2.1 The concept, types and stages of management of socio-economic systems
Control- this is an activity associated with a complex of targeted influences of the subject on the object and its structural components (elements, relationships, processes), aimed at maintaining or changing its state, taking into account the development trends of the object (its components) and changes in the external environment.
There are the following types of management of socio-economic systems:
1. By object:
Humanity as a whole;
State;
Group of organizations;
Independent organization;
A group of people;
Separate person.
2. By area:
Management of political organizations;
Management of commercial organizations;
Management of non-profit organizations;
Management of creative organizations.
3. According to the methods of influencing objects:
Administrative-command;
Democratic;
Self management.
General management;
People management;
Process control;
Management of material flows;
Financial flow management:
Information flow management.
5. Depending on the period covered managerial activity:
current management;
Perspective (strategic) management.
The management process is continuous and includes the following steps:
1. Diagnosis of the current state of the control object and environmental factors affecting it;
2. Formulation of goals (long-term, medium-term and short-term) with their consolidation in the plans being developed and the definition of controlled parameters;
3. Organization of work for the implementation of the adopted planned decisions;
4. Implementation of solutions;
5. Continuous current monitoring of the results obtained and the established parameters of the control object, and making adjustments;
6. Rewarding or punishing performers (covers all stages of management).
Types of managerial work:
1. Heuristic work is aimed at studying problems and developing options for solving them. It is carried out by managers and specialists.
2. Administrative work is associated with the current coordination of the activities of subordinates, control, orders with encouragement or punishment. Only performed by the leader.
3. Operator work consists of operations for the technical support of production and management processes and is associated with the performance of stereotyped, constantly repetitive operations. It is carried out by technical performers.
Management tasks:
1. Tactical - maintaining the stability of the company and all its elements (departments, departments, subdivisions);
2. Strategic - the development of the company and its transfer to a qualitatively new state.
The following can be distinguished types of management:
1. Production management - solves the following tasks:
Determination of the optimal volume and structure of output;
Improvement of applied technologies;
Determining the rational loading of equipment;
Rational use of labor resources (placement of people);
Troubleshooting and troubleshooting;
Current control of the production process;
Personnel management;
Conflict resolution.
2. Supply and sales management
Organization and conclusion of contracts for the purchase, delivery, storage of raw materials, materials and finished products;
Delivery of finished products;
3. Personnel management, whose tasks are:
Placement, training, advanced training of personnel;
Resolution of labor disputes and conflicts;
Improvement of working conditions.
4. Financial management, whose tasks are:
Determination of the current and prospective financial condition of the enterprise;
Formation of a rational structure of property and capital of the enterprise;
Formation and rational use financial resources;
Financial planning and budgeting;
Implementation of financial control and financial discipline;
Taking measures to strengthen the financial condition of the enterprise.
5. Marketing management, which is the process of making managerial decisions aimed at meeting the needs of customers in the goods produced by the enterprise. Marketing management includes 4 areas:
Market analysis, which is the process of collecting and evaluating information about the marketing environment of an enterprise;
Search and selection of target markets, which consists in segmenting the market, selecting target segments and positioning a product or service on the market;
Development of a marketing mix, which is the development of a product, pricing, selection of distribution channels and promotion of a specific product or service on the market;
Carrying out marketing activities, consisting in the development of a marketing strategy and monitoring its implementation.
6. Innovation management, the object of which is the process of scientific research, the implementation of applied developments, the creation of prototypes and the introduction of new products into production.
7. Accounting management, which consists in managing the process of collecting, processing and analyzing data on the activities of the company, comparing them with the initial and planned indicators, as well as with the results of the activities of other companies in order to identify reserves and possible problems.
2.2 Basic principles and methods of management
For the first time, the basic principles of management were formulated by the French theorist and practitioner of management, the founder of the administrative school of management. Henri Fayol (1841-1925). These principles were presented in General and Industrial Administration (French: Administration Industrielle et Générale). The basic principles of management, according to the administrative school of management include:
1. Division of labor.
2. Power (powers and responsibility).
3. Discipline.
4. Unity of command
5. Unity of leadership.
6. Subordination
7. Remuneration of staff
8. Centralization.
9. Hierarchy (scalar chain).
10. Order.
11. Justice
12. Staff consistency
13. Initiative
14. Staff unity (corporate spirit)
In modern conditions of development of science and management practice, these principles can be expanded, and the following can be distinguished as management principles:
1. Science combined with elements of art
2. Purposefulness. Any management activity is aimed at achieving the set goals. The key in this case is the process of goal setting. Goal setting is the process of developing the goals of the enterprise and the corresponding management tasks; priority areas for development; development trends of all types of enterprise policies (personnel, production, financial, etc.).
3. Specialization combined with versatility.
4. Consistency. Management activity is a sequential process, starting with diagnosis, setting goals and planning activities, and ending with monitoring its implementation.
5. Continuity. Management activity is a continuous process aimed at achieving a useful result.
6. The optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government of individual elements of the organization.
7. Accounting individual features and psychology of workers, patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior.
8. Competitiveness of management participants based on personal interest in success, supported by material, moral and organizational incentives.
9. Humanism. This principle means that personnel management should be based on the norms of business ethics, as well as the norms of morality and ethics accepted in society.
10. Differentiation, which is the division of large problems into smaller ones:
a) by blocks (operational, strategic, innovative);
b) directions of development (technology, technology, quality, competitiveness of products, etc.);
c) subdivisions (shops of the main production, plant management, etc.);
d) types of work (division of labor), etc.
11. Unity of command. This principle means that the production and economic activities of the enterprise (its divisions), as well as the activities of an employee, are managed by only one authorized manager. Consequences of the principle of unity of command are the principles:
a) the unity of rights, duties and responsibilities;
b) hierarchies;
c) unity of leadership.
12. Performing discipline - the duty of subordinates to follow the instructions of leaders.
13. Consistency - consideration of problems in their interconnection and mutual influence. By implementing this principle, the subject of management: 1) ensures the mutual linkage of the tasks to be solved; 2) coordination of interaction between various departments within the enterprise.
14. Feedback. A mechanism is established between the object and the subject of control feedback, for which they are used: accounting, control and reporting.
15.Professionalism. This principle presupposes, firstly, competent leadership, and, secondly, competent implementation of the decisions made.
16. Regulation - the establishment of rules that determine the procedure for the operation of an enterprise (organization), as well as its individual structural divisions, managers, specialists, employees, workers. The main documents regulating the activities of the personnel of the enterprise are: labor legislation; founding documents; inner order rules; regulations for intra-company interaction; provisions; job instructions.
17. Adaptation to external conditions. The managed system is in the conditions of constant social and economic changes (external and internal), and therefore it must promptly respond to these changes, actively adapting to them.
18. Development of creative initiative, involvement of a large number of employees in management.
19. Subordination. The principle of subordination involves the development of rules of service discipline and the establishment on their basis of a system of official subordination of juniors to seniors. Implementing the principle of unity of command, the leader makes decisions that are binding on all employees of the team he leads. At the same time, the leader bears full responsibility for the decisions made.
20. Efficiency. This principle covers a wide range of problems - from the economic efficiency of management (cost-benefit ratio) to the search for effective leadership styles, adequate motivation for activities, improving the organizational structure, optimizing decision-making processes, etc.
