselves, then in Germany the emperor acted as the main champion of the reform. For example, Henry III (1039-1056), and not any abbot, was called by his contemporaries "the ruler of the monks." The reformist aspirations of the German emperors were aimed at strengthening the system of the imperial church. Continuing the traditions of the Carolingians and considering their power as sacred, the emperors claimed the role of defenders of the church and true piety. To fight all sorts of church disorders, in their opinion, was part of the duty of the anointed of God.

It was these considerations that prompted Henry III and his entourage to come up with the idea of ​​church reform that went beyond the boundaries of monasticism alone. Heinrich III decided to rehabilitate the church in Rome, putting an end to the rule of the Roman aristocracy over the Apostolic See. In 1046 he deposed three popes at once, elected by various factions of the Roman clergy and nobles. Then he himself appointed a German bishop, a supporter of the reform, as the Pope. The period from 1046 to 1058 is called the era of the German papacy. During these years, the Roman church was headed by popes of German origin, who relied on the emperor to reform the church. The purpose of the reform was primarily the prohibition of simony and marriages among the clergy, declared heresy. It was in the middle of the XI century. in the western church as a whole, the vow of celibacy (celibacy) is established for the clergy. Celibacy ensured the inalienability of church property and contributed to the growth of the economic power of the church in the following centuries.

The contacts of the papacy with the bishoprics and monasteries of Western Europe were strengthened and intensified. The creation of special mechanisms for the exercise of papal authority over the church began. These efforts are primarily associated with the pontificate of Leo IX (1049-1054). Leo IX reorganized the papal chancellary, which soon received the name Roman curia. Along with a significant staff of scribes and notaries, which allowed the papacy to conduct extensive correspondence, it included the closest advisers of Leo IX from among the reformers of the church. These advisors formed college of cardinals. Roman clergy were previously called cardinals, as well as bishops of the seven cathedrals closest to Rome; their duties consisted mainly of participation in the papal worship. However, Leo IX now viewed the Cardinals as the papacy's pillar of church administration and reform. The college of cardinals included clerics from different countries, thus personifying the universal (ecumenical) character of papal power.

The split of the church. In 1054, there was a break between the papacy and the eastern church, which marked the beginning of the separate existence of the two churches - Roman Catholic(Greek: universal) and Orthodox. In fact, the churches in the Latin West and the Greek East have long developed apart, and the protracted schisms, that is, schisms of the single church happened before. In many ways, the confrontation between the Eastern and Western Churches was determined both by different ideas about the relationship between secular and spiritual power, and by the rivalry between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople. Political factors, such as the revival of the Roman Empire in the West and the struggle of the empire and the papacy against Byzantium in southern Italy in the first half of the 11th century, played a significant role in aggravating the relationship between Rome and Constantinople. At the same time, between the Latin and Greek churches by the middle of the XI century. significant differences have also accumulated in the interpretation of the Christian doctrine.

Apparently, even in the struggle with the barbarians-Arians, defending the full equality of Christ to God the Father, in the west, to the Nicene symbol of faith, they began to add filioque (Latin: "and from the Son"), thus affirming the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from the Son. At the end of the VIII century. on the initiative of Charlemagne, this addition was adopted in the Frankish Empire, and at the beginning of the XI century. approved by the papacy.

In the first half of the XI century. in the West finally took shape the doctrine of transubstantiation, that is, about the method of the body and blood of Christ in bread and wine, used in the sacrament of the Eucharist. If in the East it was believed that the body and blood are present in bread and wine only spiritually, then in the West the opinion was strengthened, according to which, when the sacrament is administered, bread and wine are transformed into the true blood and flesh of the Savior, which believers, according to the words one of the theologians is literally "chewed with their teeth." Based on the doctrine of transubstantiation in the XIII century. the difference between the sacrament of the laity and the clergy was also substantiated, which also deepened the dogmatic contradictions that divided the Catholic and Orthodox churches. If the true blood and flesh of Christ is present in the bread and wine, in other words, Christ himself, then in the bread separately and in the wine separately the entire Savior is present at once. Catholic theologians therefore considered it possible to commune the laity with bread alone, while the priests still with bread and wine.

These contradictions were later added to the discrepancy in ideas about the afterlife. Based on the Holy Scriptures, Greek theologians continued to represent the pot-outside world as two-part, consisting of Paradise and Hell. However, even in the early Middle Ages, some Latin authors mentioned the "cleansing fire", a temporary test that cleans the soul that did not complete repentance during its lifetime, before its entry into Paradise. At the beginning of the XIII century. papacy approved purity dogma as a special, third "compartment" of the afterlife. Accepting the dogma, the papacy tried to strengthen the influence of the Catholic clergy in society, to approve the idea of ​​the salvific role of the church, capable of delivering the souls of the departed from suffering in purgatory through prayers.

Despite the deepening theological differences, contemporaries did not perceive the schism of 1054 as final. Schism became a reality only after the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) admitted that after the atrocities in the Churches of Constantinople, the Greeks saw in the Latins only “creations of vice and darkness” and “righteous shun them like dogs. " However, attempts to confine union between the Catholic and Orthodox churches were undertaken later. Such unias, which actually subordinated the church of the weakened Byzantine Empire to the pope, were signed at the II Lyons (1274) and Ferraro-Florentine cathedrals (1439). However, in general, they were subsequently rejected by the Orthodox Church, having received recognition only in a number of so-called Uniate churches Of Eastern Europe.

