Often they talk about the abilities of a particular person, implying his tendency to a certain type of activity. At the same time, few people think that this concept is scientific and implies the level of development of this quality, as well as the possibility of its improvement. Not everyone knows what levels of development of abilities exist, how to work on improving them and how to make the most of them. Meanwhile, it is not enough to have any ability, this quality must be constantly developed if you want to really succeed in a certain area.

level of development of abilities

According to the scientific definition, ability is an individual and psychological feature of a particular person, which determines his ability to carry out a specific activity. The innate prerequisites for the emergence of certain abilities are inclinations that, unlike the former, are laid down in a person from birth. It should be borne in mind that abilities are a dynamic concept, which means their constant formation, development and manifestation in various fields of activity. The levels of development of abilities depend on many factors that should be considered for continuous self-improvement.

According to Rubinstein, their development occurs in a spiral, which means the need to realize the opportunities provided by one level of abilities in order for a further transition to a higher one to occur.

Ability types

The level of development of personality abilities is divided into two types:

Reproductive, when a person demonstrates the ability to successfully master various skills, assimilate and apply knowledge, and also implement activities according to an already proposed model or idea;

Creative, when a person has the ability to create something new, original.

In the course of the successful acquisition of knowledge and skills, a person moves from one level of development to another.

In addition, abilities are also divided into general and special, according to Teplov's theory. The general ones are those that are demonstrated in any area of ​​activity, while the special ones appear in a specific area.

Ability development levels

The following levels of development of this quality are distinguished:

Ability;

Giftedness;

Genius.

In order for a person's giftedness to form, it is necessary that there is an organic combination of general and special abilities, and their dynamic development is also necessary.

Giftedness - the second level of development of the ability

Giftedness implies a set of various abilities that are developed at a sufficiently high level and provide a person with the opportunity to successfully master any type of activity. In this case, the possibility of mastering is meant specifically, since, among other things, a person is required to directly master the necessary skills and abilities for the successful implementation of an idea.

Giftedness is of the following types:

Artistic, implying great achievements in artistic activity;

General - intellectual or academic, when the levels of development of a person's ability are manifested in good results in learning, mastering various knowledge in various scientific fields;

Creative, involving the ability to generate new ideas and demonstrate a penchant for invention;

Social, providing high identification of leadership qualities, as well as the ability to build constructive relationships with people and the possession of organizational skills;

Practical, manifested in the ability of a person to apply his own intellect to achieve his goals, knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses of a person and the ability to use this knowledge.

In addition, there are types of giftedness in various narrow fields, for example, mathematical giftedness, literary, etc.

Talent - a high level of development of creative abilities

If a person with pronounced abilities for a certain field of activity constantly improves them, they say that he has a talent for it. It should be borne in mind that this quality is also not innate, despite the fact that many are accustomed to think so. When we talk about the levels of development of creative abilities, talent is a fairly high indicator of a person's ability to engage in a certain field of activity. However, do not forget that this is nothing more than pronounced abilities that must be constantly developed, striving for self-improvement. No natural inclinations will lead to the recognition of talent without hard work on yourself. In this case, talent is formed from a certain combination of abilities.

Not a single, even the highest level of development of the ability to do something can be called talent, since in order to achieve a result, it is necessary to have such factors as a flexible mind, a strong will, great ability to work and a rich imagination.

Genius is the highest level of ability development

A person is called a genius if his activity has left a tangible mark on the development of society. Genius is the highest level of development of abilities that only a few have. This quality is inextricably linked with the outstanding personality. A distinctive quality of genius, in contrast to other levels of development of abilities, is that it usually shows its own "profile". Any side in a genius personality inevitably dominates, which leads to a vivid manifestation of certain abilities.

Ability diagnostics

Revealing abilities is still one of the most difficult tasks of psychology. At various times, many scientists have put forward their own research methods for this quality. However, at present there is no methodology that allows to identify with absolute accuracy the ability of a person, as well as to determine its level.

The main problem was that abilities were measured quantitatively, the level of development of general abilities was deduced. However, in fact, they are a qualitative indicator that must be considered in dynamics. Various psychologists have put forward their own methods for measuring this quality. For example, L. S. Vygotsky proposed to evaluate through the zone of proximal development. This involved a double diagnosis, when the child solved the problem first together with an adult, and then independently.

Other techniques for diagnosing the level of development of abilities

Human abilities can manifest themselves at any age. However, the sooner they are identified, the greater the likelihood of their successful development. That is why now in educational institutions, from a very young age, work is required, during which the levels of development of abilities in children are identified. Based on the results of work with schoolchildren, classes are conducted to develop the identified aptitudes to a particular area. Such work cannot be limited only to the school, parents should also take an active part in work in this direction.

The techniques most commonly used to diagnose abilities, both general and specific:

- "Everye's Problem", designed to assess the purposefulness of thinking, that is, the extent to which a person can concentrate on the task at hand.

- "Study of memory using the technique of memorizing ten words", aimed at identifying memory processes.

- "Verbal fantasy" - determination of the level of development of creative abilities, primarily imagination.

- “Remember and place the points” - diagnostics of the amount of attention.

- "Compasses" - study of features

- "Anagrams" - the definition of combinatorial abilities.

- "Analytical mathematical ability" - the identification of similar inclinations.