Management methods are specific ways of influencing the controlled object to achieve the goal. Features of this impact distinguish management methods from each other.
Classical methods managerial activities are:
1. Administrative (administrative) methods are methods of direct influence, having a directive, mandatory character, based on discipline, responsibility, power, coercion. Administrative methods are implemented in the form of: orders, resolutions, orders, instructions, recommendations.
2. Economic methods, representing a system of techniques and ways of influencing performers with the help of a specific comparison of costs and results (material incentives and sanctions, financing and lending, wages, cost, profit, price). To use economic methods, there should be a well-organized management system focused on the target result, with the establishment of quantitative and quality characteristics the effectiveness of the enterprise (for example, a balanced scorecard - BSC). The main management methods here are the system wages and bonuses, which should be maximally related to the performance of the performer.
3. Socio-psychological methods affect the increase in labor activity through the formation of a favorable moral and psychological climate in the team and through the disclosure personal abilities every worker. Socio-psychological methods are implemented in the form of moral encouragement, social planning, persuasion, suggestion, personal example, regulation of interpersonal and intergroup relations, creation and maintenance of a moral climate in the team.
In addition to these methods, organizational and legal methods are also distinguished. In this case, the necessary conditions for the functioning of the company are created, management structures are formed, activities are regulated and regulated, and the rights and obligations of personnel are determined.
When choosing a management method, it is necessary to consider:
- the speed of achieving the goal;
- the probability of achieving the goal;
- relationships of subordination;
‒ the personality of the controlled;
‒ the identity of the manager;
- economic independence;
the climate in the team.
Comparative characteristics of management methods
| Signs of management methods | Management methods | ||
| Administrative | Economic | Socio-psychological | |
| 1. Basis of use | Laws of statehood and rights, legal interests | Economic laws and economic interests | Laws of socio-psychological development, social interests |
| 2. Tools of influence | Administrative-legal and organizational forms | Economic forms | Socio-psychological factors |
| 3. Objects of compliance | Organizational and legal environment | Economic environment | Favorable socio-psychological climate |
| 4. Substance of methods | Directive, discipline | Motive Optimization | Psychology, sociology |
| 5. Purpose of management | Implementation of laws, directives, plans | Achieving the competitiveness of manufactured objects | Achieving mutual understanding |
| 6. Management structure | Rigid | adaptable to situations | Adaptive to personality |
| 7. Form of ownership where methods are predominantly applied | State | Corporate, private, state, etc. | Private |
| 8. Subject of influence | team, individual | Individual | Individual |
| 9. Form of influence | Normative and methodological documents | Motivation | Management of socio-psychological processes |
| 10. The main requirement for the subject when applying methods | performance, organization | Professionalism | Psychological stability |
| 11. Needs to be met by the methods | Physiological, safety | Physiological | All needs |
| 12. Type of organizational structure for which these methods are most suitable | Linear, functional | Linear, Functional, Matrix | Design |
| 13. The predominant direction of the control action | Top down | Vertical (top to bottom and bottom to top) | Vertical and horizontal |
| 14. Leadership style characteristic of this group of methods | Authoritarian | Mixed | Democratic |
| 15. Type of management decision most often made | Strict adherence to normative and methodological documents and directives | Decisions based on modeling and complex justification | Decisions based on judgment, intuition, experience |
| 16. Specific methods and methods of management | 1. State regulation of the economy. 2. Standardization and certification. 3. Ecosystem monitoring. 4. Regulatory and methodological regulation of the control system. 5. Planning, accounting and control | 1. Economic stimulation. 2. Analysis of costs, quality and other parameters of systems (photography of working time, timing, questioning, testing, factor analysis, etc.). 3. Economic and mathematical modeling. four. Balance Methods | 1. Monitoring of socio-psychological processes. 2. Modeling of socio-psychological processes. 3. Psycho-technologies. 4. Moral stimulation |
2.3 The concept and content of the main management functions
The process of company management can be represented as a set of functions performed, which can be represented in three main groups:
1. general management (establishment regulatory requirements and management policies, innovation policies, planning, organization of work, motivation, coordination, control, responsibility);
2. management of the structure of the enterprise (its creation, subject of activity, legal forms, relations with other enterprises, territorial issues, organization, reconstruction, liquidation);
3. specific areas of management (marketing, R&D, production, human resources, finance).
Management functions are a set of types of management activities that are objectively necessary for the implementation of the management process. The process of implementing the management function is a sequence of actions to implement the management function.
The structure of the management function is a characteristic of the management function that determines the totality and relationship of actions related to the implementation of the corresponding function.
All management functions can be divided into general and specific (special).
General control functions are mandatory for successful work any organization. For the first time, the general functions of management were singled out by the French practitioner and scientist Henri Fayol in his work "General and Industrial Management" in 1916, to which he attributed foresight, organization, command, coordination and control.
Subsequently, the general management functions have been expanded, and currently include:
1. Planning;
2. Organization;
3. Disposition;
4. Coordination
5. Control.
6. Motivation (Work with personnel, personnel management.
1. Planning includes the choice of goals, strategies, lines of conduct, the development of programs and procedures for their implementation. Planning applies to all levels and departments and is a quantitative formalization of the goals and objectives of the enterprise.
2. Organization is to create a conceived structure of roles. This is done through:
Definition of the types of activities necessary to achieve the goals;
Groupings of these activities;
Assignment of certain types of activities to certain managers;
Delegation of powers for the implementation of certain types of activities;
Coordination of powers;
Providing communication in the organizational structure.
3. Essence orders is that the manager must work hard with his subordinates, bringing to them the goals and objectives of the enterprise, as well as coordinating their work. This function works effectively when the manager is also the leader. The task of the managing leader is to coordinate the activities of his subordinates with a focus on the final result.
4. Coordination is to coordinate activities between employees and structural divisions of the organization. Coordination is carried out in the form of meetings, personal contacts of managers, coordination of work plans and schedules, etc.
5. Control means evaluating and adjusting the activities of subordinates so that the events that occur correspond to those planned. During the control, the results are compared with the goals and plans. When negative deviations are detected, measures should be developed to minimize possible subsequent deviations both by improving the operation of the enterprise and by adjusting the plan.
6. Motivation (work with personnel) includes accounting, evaluation, selection, training to ensure that the relevant cells, relevant posts provided organizational structure, were filled with people of appropriate qualifications. Work with personnel also implies the development of a system of employee motivation, focused on achieving the maximum useful result by employees.
Special (specific) control functions are carried out in the process of managing a specific organization (functional area of the organization), the nature of the implementation of which is determined by the object of management.
The special functions of a modern enterprise include the following:
1. supply;
2. production;
3. sales and marketing;
4. financial management;
5. innovation management;
6. personnel management;
8. conflict management;
9. risk management;
10. organizational development;
11.Product quality management;
12. organizational culture.
In a systematic study of management functions, it is necessary to answer the following questions:
1. What is the nature and purpose of this function;
2. What are the structural properties of this function;
3. How each function is carried out;
4. What key concepts apply to this function;
5. What principles and what theory are fundamental;
6. What methods are most useful;
7. What difficulties are encountered;
8. How to create an appropriate environment for the implementation of each function.
2.4 The concept of the mission, goals and strategy of the organization.
Mission
Company mission- this is in a concentrated form the expressed meaning and reason for the existence of the company, as well as its purpose for employees and the external environment.