Gregorian reform. In the late 50s. XI century In the circles of Roman reformers, the idea of ​​a deeper renewal of the Church and, above all, its liberation from the power of secular rulers, was born. This was preceded by an analysis of the failures of the reformers in the fight against simony. The true roots of simony were now seen in the violation of the canonical, that is, approved by councils, procedure for the election of clergy. According to canon law, a candidate for a vacant spiritual office is proposed by a higher-ranking hierarch of the church (bishop or archbishop), then the candidate is chosen by the "clergy and the people." However, the involvement of the church in vassal relations led to the fact that spiritual positions began to be distributed by sovereigns and lords. In the eyes of the laity, they were nothing more than profitable places, and therefore trade in them took on such a large scale. The main disaster for the church, according to the reformers, was the usurped by the laity investiture law, that is, the introduction of a clergyman into office, as well as in the "right of a private church." The proponents of the reform sought to protect the church from all subordination to the laity, to restore the canonical procedure for elections. This requirement was embodied in a decree signed by Pope Nicholas II in 1059. According to this decree, the election of the pope became the exclusive prerogative of the college of cardinals. Then the new pope was formally confirmed by the Roman clergy and people. At the same time, the emperor was counted among the "people", denying him any special rights.

The irreconcilable struggle against secular investiture began in 1076 under the pontificate of Gregory VII (1073-1085). Describing the stubbornness and rage of Gregory, shown in the struggle against church disorders, one of his contemporaries called him "holy satana." Gregory VII took a set of measures aimed at the complete emancipation of the church from the power of the laity, submission to the Pope and the restoration of the validity of canon law, which is called the "Gregorian reform" in history. Its principles were also defended by Gregory's successors in the late 11th - early 12th centuries. It was then that the "right of the private church" was banned.

However, the papacy did not succeed in completely excluding the church from the system of vassal relations. A compromise solution was found at the end of the 11th century. the famous theologian Ivo of Chartres, who outlined the difference between the spiritual and secular components in the power of the prelate. Secular lords retained the right to invest only in relation to the secular prerogatives of the bishop, that is, they introduced him into the possession of the granted lands, while the clergy directly passed in the act of church investiture. At the beginning of the XII century. this compromise solution was approved by the French king, then by the English and, finally, in 1122 by the German emperor. In the XII century. a compromise was found with respect to the "right of the private church." The senior was allowed to exercise patronage(patronage) over the parish or monastery founded by him, control his property and the election of the primate. However, in the Scandinavian countries, the right of secular investiture and the "private church" was almost fully preserved even later, until the 13th century.

The result of the "Gregorian reform" was a significant weakening of the dependence of the church on secular lords and its consolidation into a vertical hierarchical structure headed by a Roman papa who appointed archbishops. Soon, the papacy forbade the monarchs to levy any taxes from the church, which is now regarded as a state in states and from now on is only obliged to pay an annual tax to the pope - annatu and other deductions.

Establishment of a papal theocracy. Gregory VII and his successors, in the course of the struggle for investiture, developed the concept of papal universalism, or papal theocracy, opposed to the idea of ​​a universal secular empire. Most fully its main provisions are set forth in the so-called "Dictatus rarae" (dictated by the pope), a document attributed to Gregory VII. It affirms that the papacy rightfully possesses both the highest spiritual and the highest secular power. The new doctrine of the papacy was based on the "Gift of Constantine", as well as on an extensive complex of forgeries - "Pseudo-Sidorian decretals", which arose back in the 9th century. in the Frankish kingdom and was attributed to St. Isidor of Seville (d. 636).

The popes of the era of "Gregorian reform" came from the reformed monastic community. Therefore, the concept of the papal theocracy reflected primarily the monastic world outlook, according to which the world is only a kingdom of vice and greed; only the holy church, which also appeared to be monastic, is able to save him from destruction. All secular rulers should be servants of the viceroy of God on earth - the pope, who at the same time received from Constantine the Great and supreme secular power in the West. Otherwise, they turn into servants of the Antichrist and it is the pope's duty to excommunicate them from the church, and the people entrusted to them to call for an uprising. In the second half of the XII-XIII century. to the leadership of the Roman curia came lawyers, who often occupied the papal throne. They generally consolidated and developed the theoretical reasoning of the papal monks in canon law. The pinnacle of Innocent III (1198-1216) is considered the pinnacle of the papal theocracy. It was he who officially approved the title for the pope vicar of Christ.

In the XII-XIII centuries. the papacy was at the zenith of its power. It managed to organize a crusading movement, got many European monarchs to take a vassal oath, pay a regular tribute to the Apostolic See ("St. Peter's denarius"), actively intervened in the internal affairs of all Christian states. A powerful weapon in the hands of the papacy of steel excommunication and interdict(the prohibition of the administration of sacraments and other church rites), widely used in relation to rebellious sovereigns. If these means did not work, then the pope, using the contradictions between the European states, could proclaim a crusade against the disobedient. The reward for this service was the crown of the conquered kingdom. The institution of papal legates was constantly operating in the localities, which controlled not only the church, but in many respects also the secular authorities.