- "Abilities" - the identification of the success of the performance of activities in a particular area.

- "Your creative age", aimed at diagnosing the compliance of the passport age with the psychological one.

- "Your creativity" - diagnostics of creative possibilities.

The number of techniques and their exact list are determined based on the goals of the diagnostic examination. In this case, the end result of the work is not the identification of a person's ability. The levels of development of abilities must constantly increase, which is why, after diagnosis, work must necessarily be carried out to improve certain qualities.

Conditions for increasing the level of development of abilities

One of the most important criteria for improving this quality is the conditions. The levels of development of abilities should be constantly in dynamics, moving from one stage to another. It is important for parents to provide their child with the conditions for the realization of his revealed inclinations. However, success almost entirely depends on a person's performance and focus on results.

The fact that a child initially has certain inclinations does not at all guarantee that they will be transformed into abilities. As an example, we can consider a situation where a good prerequisite for the further development of musical abilities is the presence of a person with a fine ear. But the specific structure of the auditory and central nervous apparatus is only a prerequisite for the possible development of these abilities. A certain structure of the brain does not affect either the choice of the future profession of its owner, or the opportunities that will be given to him for the development of his inclinations. In addition, due to the development of the auditory analyzer, it is possible that abstract-logical abilities, in addition to musical ones, will be formed. This is due to the fact that the logic and speech of a person are in close connection with the work of the auditory analyzer.

Thus, if you have identified your levels of development of abilities, diagnosis, development and possible success will depend only on you. In addition to the appropriate external conditions, you should be aware that only daily work will turn natural inclinations into skills that in the future can develop into real talent. And if your abilities manifest themselves unusually brightly, then perhaps the result of self-improvement will be the recognition of your genius.

The designer should have certain knowledge, skills and design skills, which should be aimed at creating a certain structure. Ultimately, the created structure must meet all the requirements that were imposed on it at the beginning of the design. In addition, the designer must have qualities that facilitate the creative process.

Knowledge is a system of concepts assimilated by a person. The amount and quality of knowledge required by a designer are determined by his qualifications and are divided into two groups.

The first group includes general knowledge that is necessary for the design of any machine. This includes the entire range of polytechnic knowledge underlying the qualifications of an engineer: for example, strength of materials, theoretical mechanics, machine parts, metallurgy, etc.

The second group includes special knowledge related to the specific operating conditions of the designed machine. This includes knowledge of the technological, design and operational features of the industry to which the new product belongs.

When designing machines and equipment for the food industry, for example, it is required to know the techniques and devices for ensuring hygienic requirements for manufactured products; in the design of aircraft - the methods of ensuring the minimum weight and maximum reliability, etc. In addition, it is required to know the basic typical designs of the industry that characterize the current level of technology and directions of future development. This group of knowledge also includes knowledge of the specific production possibilities that manufacture a new product.

If the general knowledge of a design engineer is universal and can be applied in any industry, then special knowledge is lost when moving to work in another industry and other design organizations. In this case, a retraining of the designer is required, corresponding to the new working conditions.

Skills and design skills are based on knowledge and are formed in the process of practical activity. Knowledge and understanding of their business, the correct methodology for its implementation allow the designer to acquire those personality traits that lead to skill and success. Skill is the ability, in the process of purposeful activity, to carry out its constituent private actions automatically, without specially directed attention to them. Skill is the ability of a person to perform his work productively, with the proper quality and at the appropriate time.

After designing certain parts of machines, mechanisms and products, when they are repeated, the designer usually copes with his tasks much faster and with less mental stress. In this way, knowledge, skills and ability contribute to the design process. However, in addition to these qualities, the designer must have certain professional abilities, which are revealed in the design process and contribute to the successful creation of new machines. Professional abilities are a set of rather persistent, although, of course, changing under the influence of education of individual psychological qualities of a person's personality. For a designer, the following professional skills are most important.

Technical thinking- the ability to use the entire range of polytechnic knowledge to understand the essence of technical systems and quickly orientate in all technical issues. Developed technical thinking allows you to quickly understand the principle of operation of previously unknown machines and its individual units and mechanisms, to navigate in the general scheme and in the interaction of parts of the structure. Technical thinking allows us to perceive any machine as a synthesis of functional units, determine its purpose and find the causes of malfunctions.

Spatial imagination is critical in the work of a designer. The ability of spatial imagination allows you to compose and read drawings. The simplest use of spatial imagination is the compilation of orthogonal projections of a real spatial product. The designer solves a similar problem when drawing up drawings of parts of operating machines for repair work and restoration of worn out and out-of-order parts. In the process of designing new products, the designer makes drawings of parts and assemblies that do not really exist, but are imagined by him. Imagination of a complex machine, mechanism and unit, which are located in space, requires constant training and some experience. The designer must imagine the coordinates of the location of these mechanisms and nodes and their kinematic and design connections. Errors in machine design are often made due to

with the lack of space for the extreme positions of mechanisms or the lack of the possibility of assembling parts and mechanisms inside cramped cases. These errors are caused by a lack of spatial imagination.

Spatial imagination is necessary for reading drawings, when from planar projections it is required to imagine a spatial body with all the features of its structure and shape. As with any ability, spatial imagination can be improved by a person through practical exercises. This is achieved by solving problems of descriptive geometry and studying drawings of various designs. As practice shows, not all people can develop spatial imagination to the degree necessary for a designer, therefore, testing for spatial imagination is a limiting test in determining the professional suitability of designers.