The formation of the mission includes three aspects:
1. Understanding what kind of business the organization is currently engaged in;
2. Deciding whether there is a need to change the strategic course;
3. Communication or distribution of information about the mission in such a way that it becomes clear and able to interest employees, create a positive reaction.
The emergence of a mission can have an impact on changing the perception of the organization by its employees, which can positively affect their involvement in the work and commitment to the organization. In addition, the formulated mission can have a beneficial effect on the contact audience, improving its awareness and perception of the organization, which can have a beneficial effect on changing the competitive status of the company.
A mission statement should answer four basic questions:
1. What is our business?
2. What needs to be satisfied?
3. Interests of which consumer groups to satisfy?
4. How to meet the needs?
An example of the mission of a construction organization: Creation for the population comfortable conditions living through high-quality construction of modern residential buildings, which ensures the development of the company, the well-being of its employees and the socio-economic development of the region.
Goals
Goals express individual specific results of the company's activities, and reflect what the company strives for in its activities.
From the point of view of the period, goals are divided into short-term (up to 1 year), medium-term (1-3 years), long-term (over 3 years).
Short-term goals have a specific content and can be expressed as making a profit. Medium-term and long-term goals are to achieve the strategic goals of the company and realize its mission.
For different organizations, medium and long-term goals differ, and this depends on the payback period of the company, that is, the duration of the production and operating cycles.
Objectives are the results that the organization seeks to achieve in the short and long term. Goals can be set for the organization as a whole, for its structural divisions, as well as for specific performers.
Goals are formed in accordance with the value system of the organization, those who manage its key resources.
Goal Functions:
1. Goals reflect the main meaning and concept of the company's development;
2. Form the basis of the general and management structures of the organization;
3. Reduce the uncertainty of the current activity of the subject;
4. Form the basis of the criteria for identifying problems, making decisions, evaluating results;
5. Are a team building tool;
6. Officially proclaimed goals serve as the ideological basis for the need for the existence of the organization.
Tasks- specification of the goals of the enterprise, expressed in the required actions. Traditionally, 3 categories of organization tasks are distinguished: work with people, objects and information.
The distinctive features of the goals are called SMART - the characteristics that the formulated goal must correspond to. .
S (specific) be precise and clear so that there is no room for misinterpretation or multiple interpretations.
M (Measurable) - goals should be measurable and quantify everything that needs to be achieved, including subjective expectations. Performers should be clear about the quantitative indicators that need to be obtained in order to achieve the goals.
A (Achievable) - goals must be achievable, so all employees of the company must be sure that the goal is achievable. The achievability of the goals should be assessed in terms of the internal resources of the organization, as well as the influence of environmental factors.
R (Relevant) - goals should be result-oriented and correlated with other goals, primarily with strategic goals, mission and interests of performers.
T (Timely) - goals should be clearly defined in time, in order for the performers to clearly understand by which time certain actions necessary to achieve the goals should be completed.
Goal examples: Receiving profit in the amount of 100 million rubles. within 1 year. 10% increase in sales for the coming quarter. Increase in market share up to 50% over the next 3 years.
Strategy
Strategy 1 is a master plan of action that defines the priorities of strategic tasks, resources and a sequence of steps to achieve strategic goals.
Strategy 2- development of the company's line of action in order to determine its place in the market, consolidate on it and then expand, despite the changes that await the company in the near and distant future.
The strategy answers the question: “How, with the help of what actions, will the company be able to achieve its goals in a changing competitive environment?”
The strategy provides answers to the following questions regarding the nature of the organization:
1. What is our business today?
2. What should our business be like tomorrow?
3. What are our products, functions and markets?
4. What needs to be done to achieve your goals?
Strategic management is a management system for an organization focused on achieving its long-term goals through the maximum use of its internal potential and external capabilities, flexible response and timely changes, taking into account changing external conditions.
Strategic management is focused on actions determined by the developed strategies of the enterprise that contribute to the achievement of its strategic goals.
BASICS OF MANAGEMENT
1. General control theory
Management- manufacturing control; a set of principles, methods, means and forms of production management, developed with the aim of increasing the efficiency of production and profit management.
Management- the ability to achieve goals, using the work, intelligence and behavioral motives of other people who worked in the organization.
Manager (English to manage) is a hired professional manager, management specialist.
It is impossible to consider any engineer or economist engaged in management as a manager. A manager is a person with special training.
The words "entrepreneur" and "manager" are not synonymous. Entrepreneur takes on the risk of organizing a new enterprise, in the future he can hire a manager to manage this enterprise.
Russia's transition to a market economy increases the role of management and necessitates the training of management specialists. Modern management is a group of persons who carry out entrepreneurial and managerial functions within an enterprise (organization).
The practical implementation of these functions is considered in two aspects. Firstly, it can be formulated as the management of an enterprise (organization) operating in market conditions with complete independence and associated with the need to take independent solutions in any unexpected situation. Secondly, management independent view activities, not necessarily involving the creation of an organization and the management of subordinates. For an enterprise, "management" is used in 3 meanings: general management, management at the department level and management process. under general management refers to all managers in senior positions responsible for the formulated goals, objectives, policies and all matters related to the planning, control and management of the enterprise. Department level management– development of a goal, strategy and objectives at the department level in accordance with the overall strategic objectives and the chosen concept of enterprise management. Management process differs from the general men-that and the men-that at the level of the department in terms of authority, responsibility, detail. In the process of men-that, all functions can be performed by any employee of the enterprise within their competence.
2, 3 Patterns of control of various systems. Management of socio-economic systems (organizations)
A law is a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship in nature and society. There are three groups of control laws for various systems:
General or universal, for example, the laws of dialectics;
- phenomena common to large groups, for example, the law of social selection;
- private or specific, for example, the law of optimal norm controllability.
Laws are objective and exist independently of people's consciousness. Knowledge of laws is the task of science. They cannot be banned, forgotten, canceled or destroyed. The patterns of management should be attributed to the private laws of society, which are little studied.
All control patterns can be divided into two groups. The first includes the patterns inherent in management in general as a targeted impact, the second pattern of management. Production management is twofold. On the one hand, management expresses the objective process of directing the labor of workers in the production of use values, that is, management acts as a need for production (management relations are due to joint work); on the other hand, the production relations of the parties in the process of creating value. The parties are the employer and the employee who enter into a property relationship with each other. In accordance with this, production management is considered in two aspects: organizational and technical and socio-economic. In the first case, management is understood as the unification of the labor of all employees on the basis of organized system machines and technical means. Its task is to combine the labor of workers with objects and tools of labor, to establish certain proportions, modes and connections in production. Through the organizational and technical direction, the content of management and the composition of its elements are revealed. The socio-economic aspect is that the owner of the means of production carries out the process of production not only in his own interests, but also in the interests of those united for joint labor workers and society as a whole. There are general and specific control laws. The general laws of management include: the law of specialization of management; law of management integration; the law of economy of time. Here we will give brief description three named laws. Law of management specialization. Modern production is based on the use of the latest technological processes, technical means, a high degree of organization of production and labor, information systems. To manage such production, highly specialized knowledge and skills are required in various fields of science and technology, which leads to the division of general functions, their manifestation in specific conditions, on various levels. Management includes economic, socio-psychological, legal and organizational and technical aspects, so managers must have high professionalism in each of these areas. The risk and uncertainty of the situation inherent in a market economy require managers to be independent and responsible for decisions made, and contribute to the search for optimal organizational and scientific and technical solutions.