The canonists, relying on the precedents enshrined in ecclesiastical law, have developed the theory of the infallibility of the popes, that it is the popes who make the final decisions on matters of dogma and church discipline. Such decisions were formalized in the form of decrees (decrees) of the Pope, which did not require the approval of the Church. The decrees constituted the most important section of canon law and in many respects had greater authority than the decrees of the Ecumenical Councils or Holy Scripture.

In many ways, the strengthening of the power of the pope from the end of the 11th century. was based on the belief that it is the Roman bishop, who has the keys to the kingdom of heaven, who is able to ensure salvation, open the way to paradise. This, in particular, made it possible for the papacy to provide complete absolution - indulgence - first to all participants in the crusades, and from the end of the XII century. and those who at least donated money for their organization. A place in paradise could thus be bought with money transferred to the Roman curia. In the XIII century. theologians have developed the doctrine of "Treasury of the church"- an inexhaustible supply of grace accumulated through the efforts of saints and martyrs. The pope and the hierarchs of the church, who receive their authority from him, can dispose of this grace and issue indulgences for money or various services to all laity in general and even to the dead who are in purgatory. In practice, this theory led to the deification of the pope and the church hierarchy.

Cistercian order. The regular canon movement inXIIv. By the end of the XI century. the reformed monasteries, primarily those of Cluny, were already far from the ideals for which theorists of monastic reform had once fought. But it was the high moral authority of monasticism in the era of reforms that led to an incredible enrichment of the monasteries. - It was more and more difficult to find solitude in the expanded monasteries, especially considering that the loud fame of some monasteries often attracted people there who were trying to move up the social ladder. The luxury and delicacy of the numerous brethren now engendered a longing for the original simplicity of the Benedictine way of life. It is no coincidence that, in parallel with the strengthening of the reformed monasteries, various forms of hermitism are developing. At first, in the first half of the 10th century, the evils of the clergy and the episcopate were the main motives for fleeing from the world. Later, the hermit became more and more a reaction to the emerging flaws in the way of life of most of the Benedictine abbeys that had adopted the reform.

So, at the end of the XI century. a group of ascetic monks left their monastery and retired to the secluded place of Sito (lat. Cistertius) in Burgundy. This monastery later gave the name to the order of the Cistercians. The order was a new form of organization of monasticism. The Cistercians did not reform the old monasteries, but founded new ones, thereby sharply opposing themselves to the former monasticism. This opposition was visibly reflected by the white, "angelic" robes of the Cistercians, contrasting with the black robes introduced in Benedictine monasticism by the Clunyans. The new monasteries formed a closed centralized organization - the order. Unlike the Cluny association, the head of which was the Abbot of Cluny, the supreme power in the Cistercian order was not held by the abbot of Sito, but general chapter - an annual meeting of all the abbots of the Cistercian monasteries. Their way of life was completely regulated statutes of the order, approved by the general capital, while the Cluny "custom" was the custom, first of all, of Cluny himself, and in other monasteries of the association it was layered on local monastic traditions. Subsequently, following the model of the Cis-Tertians, all monasticism, including Cluny, was organized into various orders, each of which prescribed to its members a special way of life, certain types of activity, a certain color of clothes, etc. Order statutes supplemented and commented on the monastic charter.

The Cistercians, although they made a start from the ustav of St. Benedict, largely deviated from the traditions that developed in the reformed Benedictine monasteries. They chose places that had not yet been inhabited by humans for the founding of their monasteries. Thus, the tasks of the monks included clearing forests, draining swamps, and equipping the monastic economy. The Cis-Tertians considered physical labor to be the basis of monastic service. Unlike the previous Benedictine monasticism, the Cistercians were not allowed to live by someone else's labor, to own villages, to have dependent peasants and lay vassals. As a result, Cistercians spent more time in the field, in a barnyard, or in a vineyard than in a scriptorium, school, or temple at worship.

The Cistercian Order gained tremendous influence in Western Europe in the first half of the 12th century, which was greatly facilitated by the activities of the outstanding Cistercian ideologist St. Bernard de Clairvaux (1090-1153). Thanks to the sermons of St. Bernard, yes, who blessed the creation of spiritual-knightly orders, the Cistercians often acted as agents of violent Christianization, as was the case in the pagan Baltic states or Arab Spain. The ideals of solitude, poverty, and physical labor did not save the Cistercian monasteries from gradual secularization. The zealous monks, who devoted a lot of time to intensive agricultural labor, willingly introduced various technical innovations, were actively involved in trade and enriched themselves. Very soon, the Cistercians shifted physical labor to the so-called converse(converts) recruited from the rural poor. The Converse, or "bearded brothers" (as opposed to monks who were supposed to shave) took a monastic vow, but lived separately from the main brethren. The vow of obedience obliged the converse to work for so long, cleavage I. it was necessary for the abbot. At the same time, for their labor, as members of the Cistercian order, they received only a meager food,

The 12th century was a turning point in the history of monasticism. All forms of Benedictine monasticism that existed at that time, including the Cistercians, were rooted in the agrarian, non-urban, part of the Christian world. The city has long been presented to the monks as a den of vice. In addition, the cities, which, as a rule, were headed by bishops, fraught with the threat of the subordination of monasteries to the episcopate. However, with the growth of cities in Western Europe in the 11th-12th centuries, the strengthening of their economic, political and spiritual influence, the need to strengthen the pastoral ministry in urban communities and preserve the church's monopoly in the spiritual life of society began to be felt more and more. Non-Dictine monasticism, professing the ideal of leaving the world, could hardly become a reliable support for the church in the new conditions. In the 20s. XII century the papacy refuses to support the monasteries in their struggle for autonomy within the church. Monasteries again become subordinate to the bishops of the diocese, however, retaining some independence. The clergy, living in the world and engaged in pastoral ministry, regains their leading positions in the church and largely determines the policy of the papacy.