Creativity allows the designer to create new, original cars. Solving the problem, the designer can go in two ways: 1) apply the known standard solutions, generally accepted schemes; 2) solve the problem creatively, strive to fulfill all the elements of the structure in a new way, in a peculiar way. These directions determine the work of a designer, on the one hand, as a technical worker performing pre-developed technical schemes, and on the other, as a creative worker creating new designs at an inventive level.

The predominance of creative abilities among designers is often caused not only by the volume of acquired knowledge and accumulated experience, but also by the peculiarity of the personality. Such workers are especially valuable for the development of technical specifications and in the initial stages of design or in cases when the task requires an innovative, atypical solution. However, creative individuals take the least consideration of real conditions and constraints. While appreciating the theoretical and aesthetic aspects, they do not always take into account the economic and social ones. They work with enthusiasm at the stage of creating design principles, in solving fundamental issues of development. When these issues are largely resolved, their interest in them sharply decreases. If designers with a brightly creative personality have to solve problems of design work, 206 which are of a routine nature, they are performed carelessly, carelessly. As a result, the design may turn out to be of poor quality, inoperative, despite its originality and progressiveness of the concept.

Lack of bright creativity does not mean that a designer cannot develop products. With knowledge of the typical structural elements of machines, standards and design methods, he can develop new equipment of medium complexity and work under the supervision of a more capable specialist. The bulk of the constructor's work cannot be called creative. Development of working documentation is painstaking work, in which the designers-executors are most appreciated. In addition to the considered abilities, which make it possible to assess the business qualities and creative potential of the designer, there are a number of characteristics of the creative personality that affect the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the work performed.

Ingenuity is one of the types of creative abilities; it is the ability to create new technical solutions that are useful in each specific case. Inventiveness is facilitated by a sense of the new, directed work towards a fundamentally new solution to a problem. Ingenuity is especially highly effective when combined with the creative activity of the employee.

Willingness to accept new, unusual - the ability to analyze, select and use new in development, not to be afraid to abandon old, familiar technical solutions.

there is a formal and sometimes unfounded criticism from the leaders of the developer.

The speed of the thought process ensures the productivity of mental activity.

Flexibility of thinking characterizes the productive switching of the thought process to other problems and at the same time does not harm the previously solved issues.

Ability to direct attention to solve the main problems. Attention - the direction of mental activity in a certain direction associated with the work performed. The more interest is shown in the work being performed, the less effort is required to focus attention on it.

Ability to observe- the ability to pay attention to what is associated with the achievement of the goal. Identification of the main, essential in the object of research, assessment of its usefulness makes it possible to develop technical solutions based on them and apply these observations in new developments.

Developed professional memory, its large capacity, allows you to quickly solve design problems. In the economical use of memory, the organization of the memorization process is of great importance. To unload memory, it is advisable to use card files of solutions of interest, make data records, sketches of layouts, design solutions, schemes.

Ability to conduct engineering analysis means the ability to dismember a structure element by element into separate parts, the process into separate operations and movements for their detailed study. Engineering analysis allows you to evaluate options and compare them.

Maturity of judgment- the ability to think logically, make sound decisions. The maturity of judgment is characterized by the ability to see the perspective and correctly use the data obtained.

Ability to make decisions- skillfully use the results of engineering analysis and choose a design with optimal performance.

Having your own point of view- developing a habit in all the issues that you have to deal with, to create your own version or your own assessment of the issue, even when the situation does not require it. The developed point of view should be based on objective data.

	Characteristic	Significance of the trait,%
Business qualities
Professional competence	The gaping level. Obtaining general and special education. Correspondence of education to the profile of the work performed. The breadth of horizons and general erudition. Work experience in this specialty. The ability to think and act scientifically and creatively. Ability to express one's thoughts logically and clearly. Advanced training and knowledge
Responsibility for the work performed	The employee does not avoid responsibility, but strives to increase it. Responsibility is based on intuition of a real situation or technical calculation
Independence and initiative	The ability to perceive and process a variety of information. The employee independently makes decisions on various technical issues, does not need the support of authorities. Decisions are immediately made optimal for a given situation.
Ability to solve new questions and use new methods in work	The employee easily learns and masters new methods of work, new areas of engineering. The employee intelligently decides on the application of new methods in his work. Ability to work unconventionally, creatively. Ability to think and act scientifically and creatively. Participation in rationalization and inventive work
Operability	Ability to focus, productive work for the entire period of activity. Psychological balance. Perseverance
The ability to organize and plan your work	Internal composure, ability to focus on the main thing. The ability to rationally organize your developments. Knowledge of the stages of development. Ability to create a clear order in work
Ability to keep in touch with people	Psychological compatibility of the employee in the team. Being active in teamwork, the ability to collectively generate ideas. The employee is the initiator of the competition. Ability to maintain contact with people (employees). Personal charm, benevolence, willingness to help a friend