4. Management infrastructure and features of the management infrastructure in Russia
The management infrastructure is the environment in which managers have to function.
structure:
1) owners of capital, owner.
Its purpose is to preserve and increase capital. The interests of the owner do not always coincide with the interests of the manager
2) employees of the enterprise, workers
their interests: - normal working conditions, permanent place of work, satisfaction of work needs, professional growth, self-expression, salary, need for a hostel
3) owners of borrowed capital - give capital to the company at a certain%
Interested in increasing%, and managers, on the contrary, in reducing%
4) supplier
Interested in a high price, favorable delivery terms, scope of supply, long-term relationship
5) state
Interested in improving the well-being of its citizens, in high competitiveness in the international market, improving the ecology of their countries
6) state, non-state, public organizations that solve problems, contribute to economic activity, and on the other side it is limited (brokerage houses, chambers of commerce and industry, greenpeace ...)
Modern management, depending on where it develops and forms, has a number of general and specific features. Common features reflect stage of civilization, socio-economic formation, model of the economy, socio-economic needs of management, the level of development of scientific and technological progress and a number of similar factors. Specific features include: national features of society, historical features of its development, geographical conditions, culture and other similar factors.
The state of development of Russian society, the established production relations, mentality and other factors make it possible to single out 4 main features of Russian management:
1. Priorities in issues, accents of attention and efforts. (The most urgent management problems in Russia are anti-crisis management, employment management, Information Technology, support of entrepreneurship and small business, motivation of economic activity in the sphere of production, banking management)
2. management infrastructure, socio-economic and political conditions of its existence. It is a combination of many factors that make up the socio-economic environment in which Russian management is formed.
Here we can distinguish 3 main groups of factors: a) mentality factors (values, national traditions and culture),
b) factors of public consciousness, i.e. awareness of the practice of foreign and domestic areas (manager training system),
c) factors of the level of scientific thinking, methodological culture, development of socio-economic knowledge.
3. a complex of factors hindering or favoring the strengthening of management in Russia: factors of the level of scientific thinking, methodological structure, development of socio-economic knowledge;
4. cultural environment, features of public consciousness that cannot be changed overnight and which, as the historical experience of development shows, do not need to be changed.
5. Sociofactors and ethics of management.
One of the requirements for optimal and socially oriented management is observance of ethics and consideration of sociofactors in the process of management. Therefore, when looking for a solution to problems in management, it is necessary to embed a value element in the management structure - ethics, which transforms the non-formalized aspects of the object management action into a system of criteria, the satisfaction of which is the task of management when it focuses on the social nature of ongoing processes.
Social environment factors- conditions that determine the nature and possible consequences of the changes taking place in it.
From a management position social development distinguish:
1. Factors that indirectly affect the business spirit and the quality of the working life of employees.
Household management is a purposeful, ordering impact on joint work. It is designed to organize, regulate and control the economic activities of individual workers and production units in order to achieve the intended results.
To better understand the essence and role of such management, let us consider its relationship with the types of economic relations.
Management and ownership
If management is called upon to streamline collective labor, it is not yet clear in whose interests this is being done. This question makes it possible to reveal the direct dependence of the management of the economy on property. The organization of labor is always carried out with a specific goal - to make the best possible use of the means of production and provide their owner with an adequate income.
Throughout the history of the economy in small enterprises, the owners themselves directly managed and now manage their economy. With the enlargement of enterprises, the work of supervising workers began to be carried out by managers hired for this. It is characteristic that in the XVI-XIX centuries. the sole owner of capital usually led the management staff, controlled and directed all production activities. But the situation changed radically in the 20th century, when the joint-stock form of enterprises became the basis. Under the new conditions, the position and role of both owners of capital and managers have changed significantly.
Management and labor cooperation
Every joint work needs to be managed. Take, for example, the construction of a large residential building. Undoubtedly, builders will not be able to start and complete construction if no one ensures their purposeful and coordinated work. In the transition from simple labor cooperation to complex management activities at enterprises began to turn into a special professional job that requires special training.
In modern more or less large enterprises, managerial work covers two main types of activity: direct management and preparation for it.
Direct management is occupied by economic managers - directors of enterprises (associations) and their deputies, chief specialists, heads of departments and workshops, foremen of production sites, dispatchers, etc. Their work is reduced to making the optimal (best) decisions in terms of the set goal and ensuring their implementation. Planners, accountants, economists, accountants, secretaries, typists and workers who service computing, perforating and other machines used for processing information are in charge of preparing for management. All of them provide managers with planned and calculated data, information about the state of production and other information necessary for making decisions and organizing their implementation.
Management and market
As is known, the commodity-market economy has the ability to a certain self-regulation. Like any control system, commodity production and the market are endowed with direct and feedback, which allows them to solve an important organizational problem: what to produce, how to do it, and for whom to create products?
However, for a number of reasons in the XX century. The market has largely lost its regulatory influence on the development of the national economy. This loss was compensated by the state.
Economic management and the state
With the emergence of the public sector of the national economy, the state for the first time began to perform a number of important tasks to regulate the entire economic life of society. How these tasks are performed will be discussed later.
As you can see, management is not a completely independent element of economic activity. Its purpose and role largely depend on property relations, labor cooperation, the market system and state regulation of the economy.
UDC 330.341
N.P. BELOVA, G.V. KALININA, A.M. KALININ
MANAGEMENT OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS: THEORETICAL APPROACHES
Keywords: economic systems, management of economic systems
Theoretical approaches to the management of economic systems are considered, the properties of economic systems, factors influencing economic development are studied.
N.P. BELOVA, G.V. KALININA, A.M. KALININ CONTROL OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS: THEORETICAL APPROACHES
Key words: economic systems, control of economic systems
This article describes the theoretical approaches to the management of economic systems,
properties of economic systems, examined the factors influencing economic development.
With the passage of time and the development of economic science, approaches and methods for studying the dynamics of economic processes have undergone significant changes. The development of scientific ideas in general and the accumulation of more statistical material, which made it possible to single out some general principles and patterns of development of economic systems and the economic processes occurring in them or generated by them, had their effect.
Among the properties of the modern economy, one can note the manifestation of socialization as a characteristic basis of economic dynamics; globalization of world economic relations; change in the conceptual foundations of the structure of economic relations; the emergence of an information component in the factors of development of economic relations.
From an economic point of view, the factor is defined as one of the main resources of the production activity of an enterprise and the economy as a whole (capital, labor, resources, land, ways of organizing economic activity), and also as a driving force of economic, production processes, influencing the result of production, economic activity. The factors of any process will be considered the conditions among which or due to which this process is being done.
The identification of economic development factors should be carried out on the basis of two key concepts: the concept of cause-and-effect relationships and the concept of determining targets. In some cases, a synonym for a factor is a regressor. This term is used mainly in economic and mathematical methods and models that describe the influence of some variables on others in mathematical language.