In the XII century. the movement of regular canonists reached a large scale - ministers mainly of cathedral and parish churches of cities that lived in special communities - canons, in accordance with a certain charter (Latin regulation). At the beginning of the XII century. there is a demarcation of the regular canons from monasticism. The canons did not choose the rule of St. Benedict, and the charter attributed to the famous father of the church, St. Augustine. Therefore, they began to be called Augustinians. The charter of St. Augustine was accepted by practically all the new spiritual orders, including the monastic ones, which arose in the XII-XIII centuries. This charter is based on a special mystical category of Christian doctrine - love. The highest love for God demanded sacrificial love for one's neighbor, which was primarily expressed in active preaching work in the world. Augustines and other orders that adopted the statute of St. Augustine, felt their responsibility for the salvation of all Christian souls and therefore the ideal of monastic solitude in the name of personal salvation, characteristic of Benedictine, was alien to them.

Heresies of the second halfXII— XIIIv. Establishment of the Inquisition. Researchers identify the XII century. in the history of Western Europe due to profound changes in the mass religious consciousness. Sometimes they even talk about internal Christianization Europe in the XII century, opposing it to the external, formal statement of Christianity in the previous centuries. Earlier, Christianity was perceived primarily as the religion of a strong God, capable of defending against the forces of evil, providing earthly and afterlife well-being after believers perform a certain set of sacred actions. Elements of this understanding of Christianity were retained later, but in the XII century. representatives of the widest strata of the population turn to the search for an intimate, individual nougat to God, often rejecting the usual forms of communication with the outside world offered by the church. Interest in the Holy Scripture is awakening, the laity are striving to get to know it not through the clergy who knows Latin, but on their own. The Bible begins to be translated into popular languages, and its provisions are uniquely melted in the minds of the laity. The massive religious upsurge also gave rise to an unprecedented multitude of various heretical teachings in the second half of the 12th-13th centuries. They found a comfortable soil in cities, the population of which, due to the relatively high level of literacy, was most receptive to all kinds of spiritual quests.

The largest heretical movements that took shape in the second half of the XII-XIII centuries were heresies Waldensian and katar. Initially, they originated in the cities of the South of France and from there spread throughout Europe. They also reflected the acute social conflicts of the era caused by the intensive development of commodity-money relations and the growing polarization of urban society. A certain influence on the program of heretics was exerted by the communal movement directed against the city lords, who were often bishops. Finally, the anti-episcopal and generally anti-church orientation of the teachings and activities of the Waldensians and Cathars was a reaction to the growth of secular power and financial power of the church in the era of papal theocracy. Acquaintance with the Gospel, translated into the vernacular, led to the conclusion that the rich Catholic Church had long forgotten the covenants of holy poverty and served not Christ, but mammon (that is, earthly goods).

The founder of the Waldensian heresy, who gave it its name, the prosperous Lyon merchant Pierre Waldo, abandoned his property in order to live in poverty and, like the apostles, roam the roads, preaching the Gospel and calling the people to repentance. Later, the Waldensians formulated the thesis that the Roman church, which had been rotated by wealth, had lost its sanctity and the sacraments it administered were not valid. Therefore, the Waldensians considered that not the one who received the priestly dignity had the right to perform the sacraments, but any layman who, according to the commandments of Christ, leads a beggarly lifestyle, deprived of a permanent refuge and sometimes even a roof over his head.

The Cathars went much further in condemning the Catholic Church. Their teaching was influenced to a certain extent by the dualistic heresy of the Bogomils, which arose in the 10th century. In Bulgaria. The wealthy and powerful Catholic Church was declared by the Cathars to be the creation of Satan. And the cross, which Catholics worship, they considered a symbol of the material evil world, its sufferings and vices. The Cathars opposed this “dirty” church with their “clean” church (Cathars - from the Greek. “Clean”), based on the principles of severe asceticism and non-covetousness and serving the true God. The Cathar Church achieved particular success in the area between Toulouse and Albi, where not only broad strata of the townspeople joined it, but also representatives of the middle and upper, titled, nobility. By the name of one of the centers of the Cathars - the city of Albi - they began to be called Albigensians.

The spread of heretical movements in many countries of Western Europe, their mass character, more or less clear organizational forms forced the Catholic Church to resort to emergency measures, such as the proclamation of a crusade against the Albigensians at the beginning of the 13th century. (see Chapter 10) and the establishment of the system of the papal inquisition in the 30s. XIII century The persecution of heretics was carried out earlier, but it turned out to be ineffective. Now, in all the bishoprics, a special position was introduced papal inquisitor, who was supposed to single-handedly conduct an investigation (Latin inquisito) on all cases related to heresy, up to the final judgment. The decision of the papal inquisitor was obliged to strictly comply with both local bishops and secular authorities, to whom the heretic was handed over for the execution of the sentence. The usual punishment for the accusation of the Inquisition was burning at the stake (Spanish, port, auto-dafé - act of faith), supposedly cleansing heretics from their delusions.