Table 7.1 Signs that determine the creative contribution of the designer

	Characteristic	Significance of the trait,%
Labor results
Quality of work performed	High technical level of design solutions, scientific achievements were used in the development. A high degree of standardization and unification, the development is promising, economically justified. The development is error-free and accurate. The developments comply with the tasks and requirements of the rules and standards
Compliance with the deadline for the task	The employee completes his tasks on time and tries to fulfill them ahead of schedule. After completing planned tasks, the employee willingly takes on additional work
Number of works performed	The number of completed planned and unscheduled tasks. The employee's creative activity, his rationalization and inventive activity, the achieved economic effect
The complexity of the functions performed
The degree of novelty and the element of creativity	The employee performs all tasks creatively. The working principle of development is carried out in a peculiar way, at the level of inventions. The developments are a world-class generalization, borrowed from technical information
Degree of responsibility	The number (mass) of manufactured products according to the developed documentation. Functional responsibility of the developed products
The degree of complexity of design developments	The degree of complexity of design documentation, depending on the complexity of the product being designed. Completeness of development of design documentation. The number of technical and economic calculations of the project
The degree of variety of jobs	Designing products of varying complexity and specialization. Performing various stages of design development

The ability to express yourself correctly and clearly both in writing and orally. This is due to the ability to make logical generalizations, with the ability to take the necessary notes and take part in discussions, as well as report on the results of their work.

Constructor initiative talks about the ability to force oneself to work and refuse easy ways in solving issues, if this entails a deterioration in quality. Initiative is evidenced by the fact that in order to create a better product design, the designer solves issues that are not provided for in the technical specifications.

Ready for hard work speaks about the ability of the designer to give all of himself to the solution of a specific issue. Willingness to work grows into a propensity for work, for enthusiasm. This readiness contributes to the solution of all issues to the end.

Broad outlook constructor means that he has fundamental knowledge not only in his specialization, but also in many issues related to this specialization. Typically, a wide range of interests provides a broad outlook.

Discipline characterizes the accuracy of the executive orders executed by the designer, his diligence and hard work. The criteria for determining the creative contribution of designers in the development are signs (Table 7.1).

Modern social philosophy distinguishes the following basic properties of society as a whole:

Amateur,

Self-organization,

Self-development,

Self-sufficiency.

It should be noted that if the first three of these properties are inherent not only in society as a whole, but to one degree or another in the spheres and groups that make up society, then the property of self-sufficiency is inherent only in society as a whole. Self-sufficiency is the ability of a system by its own activity to create and recreate all the necessary conditions for modern existence, to produce everything necessary for a collective life. Self-sufficiency is the main difference between society and its constituent parts. None of the types of activity can function independently, none of the individual social groups is able to survive "alone", to provide itself with everything necessary. This ability is possessed only by society as a whole. Only the totality of all types of activity, all combined and interconnected social groups and their institutions create society as a whole as a self-sufficient social system - the product of joint activities of people capable of creating the necessary conditions for existence by their own efforts.

It is important to understand that society, being a set of relatively stable, stable structures, is not, nevertheless, in a state of immobility, rest. About him, like about nature, we can say that it is constantly changing. The fact of constant change in nature and society has long been noticed by philosophers. The most complete and profound doctrine of development as a universal property of being was created, as you know, by Hegel. Comte and Marx in their philosophical systems paid great attention to the specifics of social development, its evolutionary and revolutionary forms. Modern philosophers are quite unanimous that aspects of structure and development are an integral part of the study of social objects. In other words, the consideration of society in statics, i.e. from the point of view of its organization, structure, it must necessarily be supplemented by an analysis of its dynamics, change and development.

When studying the problems of the development of society in modern philosophy, terms such as "process", "functioning", "change", "development", "progress", "regression", "factors of development", "evolution", "revolution" are widely used. etc. Let us consider briefly the content of these concepts.

A process is a single series of changes in social systems, i.e. in groups, institutions, other elements of the social system. Various types of processes are possible: inside the personality, for example, the process of self-education of a person; processes occurring in the relationship of two individuals; changes taking place within the community and between them; processes of change, covering the structure and organization of society as a whole. Another approach to the classification of types of social processes is also possible. So, it is possible to single out the processes that unite, bring together, equalize people, and, on the contrary, processes that separate, generate rivalry, and conflicts are possible.

The simplest process is the functioning of society, which is understood as the reversible changes occurring in it, associated with its daily life within the framework of the existing structures and relationships. By "change" is meant the initial stage of internal degeneration in society or its individual parts and their properties, which are quantitative in nature.

Development is a special case of changes that occurs when gradual quantitative changes lead to deep, irreversible qualitative shifts, which manifests itself in the enrichment and differentiation of elements of social structures and the relations between them. Progress is one of the varieties of the development process. It manifests itself in an increase in the adaptation and viability of the system in the changing conditions of its existence and is associated with the process of complication of the systemic organization. The opposite of progress is the concept of "regression" - the process of narrowing the system's capabilities for self-development and assimilation of environmental conditions, simplification and destruction of the system.

Consideration of society from the point of view of its change and development includes the following main problems:

The direction of the changes taking place in society;

Sources or factors of development;

The forms in which any development takes place.

When considering the first of the above problems, it should be borne in mind that not all philosophers recognize the existence of constant, directed, systematic changes in society. This direction of development from lower to higher forms is recognized by deterministic philosophers (Hegel, Marx). While indeterminists or voluntarists (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Popper), absolutizing the role of the blind, unconscious principles in the human psyche and linking all social development with them, deny its direction and regularity. Moreover, determinism recognizes not only the direction of historical development, but also its predominantly progressive nature, i.e. proceeds from the fact that new phases of social development are necessarily more perfect; in other words, development leads to the continuous improvement of society. There have been many discussions around the problem of progress. If a certain part of philosophers recognizes progress in the economic, political, scientific spheres of life, then the progressive development in the field of moral, in the field of morality is disputed by many due to the lack of clear criteria for moral improvement.