A cofactor is a certain condition without which the action of the main factor will be incomplete, reversible or inadequate. Some factors function independently, some - only in the presence of cofactors. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of cofactor and catalyst. As a rule, these differences relate to the form of participation in the effect on the factor, the cofactor is associated with the factor continuously or occasionally, the catalyst only starts the factor activation mechanism and does not further participate in it until the next specific stage or phase. If a person acts as a factor, and not circumstances and conditions, in this case he is called an actor. An actor is an acting subject, an individual who performs actions directed at other people or circumstances. The nuance of the perception of the term is active, not passive influence.
Growth factors and development factors are not identical. In the first case we are talking about increasing quantitative parameters. Development in itself is not characterized only by quantitative indicators of growth, but primarily qualitative changes, which is possible with the reduction of some quantitative formats. Factors can be classified by types (social, political, natural and climatic, intrasystemic, etc.); by the nature of the impact (stationary and non-stationary); by the result of the impact (stabilizing and destabilizing); by direction and type of feedback (positive feedback factors and negative feedback factors). Factors have different weights, different degrees of influence, and a different set of subfactors and cofactors.
The totality of economic development factors cannot be represented by the same set of them for various economic objects and systems. In order to single them out, in our opinion, it would be rational to decompose the scheme of economic relationships into three interconnected planes:
Goal, one or more (taking into account the imposition of the goal of the supersystem);
Resources, opportunities (taking into account their limitations, as well as hidden, potential resources);
The system of interconnections and features of the functioning of the system (both external and internal).
Having these three basic components, it is possible to build a fairly effective control scheme, since it allows you to see the functioning of the system not from the inside, but from the outside, to predict the possible directions of its development.
Being in a certain state, with certain resources and a certain goal, having its own specific features and relationship with the external environment, the system has a certain limited number of motion choices. The challenge then is to identify all these components. This task is complicated by the constant changes of these very components and the extremely complex structure and principles of the interconnections of the system itself.
It is customary to refer to the main factors of economic development: environmental factors (natural-climatic, geographical); social factors (demographic, cultural, historical); political factors; factors of scientific and technological development (STP); intra-system factors (structure and features of the functioning of a particular industry, company, its ideology, principles of building business contacts, personnel policy, financial results), etc.
Some of the influencing factors can be classified as stationary, i.e. exercising its effect continuously or discretely, but with constant other characteristics (for example, the frequency and strength of the impact, etc.). Non-stationary factors have a stochastic effect, as a rule, they are the causes of fluctuations in the behavior of the system.
The identification of stationary and non-stationary factors is one of the main and priority steps in predicting the dynamics of the development of economic processes and systems.
Of great interest is the consideration of factors from the point of view of the direction of their influence. In this regard, stabilizing and destabilizing factors can be distinguished. The action of both is built on the principles of feedback.
Feedback loops can be positive or negative. The difference between them lies in the fact that the information passed through the section of the system, processed by it, which made some changes and
returned as input leads to different results. In the case called positive feedback, the system, having processed the information and assessed the changes as positive, begins to strengthen them; hitting the input of the circuit, they again cause the same changes, which, thus, increase and increase, causing a reaction similar to a snowball.
An example from the economic sphere can be a situation when a company finds a mode of long-term optimal functioning and produces a highly effective result, which is appreciated by the market; this leads to an influx of additional resources, stimulates the development of the company, leading it to new and new economic heights.
The essence of negative feedback is the denial and redemption of the changes that have occurred. The processed information submitted to the input does not aggravate, but neutralizes them, forcing the system to remain in a stable state. So, the demand for a particular product forces its production to be forced, as soon as the market becomes saturated, demand naturally falls, this leads to a decrease in production, providing the system with an equilibrium state.
Each element of the socio-economic system is associated with other elements of various types of feedback. Often, they are so strong that it is not always possible to break the existing connection. The problem is pathological feedbacks, which, having arisen due to certain reasons, replace normal ones and bring significant damage to the activities of economic entities.
Economic processes are a composite of complex factors with a huge number of diverse relationships between them. At the same time, development management cannot be based only on the usual planning and administrative methods. The central problem of managing economic systems is often considered, in one form or another, to optimize the use of resources and increase welfare. From the standpoint of systemic views, these attitudes can rather be attributed to goals, and to the concept central problem include the actual choice of ways and methods to achieve them, the search for control keys.
For effective management of development factors, one should take into account the results of scientific research, the subject of which are objects of this kind. For example, it is known that any system has a fundamental property to tend from a less stable state to a more stable one. The points of attraction of stable states are called attractors (English attract - to attract). Exist different kinds attractors corresponding to different behavior of systems, as well as their combinations. However, very important point in this aspect there will be a question of reaching these points. The rest point will symbolize the attenuation of dynamic processes. As N. Moiseev rightly notes, sustainability, brought to its limit, stops any development. Too stable forms are dead-end forms, the evolution of which stops. For development, obstacles are vital that push the system away from this dead point, preventing it from coming to a state of rest, which in essence represents the end of its existence.
Currently allocated new class systems called dissipative. The dissipative system is designed in such a way that in some environment characterized by a high degree of entropy (entropy is a quantity that expresses a measure of disorder, disorganization, lack of information), a certain zone arises in which it rapidly falls and a certain degree of order arises. Simultaneously, there is a process of entropy growth in the surrounding space. That is, the concentration of ordering pro-
comes from the absorption of it from the environment. Note that necessary conditions dissipative structure is its openness and exchange with the external environment, providing the processes described above.
The dynamics of systems is a consistent change in time of the conceptual properties of the system, as well as the characteristics of the processes occurring within it or generated by it.
The dynamics of the system is characterized by changes in such parameters as: type of system; type of system structure; intrastructural communications; types and number of intrastructural elements; types and number of intrasystem processes; types and number of generated processes; the number and nature of external links of the system; hierarchical status of the system in the external environment; target settings for the functioning of the system, etc.
The general directions of dynamics can be decomposed into two heteropolar groups: the dynamics of destruction and the dynamics of creation. Stationary states of a system are a relative phenomenon; however, in the time interval in which they are found, they can also be considered one of the system states.
In a global sense, the process of restructuring the system is continuous and can be characterized by the simultaneous implementation of destructive and creative processes. Thus, instability at some levels ensures the stable functioning of the system at other levels.
Note that an adequately organized system tends to get by with a minimum of resources necessary to implement adaptation tasks. In general, the accumulation of resources that can potentially transfer the system to a status higher than the existing one is one of the fundamental goals along with the main functional goal. Such an additional hidden goal is not present in all systems, but only in those who, due to their type and level of development, have reached a certain status of self-organization and have moved from the category of non-self-determining systems to the category of self-determining ones.
In the economic sense, the concept of non-self-determining systems can be illustrated by subsidiaries created solely for the purpose of providing the best conditions for the application of the economic schemes of parent enterprises; or formally independent enterprises created for the same purposes by the owners of the parent company. However, since from the point of view of self-organization they act as secondary internal elements, they do not require in-depth consideration from this perspective.