Mendicant orders. In the fight against heresies, the papacy was not limited to punitive measures alone, realizing that heretical movements expressed the craving of the general population for a renewed, poor, church and were largely due to the ineffectiveness of the preaching activity of the Catholic clergy. So, Pope Innocent III proceeded from the need to subordinate the movement for holy poverty, “tame” it and then use it to strengthen the authority of the entire clergy in the eyes of the flock. He and his successors approved the creation of begging orders, the first and most important of which were dominicans and Franciscans, appeared at the beginning of the XIII century.

Mendicant orders embodied new views on monastic asceticism, partly going back to the ideals of regular canonists, partly formed under the influence of heretical and other mass religious movements of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. The organization of mendicant orders was based on the concept of the apostolic life, i.e. striving in everything to follow the example of Christ's apostles, who carried his teaching into the world. They contrasted the Benedictine ideal of the ascetic hermit who was retired in a monastery with the ideal of the ascetic preacher wandering around the world. Mendicant monks from the beginning focused on preaching work in the cities, “caring for souls,” and missionary work. Having spread extremely quickly in all countries of Western Europe, they were already in the XIII-XIV centuries. rushed beyond its borders - to Palestine, Egypt, Transcaucasia, Crimea, the Mongol power in Central Asia, even reaching China.

However, the organization of preaching in mendicant orders was significantly different from that practiced in the church, including by regular canons. It was based on the experience of the Cathars and Waldensians. The preacher did not wait for the flock to gather to his church, but he himself looked for her, went to the people, "on foot without gold and silver, in a word, imitating the apostles in everything." Beggar-sting monks preached the futility of all worldly things in their very appearance: they were more like beggar strangers than monks and priests. Poverty was thus, along with preaching, another important aspect of the concept of the apostolic life. Once the Cistercians sought to embody the ideal of poverty, but the mendicant monks went even further. At first, they were not only forbidden to own any property, but were ordered to live exclusively at the expense of alms, begging. Despite a number of common features, the most important of the mendicant orders - the Dominican and Franciscan orders - had their own pronounced specificity, due to the circumstances of their emergence. The entire subsequent history of these orders was deeply imprinted on the personality of their creators - St. Dominic and St. Francis.

St. Dominic (d. 1221), Spanish Augustinian canon, early 13th century ended up in the south of France, seized by the heresy of the al-Bigois. He saw his task primarily in organizing effective preaching in the name of preserving the integrity of the Catholic Church. The official name of the Dominicans, expressing the specifics of the order, is brothers preachers. But in order to preach the correct doctrine, it was necessary to prepare competent pastors who, in all the subtleties, comprehended orthodox Catholic theology. Therefore, from the very beginning, another major area of ​​activity of the Dominicans was an in-depth study of theology. It is no coincidence that Paris and Bologna, the two largest university cities in medieval Europe, became the centers of the order. The Dominicans created an extensive network of theological teaching, which also included the study of various languages ​​required by the theologian and preacher. Soon it was the Dominicans who largely determined what is true Christian doctrine. St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) - the greatest authority in Catholic theology, belonged to the order of St. Dominica. It is also no coincidence that most of the inquisitors were appointed from among the Dominicans, although in several regions of Europe the Inquisition was transferred to the Franciscan Order.

St. Francis (d. 1226) was the son of a wealthy merchant from the Italian city of Assisi, but in his youth he abandoned his family, inheritance and all earthly goods in general in order to belong to God alone. But just like Christ, who "died for all," Francis rejected monastic solitude, "knowing that he was sent by God in order to win His souls." Francis, in contrast to Dominic, who cared about the fight against heresies and the integrity of the church, was motivated to preach primarily by love and compassion for one's neighbor. Francis addressed the words of the Gospel not only to people, but also to birds, snakes, wolves, seeing God in all nature. The cornerstone of Francis's teaching was "state poverty", understood as the highest degree of humility. Humility, self-abasement are also characteristic of his followers, who were officially named in Latin. minorites, those. little brothers. Francis not only forbade looking for even the smallest comfort for himself, ordered to wear rags covered with a rope, but he also allowed only literate brothers to have books, and even then exclusively for liturgical ones. Francis was generally reluctant to allow studies in theology, fearing that excessive philosophizing "would not extinguish the spirit of prayer and piety." Over time, however, the Franciscans also created their own system of theological education. But already in the XIII century. from Dominican theology, the teachings of Franciscan theologians were distinguished by great sensuality and emotionality.

With the development of mendicant orders and their transformation into numerous and ramified monastic organizations, the problem of preserving the original ideal of poverty arose more and more acutely. The Dominicans, who from the very beginning needed separate cells, extensive libraries, and significant financial resources to study theology, quickly agreed to soften the requirements of non-acquisitiveness. And the first permanent monasteries were created by St. Dominic. On the contrary, in the second half of the 13th century, attempts to correct the doctrine of the "mistress of poverty" were caused among the Francis-Caners. the split of the order into supporters of strict observance of the covenants of Francis - spirituals and those who condemned the excessive passion for poverty, advocated the development of large monastic communities (conventions) - conventions. However, these conventions, like other property of the order, were only in the use of the minorities, while the Apostolic See had the right of ownership. An important difference between the conventions of both the pre-Minicans and the Franciscans from the pre-existing monasteries was their openness to the city and the church. These conventions often served as a temporary refuge for brothers who willingly went to preach the Gospel at crowded crossroads, market squares, inns, or went to distant countries.