Nevertheless, regardless of the recognition of the direction, regularity or progressiveness of the changes taking place in society, the very fact of these changes, causing a constant enrichment of the social structure and relations between people, is recognized by most philosophers, for it is difficult to deny the enrichment of people's spiritual life, the development of science, technology, expansion opportunities to meet a variety of human needs.

The question of the sources, factors or causes of the changes taking place in society is also important. What are the reasons for the change in society?

One of them is associated with the continuous process of the functioning of society, the constant activity of people to meet their urgent needs. In the course of their daily activities, people improve their skills and abilities, and their types of activities become more diverse. The composition of society and social groups is constantly changing. People change with age, die, new generations are born and grow up. Already by virtue of these natural reasons, predominantly slow processes, there are quite profound changes in the structure and organization of society.

But in addition to the process of everyday functioning of social life, more serious, radical changes affecting the foundations of social life are also revealed. They take place under the influence of powerful reform and revolutionary movements.

In social philosophy, various opinions were expressed about the causes of qualitative changes in society. Some associated them with changes in the natural foundations of social life (C. Montesquieu, V. Vernadsky, L. Gumilev), others looked for reasons in changes in the economy, tools, methods of organizing production (K. Marx, W. Rostow), others linked the process of social development with changes in cultural life, the system of spiritual values ​​(G. Hegel, O. Comte, P. Sorokin).

Each of these factors has a definite impact on the development of social life, although their social role is unequal. Natural, economic and cultural factors are closely related to each other. Thus, an increase in the birth rate (a natural biological factor) gives an effect and contributes to the rapid development of society only under the condition of the simultaneous development of production, education, and medicine.

The role of technical inventions is very important. So, the invention and use of the steam engine in the 18th century. predetermined the industrial revolution, and then brought about a new type of industrial society with a developed industry, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The development of tools, the progress of technology and science, as historical experience convincingly shows, change all areas of social life, the structure of various communities of people - small and large - their culture and the way they meet their needs.

The role of culture, including its interethnic interaction, is also great. So, the active transfer to Japan in the XIX-XX centuries. advances in science from Western Europe and the United States contributed to the fact that in a relatively short historical period, despite the defeat in the Second World War, Japan has become one of the most highly developed countries in the world. History also knows many examples of the opposite nature, when the policy of isolationism pursued by the dominant forces, denying new ideas or new goods to the country, brought powerful states to a deep crisis, decay as a result of the obsolescence of institutions and social structures.

Since cultural creativity can pose a real threat to existing institutions, social structures and power, it is constantly monitored by society. The history of science and technology, literature and art knows many examples of resistance to new ideas and theories (Darwinism, genetics, cybernetics), technical inventions (the introduction of steam engines, computers), new cultural values.

But with all the importance of the social prerequisites of social development - economic and cultural - one cannot but take into account the fact that all people are living organisms that are part of the biosphere of planet Earth, bodies subject to gravitational forces, electromagnetic fields, cosmic rays, and thermodynamic influences. Natural causes must also be sought for natural phenomena. Therefore, it is legitimate to speak of social life as a phenomenon, the driving forces of which are also natural, biospheric factors, such as, for example, the rhythms of ethnogenesis studied by L. Gumilev, including the phases of rise, depression and decline.

The task of social philosophy is to study all natural and social factors that in one way or another initiate the development of social life. Cumulatively, these factors give rise to powerful reformist and revolutionary movements that stimulate and accelerate the process of profound social change.

Social movements are expressed in collective, joint actions of people, performed in a more or less organized manner to achieve certain goals that change the social position of the participants in the movements. The reason is social movements: the unmet needs of people - economic, cultural, political. It is they that cause a state of mental stress, social anxiety. This concern is manifested in the strengthening of contacts, discussions, reflections on the current situation! The state of anxiety can affect larger or smaller communities - up to entire classes and peoples. States of anxiety, tension are the starting point of social movements. The nature of social movements is determined by their goals, the methods used, and the number of people involved in them. On these grounds, the reformist and revolutionary movements are distinguished.

Reform movements usually cover some limited circles and communities. They operate within the framework of the established social order and therefore, as a rule, do not face repression and violence from the authorities. They seek to achieve change, for example, by means of improving legislation. These are the educational, professional, pacifist and partly national movements. Despite their peaceful, legal nature, reform movements can gradually lead to profound social change.

Revolutionary movements in the initial stages can be similar to reformist ones. But as they develop, they acquire differences: they embrace broad masses, entire social classes experiencing tension and anxiety; affect the fundamental vital needs of people, are caused by strong motives. Members of these movements are often harassed and repressed by the authorities. But their main difference is in goals and methods. Their goal is not a peaceful form, but the overthrow of the existing social order through the use of force. Hence the need for a large scale, mass character, and the presence of special organizations capable of becoming the beginnings of a new political power.