As for those systems that are characterized by the status of self-determining, i.e. having and pursuing goals own development, in a sense, the process of existentialization becomes relevant. Such an approach to evaluating the activity of economic systems is possible, of course, only from the standpoint of studying the properties of its self-organization.
According to the theory of self-organization of systems, the main characteristics of the system will be the following: 1) openness, i.e. constant interaction with the environment; 2) non-linearity, i.e. disproportionate change in various properties of the system to the determinants that cause these changes; 3) non-equilibrium, i.e. the fact of a significantly smaller amount of entropy in a given system relative to the environment.
Entropy as a measure of disorder characterizes the degree of organization of the system, the lower the entropy, the higher the rank of organization the given system demonstrates. The antonym of entropy is non-gentropy - a term that characterizes the degree of ordering of structural elements and their connections.
Self-organization of systems occurs due to an increase in order within the system, which is invariably accompanied by entropy dissipation, i.e. dissipation of disorder, which the system removes from itself. The dissipation of entropy in the process of increasing the level of organization of the system is a fundamental law that has scientific confirmation and is realized in all open systems. The increment or maintenance of the required level of negentropy is ensured by the absorption of ordering energy and information from the environment and the dissipation of disorganizing energy, which ultimately ensures an increase in the internal organization of the system and, consequently, its survival.
Thus, any self-organizing system creates around itself energy-information flows (in the context of economic relations, resource and information flows). The entropy of the flow at the entrance to the system is always less than at the exit from it, since the system absorbs orderliness, information, resources from the flow for the purpose of organizing its own structures and their connections. However, since each system is a part of a higher-order system, the super-system imposes restrictions on the production of entropy by its local elements in order to maintain a general dynamic equilibrium at this level.
To develop this idea, we add that the existence and development of a system is a kind of a matter of integral implementation of two tasks: adaptation (due to restructuring and reordering of structures and their connections) and accumulation or maintenance of a certain level of negentropy (orderliness, organization) within the system due to dissipation entropy into the environment external to the system.
Economic systems demonstrate the same principles of existence. The pursuit of economic interests by some subjects often occurs at the expense of the redistribution of economic resources and the exploitation of other subjects. This is the process of absorption of negentropy from the outside. Global economic systems, building up internal order and developing, dissipate the displaced entropy, destroying their environment. The development of high technologies endangers the very existence of technogenic society.
The classical theory of management of economic processes is based on the linear determinism of economic processes, modern scientific ideas speak in favor of the non-linearity of their nature and the properties corresponding to this fact.
The main properties of nonlinear systems include the dual property of striving for a stable state and simultaneously avoiding it as the main cause of the destruction of a system frozen in a static state and unable to adapt to changes in its environment.
A class of dissipative systems is singled out, which reveal the ability to concentrate orderliness in themselves due to the effect of dissipation of their own disorganization into the external environment. The measure of such states will be entropy (a measure of chaos, destabilization and disorder) and negentropy (a term opposite in meaning, meaning the degree of organization in the system). Closed systems cannot be dissipative, since the dissipation of entropy and the absorption of negentropy are possible only with active exchange with the external environment. Economic systems are dissipative in their properties and characteristic behavior.
The more internal and external connections a system has, the greater the degree of influence it receives. By increasing the number of connections, the system provides itself with a more stable position and dictation. Complex mega-systems have a huge number of connections and, as a rule, are distinguished by a large
dynamic balance and stability; while their subsystems are subject to forced reformations and are less stable in themselves.
Each element of the system is interconnected with the others. Thus, each element of the system can be in different states, depending on the actualization of a particular connection. It is also necessary to take into account that if an element of the system does not have one or another relationship with another element at the present time, this does not mean that it cannot potentially arise or that it did not exist before.
Studies of self-organizing systems make it possible to formulate a number of principles underlying the functioning of dynamically stable systems:
1. Compliance of the system with the goals of the system of which it is a part. Elements that do not meet the requirements of the general system are subject to forced restructuring or liquidation. Thus, our system will experience a growing superior pressure from the outside, which will entail a violation of its internal connections and structures and connections with other systems.
2. Proper organization of positive and negative feedback within the system in order to enhance its strategic capabilities. Recall that if the result of a change signals an increase in that change, this is positive feedback; if to neutralize the change - negative. Positive feedback contributes to the accumulation of changes; the negative one prevents changes from fixing and ensures the maintenance of a stable state. If the system becomes fixated on a state that is inadequate to the changed conditions, it will be destroyed. If the system deviates from the found stable state, it will also critically complicate its existence. Positive feedback will also provide an increase in resources.
3. The presence of a flow that will ensure the influx of resources and information and the outflow of destabilizing factors that destroy the internal order of the system. An equally important condition in this case will be the ability of the system to apply this flow.
4. Clear and adequate goals for the existence of the system and activities corresponding to the resource status. With the accumulation of real resources, the status of the system changes automatically. Fixing the very fact of the absence of status changes indicates that the system is at a point of imbalance, when its goals have changed, but there is still no opportunity.
5. A critical condition does not necessarily lead to a worsening situation. It is only signaling information about the need for the next stage of restructuring the internal elements of the system and their connections, or external interactions of the system. However, the wrong choice of the system threatens it with serious trials, lasting until it finds a new stable state, possibly at a different level and in a different status (both higher and lower).
6. The search for a stable state is a continuous, multidimensional and ambiguous process. Each decision has both a positive and a negative outcome. Its realization is a positive fact for some elements or processes of the system and at the same time negative for other elements or processes of the same system.
7. Each system can simultaneously be part of different supersystems, the goals of which may be inconsistent. In this case, the only possible variant- determination of even more global goals of the system of the next level, which objectively includes all the previous ones.
8. One of the principles of self-organization of systems is the principle of minimum dissipation, which means that the system seeks to implement the development option that will lead to a smaller increase in entropy within it. This is ensured by the formation of local zones with increased negentropy, which allow the system to maintain dynamic equilibrium.
In order to identify the key management parameters that make it possible to effectively use the resources at the disposal of the system and contribute to the attraction of new ones, it makes sense to consider several general properties related to system relationships. A priori, all parts of the system are somehow interconnected. Their influence on the system depends on how the existing connections are organized. The more connections, both internal and external, the system has, the greater the degree of influence it has. By increasing the number of connections, the system provides itself with a more stable position and dictation. Complex mega-systems have a huge number of connections and, as a rule, are characterized by great dynamic balance and stability; while their subsystems are subject to forced reformations and are less stable in themselves.
From a practical point of view, it is advisable to identify ways and methods that allow the system to adequately adapt to the environment and develop, reorganizing the interests of the surrounding objects under its own. To this end, as mentioned above, it is necessary to significantly increase the number of external and internal communications, in other words, provide the elements of the system with free access to the necessary information, equipment, modern technologies, adequately build a hierarchy of service interaction, maximize public relations, etc. . and also to focus the solution of managerial tasks on finding the most optimal levers of influence on other systems and processes, so as to get the best result with the least effort.
The correct definition of the key links of another system will allow you to find a point of application of the lever, which can lead to significant results without significant effort.
To identify such key points, it is often necessary to take a non-standard look at the existing situation. Such a tactical approach is consistent with the famous saying in scientific circles of one of the most significant writers and philosophers of the 20th century. M. Proust: “ true path discoveries - not the search for new lands, but a look with new eyes.