The Avignon Captivity of the Popes. By the end of the XIII century. The papacy, which had previously successfully opposed the universalist aspirations of the emperors, was faced with a powerful new force - the emerging centralized monarchies. The conflict erupted with the French king Philip IV, who, without the permission of the pope, imposed a tax on the French clergy. Thus, Philip IV demonstrated that the French church is an integral part of his kingdom and henceforth the king will decide to what extent it will obey the pope (see chapter 10). Pope Boniface VIII was about to excommunicate Philippe GU from the church when the people of the French king burst into his residence in Anagni. One of them, according to legend, slapped the Pope with an iron mitt. Unable to endure humiliation, Boniface soon died. With a slap in the face in Anagny in 1303, the era of the weakening of the papst, which was under the control of France, began. The French bishop elected to the papal throne, fearing the opposition of the Italian clergy, chose to remain in France. In 1309-1377. the residence of the popes was in the south of France, in Avignon.

Avignon had some undeniable advantages over Rome. There were no influential clans of the nobility who could influence the elections and politics of the popes. Starting from the period of the struggle for investiture, the popes often left Rome for security reasons, which made it difficult to create a permanent management apparatus. And the material resources of the curia were not always sufficient to conduct an independent international policy. In Avignon, for the first time, the popes were able to create a permanent and effective financial institution. The popes used every opportunity to receive various deductions from the church and individual prelates, openly traded in profitable church positions, used the money collected for the next crusade for personal needs. For the first time, it was the Avignon popes who switched to a wide trade in indulgences.

The overt fiscal policy of the Avignon popes generated discontent both in the church and among the laity. It is no coincidence that during these years the movement of Franciscan spiritualists, who dreamed of an "angelic" papacy not involved in worldly affairs, took on especially radical forms. Their persistent preaching of holy poverty caused them already at the end of the 13th century. bloody repression by Rome. Now Pope John XXII (1316-1334) excommunicated the spiritualists from the church and declared heresy the teaching that Christos and his apostles did not possess property.

In addition, the pro-French sentiments of the papacy caused in other countries, especially with the beginning of the Hundred Years War, a strong movement for the independence of national churches. With the beginning of the XIV century. for the first time, the theory of the need to separate the church from the state was also born. It was expressed by the supporters of the empire, William of Ockham, Marsil of Padua, Dante, whose treatises criticized the theocratic doctrine of the papacy. In England, the views of John Wyclif were very popular, who believed that the Catholic Church and the Pope only alienated a person from the true Christianity contained in the Gospel. Wyclif's writings spread throughout Europe. His active follower was the master of the Prague University, Jan Hus, who also advocated the reform of the church.

Great schism and conciliar movement. A further decline in the authority of the papacy was facilitated by the great schism - the schism of the Church in 1378-1417. Taking advantage of the weakening of France in the Hundred Years War, Pope Gregory XI in 1377 returned his residence from Avignon to Rome. However, after his death in 1378, the college of cardinals, which consisted of French and Italians, split: the Italian cardinals chose the pope - an Italian, and the French cardinals, claiming that these elections were held in violation of the rules, - a Frenchman. The latter soon moved to Avignon. Each of the two popes, proving that it was he who was legitimate, and the other a usurper, began to send letters to bishops, abbots, monarchs, princes, universities demanding support. Soon all of Europe was divided into warring parties. To put an end to schism, it was decided to convene a council with the participation of prelates from all countries of Europe, university professors, theologians, lawyers, representatives of monarchs. Such a council took place in. 1409 in Pisa. He deposed both popes and elected a new one. But the deposed popes did not recognize the Council's decision. As a result, the split only deepened: there were now three popes in Europe.

The failure of the Pisa Cathedral contributed to the formation of the conciliar movement in Western Europe. His supporters argued that the Pope is not the absolute head of Christendom, nor can he be infallible. “That which concerns everyone must be approved by everyone,” and only the whole church as a whole, represented by the Ecumenical Council, is infallible. The conciliar movement, however, was heterogeneous both in composition and in the nature of the demands put forward. European monarchs, on whose support the recognition of one or another pope as legitimate, mainly depended, first of all sought to limit the power of the papacy over national churches. For the cardinals and the Roman curia, the fall in the authority of the papacy provided a convenient opportunity to strengthen their own position in the government of the church. Broader circles of the clergy and laity pinned the hope of the Ecumenical Council for the implementation of deep reforms of the church, which the papacy, it seemed, was no longer capable of. In 1414-1418, finally, it was possible to convene such a council in Constanta, which in 1417 elected a pope, who received universal recognition. The Council of Constance made decisions on the subordination of the pope to the authority of the councils and on their regular convocation.