In case of victory, revolutionary movements introduce new orders into life, radically change the structure of society, make shifts in the class structure, change the composition of social institutions, change the system of values, customs, and patterns of behavior. The most profound changes in society are caused by revolutions, in which whole classes and peoples participate. Such are the revolutions of 1789 in France, 1917 in Russia, 1949 in China. Deep social changes also occurred as a result of the national liberation revolutions that took place in the 20th century, especially after World War II in a number of countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Revolutions are not only morally justified, but also necessary if they are directed against obsolete orders, tyrannical regimes, etc. But it seems wrong to think that the development of society is connected only with revolutions. It should be borne in mind that revolutions are always very expensive, they are accompanied by suffering and death of people.

Thus, socio-philosophical analysis includes the statics of society and its dynamics, consideration of its constituent groups, institutions, as well as taking into account the processes of change and development taking place in society.

Consequently, a person is a universal element of all social systems, since he is certainly included in each of them.

Like any system, society is an ordered integrity. This means that the components of the system are not in a chaotic disorder, but, on the contrary, occupy a certain position within the system and are connected in a certain way with other components. Hence. the system has an integral quality that is inherent in it as a whole. None of the system components. considered in isolation, it does not have this quality. It, this quality, is the result of integration and interconnection of all components of the system. Just as individual organs of a person (heart, stomach, liver, etc.) do not possess human properties. and the economy, the health care system, the state and other elements of society do not have the qualities that are inherent in society as a whole. And only thanks to the diverse connections that exist between the components of the social system, it turns into a single whole. that is, into society (as through the interaction of various human organisms, there is a single human body).

Various examples can be used to illustrate the connections between subsystems and elements of society. The study of the distant past of mankind has allowed scientists to conclude that. that the moral relations of people in primitive conditions were built on collectivist principles, i.e. That is, in modern terms, priority has always been given to the team, and not to the individual. It is also known that the moral norms that existed among many tribes in those archaic times allowed the killing of weak members of the clan - sick children, old people - and even cannibalism. Have these ideas and views of people about the limits of the morally permissible influenced the real material conditions of their existence? The answer is clear: undoubtedly, they did. The need to jointly obtain material wealth, the doom of a quick death of a person who has broken away from his family, and laid the foundations of collectivist morality. Guided by the same methods of struggle for existence and survival, people did not consider it immoral to free themselves from those who could become a burden for the collective.

Another example would be the relationship between legal norms and socio-economic relations. Let's turn to the well-known historical facts. One of the first codes of laws of Kievan Rus, called Russkaya Pravda, provides for various punishments for murder. At the same time, the measure of punishment was determined primarily by the place of a person in the system of hierarchical relations, his or her belonging to a particular social stratum or group. Thus, the penalty for killing a tiun (steward) was enormous: it amounted to 80 hryvnia and was equal to the cost of 80 oxen or 400 rams. The life of a stinker or a slave was estimated at 5 hryvnia, that is, 16 times cheaper.

Integral, that is, general, inherent in the entire system, the qualities of any system are not a simple sum of the qualities of its components, but represent a new quality that has arisen as a result of the relationship, the interaction of its components. In its most general form, this is the quality of society as a social system - the ability to create all the necessary conditions for its existence, to produce everything necessary for the collective life of people. In philosophy, self-sufficiency is seen as the main difference between society and its constituent parts. Just as human organisms cannot exist outside the integral organism, so none of the subsystems of society can exist outside the whole - society as a system.

Another feature of society as a system is that this system is self-governing.
The administrative function is performed by the political subsystem, which gives consistency to all the components that form social integrity.

Any system, whether technical (unit with an automatic control system), or biological (animal), or social (society), is in a certain environment with which it interacts. The environment of the social system of any country is both nature and the world community. Changes in the state of the natural environment, events in the world community, in the international arena are a kind of "signals" to which society must respond. Usually it seeks to either adapt to changes in the environment, or adapt the environment to its needs. In other words, the system reacts to "signals" in one way or another. At the same time, it implements its main functions: adaptation; goal achievement, that is, the ability to maintain its integrity, ensuring the implementation of its tasks, influencing the natural and social environment; maintaining the image - the ability to maintain its internal structure; integration - the ability to integrate, that is, to include new parts, new social formations (phenomena, processes, etc.) into a single whole.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

The most important component of society as a system is social institutions.

The word "institute" translated from the Latin instituto means "establishment". In Russian, it is often used to refer to higher education institutions. In addition, as you know from the course of basic school, in the field of law, the word "institution" means a set of legal norms governing one social relationship or several relationships related to each other (for example, the institution of marriage).

In sociology, social institutions are historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities regulated by norms, traditions, customs and aimed at satisfying the fundamental needs of society.

We will consider this definition, to which it is advisable to return, having read the training material on this issue to the end, relying on the concept of “activity” (see - 1). In the history of society, stable types of activity have developed, aimed at satisfying the most important vital needs. Sociologists identify five such social needs:

the need for the reproduction of the genus;
the need for safety and social order;
the need for livelihoods;
the need for knowledge, socialization
the younger generation, training;
- the need for solving spiritual problems of the meaning of life.

In accordance with the named needs in society, there were also types of activities, which, in turn, required the necessary organization, ordering, the creation of certain institutions and other structures, the development of rules that ensure the achievement of the expected result. Historically established social institutions met these conditions for the successful implementation of the main types of activity:

the institution of family and marriage;
- political institutions, especially the state;
- economic institutions, primarily production;
- institutes of education, science and culture;
- Institute of Religion.