In order to address issues of reconnaissance of information and energy resources in favor of a system striving for self-development, it needs to determine answers to conceptual systemic questions, such as what hinders change. After defining this key parameter, it is necessary to define its relationships; and further weaken them or reduce them completely.
It is often much more expedient to cut off the source that prevents the redirection of flows than to build complex and cumbersome add-ons to bypass or neutralize it. Practice shows that this approach very often brings quite effective results.
However, with a targeted impact on the system, there is a very a large number of so-called side effects. This is due to the fact that all elements of the system are interconnected; and by influencing or changing one part of it, it is impossible not to directly or indirectly affect other parts of it. Those, in turn, transfer information about the changes received further. Thus, an effect arises that could be
call "system response". The reaction underlying it, in fact, is a process of adaptation of the target system to external influences. How adequate it will be depends on the correct organization of the feedback system that takes place in the system being changed.
If such a change is unfavorable for her, and she has enough connections and resources and a properly organized system of negative feedback, she is likely to quickly restore the disturbed balance. Therefore, if it is known that there is a deliberately organized influence on another system in order to reorganize it in favor of the active system, it is necessary to simultaneously take care of including positive feedback in the target system, which will regard the changes made as positive and will not oppose them.
However, such intervention must be simultaneously beneficial for the supersystem. Otherwise, in addition to the reaction of the target system, there will be a counter-reaction from other systems controlled by the supersystem for its own purposes. That is, it should be borne in mind that, having a direct impact on any system, it is quite difficult to take into account all the nuances of the reactive behavior of the environment and make precise changes. An important, and even decisive, moment here will be the fact that the chain reaction of the changes being carried out is not sequentially linear in nature, but has contour, cyclic, loop configurations, when the initiator of the change is subjected to echo effects from the target, from the systems changed by the target, from the changed target , which also received echo effects. How much this process will be stretched or compressed in time is difficult to predict in advance.
Also keep in mind that the system may take some time to respond. The absence of reactive behavior does not mean that it will not appear in the near future. Often this fact is overlooked when making managerial decisions. In addition, the reaction of the system may be latent, i.e. not be detected by observers from certain positions, levels or at certain times.
Such a complexly organized relationship illustrates how relative are the methods of financial analysis widely used in classical economics. The system is scanned truncated, at the same time, without taking into account the dynamic links in which it is included.
Long-term studies of systems show that the behavior of a system depends not so much on the parts themselves, but on how they are interconnected. A highly organized system is able to replace one part with another without significant consequences for the overall balance. The system is able to form new subsystems and level the old ones. The more components within the system, the lesser the role played by each of its elements separately. Here it is a logical conclusion that if an individual element seeks influence, one of the other ways to achieve it will be to reduce the number of competitors.
The aspect of emergence should be considered separately, i.e. irreducibility of a simple sum of the properties of individual elements to the properties of the system as a whole. The subsystem to a certain extent duplicates its supersystem, but only in part. A single element cannot completely replace the entire supersystem of which it is a part. At least until he restores the maximum approximation of its structure and connections within itself. Thus, emergence can be viewed as a unique restraining mechanism that does not allow random fluctuations in the redistribution of resources to be realized spontaneously.
System analysis, as a rule, is a detailed study of its structural elements and their relationships. However, no thorough analysis of the parts will give a complete picture if the results obtained are subjected to summation. Additivity is an extremely rare property for nonlinear dynamical systems. And, nevertheless, legislative, normative and other acts regulating the economy of the state, regions and individual subjects of economic relations are based only on linear methods and inferences.
Synthesis, a phenomenon opposite to analysis, involves the reduction of the studied parameters into a whole. In complex non-linear systems, it is possible only in a multiplicative version; additive models, as a rule, do not work here. Analysis, as a process of dividing the whole into parts, in this respect should be an intermediate link in the study. In order to study the system, it is necessary to observe it in dynamics.
To study the structural elements of the system, it is necessary to emphasize the following nuance. Each element of the system is interconnected with the others. The number of these connections varies from one to practically infinity, depending on the level of complexity of the system. Thus, each element of the system can be in different states, depending on the actualization of a particular connection. The difference in states can be quite striking, which also needs to be taken into account, especially when looking for the point of application of the influencing lever of influence. Potential connections also need to be considered. If an element of the system does not have this or that relationship with another element at the present time, this does not mean that it cannot arise or that it did not exist before.
Literature
1. Bransky V.P. Theoretical Foundations of Social Synergetics / V.P. Bransky // Questions of Philosophy. 2000. No. 4. P.112-129
2. Moiseev N.N. Development algorithms / N.N. Moiseev. M.: Nauka, 1987. 271 p.
BELOVA NADEZHDA PETROVNA - PhD in Economics, Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Management and Cooperation, Cheboksary Cooperative Institute of RUK, Russia, Cheboksary ( [email protected])
BELOVA NADEZHDA PETROVNA - candidate of Economic Sciences, assistant professor of department for the economy, control and cooperation, Cheboksary Cooperative Institute, Russia, Cheboksary.
KALININA GALINA VIKTOROVNA - PhD in Economics, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, Professor of the Department of Economics, Management and Cooperation, Cheboksary Cooperative Institute of RUK, Russia, Cheboksary ( [email protected])
KALININA GALINA VIKTOROVNA - candidate of Economic Sciences, doctor of Philosophical Sciences, professor of the department for the economy, control and cooperation, Cheboksary Cooperative Institute, Russia, Cheboksary.
KALININ ANDREY MIKHAILOVICH - 5th year student, Faculty of Accounting and Applied Informatics, Cheboksary Cooperative Institute of RUK, Russia, Cheboksary ( [email protected]) KALININ ANDREY MIKHAYLOVICH - student, bookkeeping and applied information theory department, Cheboksary Cooperative Institute, Russia, Cheboksary.
34. Modern theories of organization. Scientific approaches and types of management of economic systems (traditional or problem-oriented, process, system, situational, synergetic). The concept of a control system
Organizations have gone through several stages in their development. The evolution of these concepts over the past century can be traced by four types of models that reflect both the development of the theory of organizations and the practice of using its main provisions: an organization model based on the theoretical provisions of the scientific management school; organization model based on the provisions of the theories of human relations and behavioral sciences; organization model based on the principles of systems theory; a model of an organization based on the idea of the role of an organization as a public institution.
Basic Models of Organizations The first model known as "mechanistic, or model of rational bureaucracy",
reflects the idea of organization that was formed at the end of the last century and became widespread in the first half of the 20th century. Its theoretical basis is the provisions of the school of scientific management. The founder of this trend, F. Taylor, considered the effectiveness of joint work in an organization from the standpoint of time and movement. Breaking down work into autonomous, fully programmable elements and then optimally assembling them into a coherent whole are prerequisites that, in accordance with this theory, form a high-performance organization. Another representative of this theoretical direction. - German sociologist M. Weber - put forward and substantiated the position according to which the most effective form of human organization is a rational bureaucracy. An enterprise is a mechanism that is a combination of the main production factors: means of production, labor, raw materials and materials. Therefore, great importance is attached to the analysis of technical and economic relations and the dependence of various factors of production. Many provisions of the school of scientific management of the organization have not lost their significance at the present time, especially for large enterprises in which huge and diverse resources are concentrated. At the same time, the mechanistic model as a whole is critically evaluated. modern science and practice because of its focus on large organizations; choosing cost reduction rather than income growth as a tool to conquer the market; the use of analytical methods, the results of which are often difficult and even impossible to apply in practice; striving to maintain stability (conservatism); general control and supervision over the quality and fulfillment of planned targets; perceptions of senior leaders as people who are “wiser than the market”, etc. All this puts certain limits on the use of the mechanistic model of organization.