However, the next cathedral in Basel in 1431-1449. in fact, led to a new schism: the legitimate Pope Eugene IV (1431-1447), dissatisfied with the further offensive on the prerogatives of Rome, was opposed by the “conciliar” pope. Eugene IV, in turn, convened his own council, known as Ferraro-Florentine (1438-1445). The prospect of the resumption of schism did not suit both many church hierarchs and secular princes. The latter were completely satisfied with the Basel decrees on the limitation of the pope's power over national churches, which were generally sanctioned by Eugene IV. These decrees opened the way for the legalization of national churches in a number of Western European states. At the same time, an important diplomatic victory for Eugene IV was the conclusion at the Ferrara-Florence Cathedral in 1439 of a union with the Greek Church. In Byzantium they hoped to get help in the struggle against the Turks through the union. The recognition by the Orthodox Church of the supremacy of the pope strengthened the position of Rome in Western Europe itself. As a result, Basel Cathedral lost the support of both the majority in the church and many secular monarchs.

The conciliar movement was thus defeated, and the pope's autocracy in the church was restored. At the same time, Rome did not manage to regain its former power over the churches in England, France, Spain, and a number of German principalities. A special status was acquired by the church in the Czech Republic. The Council of Constance recognized the teachings of Wyclif and his follower Jan Hus as heretical. Jan Hus, summoned to the council, was convicted and burned (1415). However, his name became the banner of a powerful social and national movement that swept the Czech kingdom from 1419. All attempts by the emperor, the pope and the princes to crush Hussism were defeated. Only in 1433, at the Basel Cathedral, the church was forced to compromise with the moderate wing of the Hussites - the “chasniks”. The crisis ended with the destruction of the chalice-kami of the radical followers of Hus - the "taborites" in 1434. The Basel agreements sanctioned the emergence of a national Czech church in the center of Europe, in which, unlike the Roman one, "communion under both kinds" (i.e., bread and wine).

Papacy of the second half of the 15th century increasingly focuses on strengthening his power in Rome and the patrimony of St. Peter, in fact abandoning the previous claims to universal statehood. In their way of life and outlook on the world, the popes of this era were more in line with the type of the Renaissance Italian prince, only nominally retaining the title Viceroy of Christ. They attracted many renowned artists and humanists to Rome, initiated the magnificent construction of churches and public buildings, and collected antiquities. At the same time, the refusal of the papacy to carry out reforms of the church, the secular way of life and the dubious moral principles of many of Christ's governors caused growing discontent in the countries of Western Europe, which created favorable conditions for the spread of the ideas of the Reformation in the 16th century. which led to the falling away from Rome of a part of Germany, separate cantons of the Swiss Confederation, England and Scandinavia.

For details on Hussism, see the course on the history of the southern and western Slavs.

In the XI-XIII centuries, the Christian church in Europe reached great power. Not a single major event took place without her participation or influence.

Medieval religious thinkers argued that the world created by God is reasonable and harmonious. There are three layers, or estates, in society, and every person from birth belongs to one of them. All three estates are necessary for a friend Those who pray Those who fight Those who work Estates are large groups of people with the same rights and responsibilities inherited.

First estate: The clergy belonged to the first estate, because the church was the mediator between man and God. Christian morality required the observance of the moral rules listed in the Bible. There was a rule: treat people the way you want them to treat you.

First estate: “Despise the riches of the earth,” said one church leader, “so that you can gain the riches of heaven.”

Wealth of the Church q But at the same time, the Church possessed enormous wealth and was the largest landowner. Distribution of lands in Medieval Europe Church Remaining lands

The riches of the church Sacred relics: the hair of Christ, the fragments of the cross, nails, etc. The relics are the remains of the bodies of the holy martyrs

Wealth of the Church That which was once given to the Church belongs forever to Christ and in no way can be alienated from the possession of the Church ... That which is given to the Church, as everyone knows, is given to her so that ... those who serve God have a livelihood and, being constantly busy with contemplation of the Divine and incessant praise of it, they could always, out of the anxiety of this world, serve the Lord most faithfully. " FROM THE BOOK "ON THE HONOR OF THE CHURCH" OF MONK PLACIDIA OF NONANTOLAN (XI century)

Popes have arrogated to themselves the right to forgive the crimes and sins of believers for money Indulgence is a special certificate issued by the church for money about the forgiveness of sins.

1054 - Schism of the Christian Church of SCHISM Western (Catholic) Causes of the schism: the struggle of the Pope and the Patriarch for domination over the Christian Church Eastern (Orthodox) WORLD Pope Leo IX Patriarch of Constantinople Michael

Find the differences between the churches The Catholic Church The Orthodox Church -The head is the Pope -The divine service was conducted in Latin -It is forbidden to marry all the clergy -Priests shaved their beards, cut their hair on the crown -Chapter - Patriarch -Worship was conducted in Greek -It is forbidden to marry only for monks -Not shaved beards, did not cut hair on the crown

From the middle of the 9th century, the power of the popes weakened, the church was losing influence on believers, and its authority was falling. After the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, Gregory VII, Innocent III, henchmen of the German emperors, was elevated to the papal throne. The struggle to strengthen the papal power is intensifying, which reached its climax under the popes Gregory VII and Innocent III.