Each of these institutions brings together large masses of people to meet a particular need and achieve a specific goal of a personal, group or social nature.

The emergence of social institutions led to the consolidation of specific types of interaction, made them permanent and obligatory for all members of a given society.

So, a social institution is, first of all, a collection of persons engaged in a certain type of activity and ensuring, in the process of this activity, the satisfaction of a certain need that is significant for society (for example, all employees of the education system).

Further, the institution is enshrined in a system of legal and moral norms, traditions and customs that regulate the corresponding types of behavior. (Think, for example, what social norms govern the behavior of people in the family).

Another characteristic feature of a social institution is the presence of institutions supplied with certain material resources necessary for any kind of activity. (Think about which social institutions the school, factory, militia belong to. Give your examples of institutions and organizations related to each of the most important social institutions.)

Any of these institutions is integrated into the socio-political, legal, value structure of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the activities of this institution and exercise control over it.

A social institution stabilizes social relations, brings coherence to the actions of members of society. A social institution is characterized by a clear delineation of the functions of each of the subjects of interaction, the consistency of their actions, a high level of regulation and control. (Consider how these features of a social institution are manifested in the education system, in particular in the school.)

Let us consider the main features of a social institution using the example of such an important institution of society as the family. First of all, every family is a small group of people based on intimacy and emotional attachment, connected by marriage (spouse) and blood relationship (parents and children). The need to create a family is one of the fundamental, that is, fundamental, human needs. At the same time, the family performs important functions in society: the birth and upbringing of children, economic support for minors and the disabled, and many others. Each family member occupies his own special position in it, which presupposes appropriate behavior: parents (or one of them) provide a livelihood, do household chores, and raise children. Children, in turn, study, help around the house. Such behavior is governed not only by intra-family rules, but also by social norms: morality and law. Thus, public morality condemns the lack of care of the older family members for the younger ones. The law establishes the responsibility and obligations of spouses in relation to each other, to children, adult children to elderly parents. The creation of a family, the main milestones of family life are accompanied by traditions and rituals established in society. For example, in many countries the marriage ritual involves the exchange of wedding rings between spouses.

The presence of social institutions makes people's behavior more predictable, and society as a whole, more stable.

In addition to the main social institutions, there are also non-main ones. So, if the main political institution is the state, then the non-main ones are the institution of the judiciary or, as in our country, the institution of presidential representatives in the regions, etc.

The presence of social institutions reliably ensures regular, self-renewing satisfaction of vital needs. A social institution makes connections between people not random and not chaotic, but permanent, reliable, stable. Institutional interaction is a well-oiled order of social life in the main spheres of human life. The more social needs are met by social institutions, the more developed society is.

Since new needs and conditions arise in the course of the historical process, new types of activity and corresponding connections appear. Society is interested in giving them orderliness, normative character, that is, in their institutionalization.

In Russia, as a result of the reforms of the late twentieth century. appeared, for example, such a type of activity as entrepreneurship. The streamlining of this activity led to the emergence of various types of firms, required the publication of laws regulating entrepreneurial activity, and contributed to the formation of appropriate traditions.

Institutions of parliamentarism, a multi-party system, and the institution of the presidency have emerged in the political life of our country. The principles and rules of their functioning are enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the corresponding laws.

In the same way, the institutionalization of other types of activity that have arisen over the past decades took place.

It happens that the development of society requires the modernization of the activities of social institutions, historically formed in previous periods. So, in the changed conditions, it became necessary to solve the problems of familiarizing the younger generation with the culture in a new way. Hence the steps taken to modernize the institution of education, as a result of which the institutionalization of the Unified State Examination, the new content of educational programs, may occur.

So, we can return to the definition given at the beginning of this part of the paragraph. Think about what characterizes social institutions as highly organized systems. Why is their structure stable? How important is the deep integration of their elements? What is the diversity, flexibility, dynamism of their functions?

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS

1 Society is a super-complex system, and in order to live in harmony with it, it is necessary to adapt (adapt) to it. Otherwise, you cannot avoid conflicts, failures in your life and work. The condition for adaptation to modern society is knowledge about it, which is given by the course of social studies.

2 It is possible to understand society only if its quality is revealed as an integral system. To do this, it is necessary to consider various sections of the structure of society (the main spheres of human activity; a set of social institutions, social groups), systematizing, integrating connections between them, the features of the management process in a self-governing social system.

3 In real life, you will have to interact with various social institutions. To make this interaction successful, you need to know the goals and nature of the activity that has taken shape in the social institution you are interested in. This will help you study the legal rules governing this type of activity.

4 in the subsequent sections of the course, characterizing individual areas of human activity, it is useful to re-refer to the content of this paragraph in order to rely on it to consider each area as part of a holistic system. This will help to understand the role and place of each sphere, each social institution in the development of society.

Document

From the work of the modern American sociologist E. Shils "Society and Societies: Macrosociological Approach."