The second model is based on the definition of an organization as a group of people who perform common work using the principles of division and cooperation of labor.
H 
The beginning of its development dates back to the 30s and is associated with the names of such famous scientists as E. Mayo, D. McGregor, C. Varnard and F. Selznick, who created the foundations of the theory of human relations and behavioral sciences. In our country, the ideas of scientific management of labor collectives working at socialist enterprises were developed A.K. Gastev, O.A. Ermansky, N.A. Witke and many other scientists and practitioners who worked in various organizations and institutions of the scientific organization of labor in the 20-30s. The organization model is built on the basis of the main position of the theory that the most important factor of productivity in the enterprise is a person as a social figure. Therefore, the elements of the model are such components as attention to employees, their motivation, communications, loyalty, participation in decision-making. In other words, the system of maintaining human relations within the organization is modeled. Wherein Special attention focuses on the style of management and its impact on performance indicators and employee satisfaction with their work. Preference is given to the democratic style, which ensures the most complete disclosure of the abilities of employees due to their involvement not only in the execution process, but also in the process of developing management decisions.
The possibilities of the model, built on the basis of the theory of human relations and behavioral sciences, in the search for reserves of the organization's efficiency are limited by the fact that attention is focused on only one internal factor - the human resource and the subordination of all other factors of production to it.
In the third model, the organization is presented as a complex hierarchical system that closely interacts with the environment.. Its basis is general theory systems 
(the fundamental contribution abroad was made by A. Chandler, P. Lawrence, J. Lorsch; in our<стране
эти проблемы исследовались И.В. Блаубергом,
Э.Г. Юдиным, В.В. Дружининым, В.Н. Садовским,
В.Г. Афанасьевым и многими другими
учеными, разрабатывавшими их по самым
различным направлениям), главная идея
которой заключается в признании
взаимосвязей и взаимозависимостей
элементов, подсистем и всей системы в
целом с внешней средой. В соответствии
с этими теоретическими положениями
организации рассматриваются как
составные части рынка, предопределяющего
их структуру и системы управления.
Ключевые факторы успеха их деятельности
находятся в двух сферах: во внешней (из
которой они получают все виды ресурсов,
включая информацию, т.е. знание) и во
внутренней (сильные и слабые стороны
которой создают те или иные предпосылки
для преобразования ресурсов в
продукцию и услуги).
When evaluating this model, it must be taken into account that, despite the great importance of the external environment, it only determines the “rules of the game”. The internal environment of any organization, which is formed under the influence of management decisions continuously taken by management, really determines the level of system efficiency.
The fourth model represents the organization as a public entity, in the activities of which various groups are interested, both inside and outside its borders.
AT 
the relationship of interests is predetermined by the fact that the organization for the collective, based on the division of labor, production of goods and services, uses the resources provided by suppliers, whose interests, in turn, are satisfied by the products of this organization. Thus, the goals of organizations are interpreted not only in terms of the production and marketing of any products and making a profit, but also from the standpoint of satisfying the various needs of groups associated with them: consumers, suppliers, competitors, investors, and society as a whole. This model is based on ( it has been formed since the 80s) is the concept of interest groups, according to which organizations must take into account the different interests of partners, the range of which can be quite wide.
Process approach Management is seen as process, because working to achieve goals with the help of others is not some one-time action, but series continuous interconnected actions. These activities, each of which is a process in itself, are very important for the success of an organization. The management process consists of four interrelated functions: Planning. Organization. Motivation. Control– control functions have two common characteristics: they all require decision making, and everyone needs communication, they are often called bridging processes. Systems approach A systematic approach is not a set of some guidelines or principles for managers - it is a way of thinking in relation to organization and management. System- this is some integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. All organizations are systems. There are two main types of systems: closed and open. closed system has rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are relatively independent of the environment surrounding the system. open system characterized by interaction with the external environment. Such a system is not self-sustaining, it depends on energy, information and materials coming from outside. In addition, an open system has the ability to adapt to changes in the external environment. Model of the organization as an open system: Inputs : the organization receives from env. environment infu, capital, pers. resources and materials. exits : converted products or services. situational approach The situational approach attempts to link specific techniques and concepts to certain specific situations in order to achieve the organization's goals most effectively. The situational approach focuses on situational differences between and within organizations. He tries to determine what are the significant situation variables and how they affect the performance of the organization. 1) The essence of new approaches reflects the concept of mt without hierarchy, cat. sets goals: -refusal to legitimize the right of unilateral disposal of resources and information (anyone can receive information); -depersonalization of power and the abolition of the dual principle of "sanction" and "reward"; -establishment of autonomous groups with high potential for self-regulation; -the assertion of humane values and forms of behavior instead of a one-sided orientation towards the economy. result; - Accounting economy. requirements for the adoption of solutions.
2) Just-in Time Producton (Just-in-time) is a phil-fia of the m-ta, aimed at eliminating losses in the production and in related areas of activity. Production is subject only to the quantity, the cat. required by the given deadline.
3) Total Quality Control (general quality control) - the concept of guaranteed quality, presumed. coverage of workers of all industries. links to fully meet the needs of the consumer
4) Total Productive Maintenance (general increase in the effect of production). The concept focuses on a comprehensive increase in efficiency production. system by involving all employees of the organization in this process.
5) benchmarking - aimed at monitoring the latest achievements of the main competitors in all functions. spheres, trends in the development of engineering and technology and the use of this information in determining the development strategy of the organization.
6) reengineering is the redesign of business processes from scratch with the aim of their qualities. improvement, elimination of stratification of organizations. har-ra, accounting for modern. possible in engineering and technology
One of the search directions is the derivation of the general principles of the behavior of complex systems using synergistic methodology, which includes the principles of non-linearity, bifurcation and self-organization, non-isolation of economic systems, non-equilibrium of economic processes, non-uniqueness of economic evolutions (management decisions). This movement in general management has been called evolutionary management. As one of the clearest examples of synergy, emphasizing the universality of the principles of evolution, one can cite the fact of the emergence of additional value that appears as a result of the merger (merger) of two or more firms. There is a cooperative economic effect. Synergies are not always obvious, and this makes mergers more of a challenge than conventional investment and/or innovation.
A system is a whole created from parts and elements interacting with each other for purposeful activity. Among its main features, one should name: the multiplicity of elements, the integrity and unity between them, the presence of a certain structure, etc. as part of the organization's management system, the following subsystems are distinguished: - management structure (corresponding to the goals and objectives of organizations); - management technique. (functional and organizational structure, scheme of organizational relations, staff professionalism;
Computer and office equipment, furniture, information transmission channels (communication networks), document management system) - management functions. - goal management methodology (laws, principles, methods and functions, management technologies and management practices).