The road to Canossa Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) decided that the head of the church has the right to judge and remove not only bishops, but also secular kings, as his vassals. The outraged Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (1056-1106) announced to the Pope: “You dared to rebel against the very royal power bestowed upon us from God. ... ... Therefore, leave the apostolic throne ... Get off it, get down! " Henry IV

The path to Canossa In response, Pope Gregory VII said: “I forbid King Henry, who with unheard-of arrogance, attacked your church, to rule Germany and all of Italy and I forbid everyone, whoever was, to serve him as king. I ... excommunicate him from the church so that the nations will know. ... ... the gates of hell have no power over the church. " Henry IV

The road to Canossa German princes dissatisfied with Henry promised to overthrow the emperor if he did not receive forgiveness from the Pope within a year. In January 1077, with a handful of those close to him, he crossed the Alps. The humiliated emperor and the triumphant Pope met at the small castle of Canossa in northern Italy. Gregory VII had mercy, invited him to himself and freed him from the curse. Henry IV at the gates of the Kanos castle

The Way to Canossa “And so the king appeared as ordered, and since the castle was surrounded by a triple wall, he was accepted inside the second ring of walls, while his entire retinue remained outside. There, taking off the royal robes, without signs of royal dignity, Without any splendor, he stood, not leaving his place, with bare feet, not taking food from morning to evening, awaiting the verdict of the Pope. So it was on the second and on the third day "Lambert of Gersfeldsky about the meeting of Henry IV, Henry IV and Gregory VII and Gregory VII at the castle of Canossa in Canossa in 1077

The struggle of popes with emperors with varying success lasted for over 200 years. Reforms of Gregory VII: banned marriages for clergy; forbade buying ecclesiastical positions; introduced a new procedure for the selection of popes by Pope Gregory VII

"Dictate of the Pope" - a program of the supremacy of spiritual power over secular, developed by Gregory VII 1. The Roman Church was created by one God. 2. Only the Roman bishop is rightfully called ecumenical. 3. Only he alone can depose bishops and restore them ... 8. He alone has the right to dispose of the signs of imperial dignity. 9. All the princes kiss the feet of one Pope. 10. Only his name is remembered in churches. 11. He is the only one in the world called the Pope. 12. He can depose emperors ... 18. No one dares to cancel his decisions, but he himself cancels anyone's. 19. No one is his judge ... 27. He can release subjects from the oath to bad rulers

Vicar of God on Earth The pope's power reached its highest power under Innocent III (1198 -1216), who was elected by the pope at the age of 37. He was endowed with a strong will, great mind and abilities. Innocent asserted that the Pope is the viceroy of God himself on Earth, called "to rule over all peoples and kingdoms." At receptions, everyone had to kneel before dad and kiss his shoe. No king in Europe used such marks of honor. Innocent III.

Innocent III, the vicar of God on Earth, intervened in the politics of European states, during the years of his reign, some countries recognized vassal dependence on the pope: (England, Aragon, Portugal). Innocent III was a domineering, ambitious, cruel man - as the head of the Catholic Church should have been at the time of its greatest power and prosperity. Pope and cardinals

Heretics - (from the Greek "enemy") people who criticize the church, oppose its teachings Condemned expensive church rituals, magnificent worship; They demanded the abolition of church tithes, the refusal of the clergy from land holdings and wealth.

How the Church Fought Against Heretics The Church began to fight against heresies “We excommunicate and anathematize any heresy that opposes the holy faith, Orthodox and Catholic. ... ... We condemn all heretics, whatever sect they may belong to; different in appearance, they are all interconnected, because vanity unites them all. All convicted heretics must be committed to the secular authorities or their representatives to receive a meritorious punishment. »From the decree of the IV Lateran Council on the Lateran Council of the fight against heresies (1215)

How the church fought against heretics Excommunication Interdict - excommunication of certain regions or countries

How the Church fought against heretics Military campaigns against heretics (Albigensian wars) At the beginning of the 13th century, the Albigensians believed that the entire earthly world (and therefore the church led by the Pope) was a product of Satan, a person could save his soul only if he completely broke with a sinful world. Military campaigns were carried out against the heretics.

How the church fought against heretics Massacre of heretics. Thirteenth century miniature Several tens of thousands of people have been killed over the course of 20 years. When the papal ambassador was asked how to distinguish heretics from “good Catholics,” he replied: “Kill everyone in a row. God in heaven will recognize his own! "

How the Church fought against heretics The Inquisition is a church court, a tribunal of the Catholic Church, which carried out judicial, detective, punitive functions

How the Church Fought the Heretics Heretics were brutally tortured to confess that they were serving the Devil. Auto-da-fe in Spain Inquisitors said: "It doesn't matter if we burn a hundred innocents, as long as there is one guilty among them" Tortures of the Inquisition

The accused had two ways: Confession of their guilt - Reconciliation with the church, absolution of sins - Life imprisonment or painless murder Denial of their guilt - Burning at the stake "without shedding blood"

Creation of mendicant orders Order of the Franciscans Founder: Francis of Assisi Preached: love for all living things offered the abandonment of property; repentance for sins; called to live in virtuous poverty at the expense of alms. Dominican Order Main goal: Fight against heretics. The Dominicans were judges and ministers of the Inquisition. Functions: Search and prosecution of heretics. Founder: Dominic Guzman When Francis saw many flowers, he began to preach to them and call for the praise of the Lord, as if they had intelligence. With the most sincere innocence, he invited the fields and vineyards, stones and forests, the beauty of fields, greenery of gardens and water of streams, earth and fire, air and wind, to love and honor the Lord. ... ... Even for worms, Francis had a love. ... ... And he collected them from the road and carried them to safety! a place so that the travelers would not crush them.