What is included in societies? As already mentioned, the most differentiated of them consist not only of families and kindred groups, but also of associations, unions, firms and farms, schools and universities, armies, churches and sects, parties and numerous other corporate organizations or organizations that, in in turn, they have boundaries that define the circle of members over which the corresponding corporate authorities - parents, managers, chairmen, etc., etc. - exercise a certain measure of control. This also includes systems that are formally and informally organized according to a territorial principle - communities, villages, neighborhoods, cities, districts - and all of them also have some features of society. Further, this includes unorganized groups of people within society - social classes or strata, occupations and professions, religions, linguistic groups - who have a culture inherent more in those who have a certain status or occupy a certain position than everyone else.

So, we became convinced that society is not just a collection of united people, primordial and cultural collectives, interacting and exchanging services with each other. All these collectives form a society by virtue of their existence under a common authority, which exercises its control over the territory delineated by boundaries, maintains and implants a more or less common culture. It is these factors that transform the aggregate of relatively specialized primordial corporate and cultural collectives into a society.

Questions and tasks to the document

1. What components, according to E. Shils, are included in society? Indicate which spheres of society each of them belongs to.
2. Select from the listed components those that are social institutions.
3. Based on the text, prove that the author views society as a social system.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-TEST

1. What does the concept "system" mean?
2. How are social (social) systems different from natural ones?
3. What is the main quality of society as an integral system?
4. What are the connections and relationships of society as a system with the environment?
5. What is a social institution?
6. Oxapterize major social institutions.
7. What are the main features of a social institution?
8. What is the significance of institutionalization?

TASKS

1. While changing the system approach, analyze the Russian society at the beginning of the twentieth century.
2. Describe all the main features of a social institution on the example of the institution of education. Use the material and recommendations of the practical conclusions of this paragraph.
3. The collective work of Russian sociologists says: "... society exists and functions in various forms ... A really important question comes down to not losing society itself behind special forms, and forests behind the trees." How is this statement related to the understanding of society as a system? Give reasons for your answer.

All people have a huge creative potential! How to awaken a person's creativity? Learn 5 Easy Tricks to Make You Successful!

What is human creativity related to?

Human evolution is possible only when using the creative potential of consciousness¹. It is creativity that helps people create something new.

The creative process is of great importance both from the point of view of the work of our body, and from the point of view of esotericism, and from the point of view of everyone's life.

To better understand the “mechanics” of creating a new solution, you need to know that human thinking is based on neural interaction.

Scientists estimate that our brains are made up of about 100 billion neurons; each neuron exchanges electrical energy and information with each other. Together they create neural networks of certain "drawings", that is, thoughts. This happens all the time, new neural networks appear every second - with the help of this we can think.

Human creativity is associated with the right hemisphere of the brain.

While the left hemisphere is logical: the processes in it move along given, previously known networks, it is the right hemisphere that is able to come up with a new solution: many geniuses were distinguished by the amazing activity of the right hemisphere!

It turns out that in order to attract success into his life, a person needs to activate creative abilities, that is, activate creative thinking. This has obvious benefits for everyone's life!

All people initially have the same creative potential². But over the years, the ability to think creatively fades away.

Scientists have investigated how the creative abilities of a person at different ages are manifested. The results of these studies confirmed that people become more conservative with age.

The following proportions of atypical responses were derived depending on age:

• children under 5 years old when tested gave 90% unusual answers;
• the share of new responses among children at the age of seven decreased to 20%;
• the cumulative share of extraordinary responses in adults is about 2%. Instead of new solutions, they answer with learned phrases.

Essential Creative Tricks!

Although they disappear with age, there are several tricks to restore the brain's ability to generate new solutions.

1. It is necessary to create a comfortable environment for yourself at home, at work, in the car.

People who are forced to be in uncomfortable conditions are prone to stress, apathy, which drowns out a person's creative abilities.

It is useful to pay attention to details: for internal comfort, sometimes a new beautiful screensaver on a computer, a couple of flowerpots with flowers, or a photo of a loved one on the desk is enough.

Most importantly, remember to always come up with something new! A person gets used to everything, and for this, from time to time you need to introduce new details into your interior. Like attracts like: new positive things encourage the brain to create new ideas and thoughts!

2. To restore creativity, communication is necessary: ​​people exchange information during contacts with each other.

Try to meet new people as often as possible. This way you will receive more new information. The brain is constantly analyzing data, and on the basis of the new it creates a new one! It is very useful to communicate with interesting, creative people at every opportunity.

3. Often the framework of an adult limits a person's creative thinking. We can say that he himself forbids himself to think in a new way.

To restore creativity, it is recommended to follow the example of children: not to be afraid to look for new solutions where everything, it would seem, has already been invented by “smart people”.

You can play a child: set a problem. find a new solution for some issue in your life: imagine, fantasize, try to think without the usual framework. When a new thought is found and accepted by the mind as appropriate, you can be considered successful. To reward yourself, you can go outside and buy yourself something tasty! Praise yourself!

4. The right hemisphere, which is responsible for human creativity, is connected with the information field of the Universe - it is from there that it takes new decisions.

It is necessary to learn to listen to your inner voice, intuition³. Don't ignore intuitive prompts!

On our site you can find many effective techniques for developing intuition and psychic abilities.

5. You need to activate critical thinking, increase your awareness.

Instead of humbly accepting what is happening for granted, it is recommended to analyze, ask more "why" questions, reflect: this helps the brain to create new neural networks.

Notes and feature articles for a deeper understanding of the material

¹ Consciousness is a state of a person's mental life, expressed in the subjective experience of events in the external world and the life of the individual himself, as well as in a report on these events (