What is atheism? (1)
Atheism (French atheisme - from the Greek atheos - godless), historically diverse forms of denial of religious beliefs, cults and the assertion of the intrinsic value of the existence of the world and man. Modern atheism views religion as an illusory consciousness.

Is it enough not to believe in God to be an atheist? (2)
Atheism is not "simple disbelief in God", but is a worldview that includes scientific, moral and social grounds for denying the existence of God and the philosophy of life without God.
For a true atheist, "There is no God!" - few.

What does atheism recognize, what is it based on? (3)
Atheism is based on the recognition of the natural world that surrounds man as unique and self-sufficient, and considers religions and gods to be the creation of man himself.

Atheism is based on the natural-scientific comprehension of the world, opposing the knowledge obtained in this way - to faith.

Atheism, based on the principles of secular humanism, affirms the paramount importance of man, human personality and human being in relation to any social or religious structure.

How do you understand humanism? (4)
Humanism - (from Latin.humanus-human.human), - recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and the manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations.

Is not atheism, then, a cult of man? (5)
No, it's not. For the existence of a cult, the existence of external, higher beings or forces that should be worshiped is imperative. Man cannot be a superior being in relation to himself.

How do atheists fight religion? (6)
Atheists don't fight religion. Atheists assert their worldview and defend their civil, constitutional rights.

How do atheists view believers? (7)
Atheists treat believers the same way they treat any other people - according to their actions.
Moreover, atheists treat the majority of believers as children who have not grown out of simple-minded children's fairy tales, who need to patiently and clearly explain the realities of the world around them.

What conclusions follow from the atheistic assertion of the absence of God? (eight)
There is no creator god, no father god, and no god in general who would bear responsibility, love and protect people.

There is no god who would heed our prayers. People, do everything yourself, based on the capabilities of your own mind and your own strengths.

There is no hell. We should not fear and curry favor with a non-existent, vengeful god or devil.

There is no redemption or salvation by faith. We must be personally responsible for the consequences of our actions.

Nature has neither evil nor good intentions in relation to man. Life is a struggle against surmountable and insurmountable obstacles in nature. The cooperation of all mankind is the only hope for survival in this struggle.

If there is no God, then is there a possibility that he will appear, i.e. will a higher being arise or designate its existence? (9)
Here you need to decide. Atheism denies, does not recognize the existence of God in the form in which he is described by religious teachings - as a kind of higher (personal or impersonal) being who created and has power over everything known.
If we consider God as a kind of internal psychic reality generated by man himself, then such "gods" really exist, appear and disappear constantly in the mass and individual consciousness. The fact that someone somewhere will come up with another god and make people worship him, then it won't change anything.

Are the atheist and the agnostic the same thing? (10)
No. The atheist does not believe in God and knows that there is no God. The agnostic does not know if God exists. This is theoretical. In practice, people who do not believe in God, who are afraid to directly declare their position, call themselves agnostics.

And they can be understood. Religious "brainwashing" and suppression of the personality in Russia has acquired such proportions that not everyone can honestly declare their atheistic views. To do this, you need to be at least an honest and courageous person.

Does an atheist have to be a materialist? (11)
In fact, most atheists lean towards a materialistic understanding of nature in one way or another.

Is a materialist necessarily an atheist?(12)
It is better to say that the materialistic understanding of the world naturally leads to the denial of the existence of God.

What movements and philosophies can be associated with atheism? (13)
Anticlericalism, materialism, secular humanism, skepticism, rationalism.
It can even be said that elements of these systems are partially present in atheism, creating its philosophical basis.

Atheism is inhumane and entails crime and aggressiveness. (There is no God - then everything is allowed.) Is that so? (14)
Of course no. To begin with, there are many more believers among criminals than among the same scientists. Why? Because it is just religion that often allows you to avoid moral responsibility for a crime by "begging" forgiveness.
A believer fulfills the so-called commandments only because a terrible divine punishment is imposed for their failure.
A believer can always pray and atone for any of his actions.

Morality for the believer is something external. It is given from the outside and controlled from the outside. And the stories about "Jesus in the heart" here, as a rule, can do nothing.

This is what gives rise to countless religious conflicts, religious fanatics and even domestic crime. It is rather believers who live according to the principle: " God is - it means that everything is possible!"

The atheist follows the principles of morality and established laws, not because some higher being told him “so it is necessary”, but proceeding from a deep inner awareness of the necessity and productivity of social institutions and laws. Therefore, the morality of the atheist is deeper, more stable and perfect than the morality of the believer on the one hand, more flexible and adaptive on the other.
To paraphrase the question asked, we can say : "There is no God - so think for yourself!"

Do atheists admit that there are miracles or unexplained phenomena? (15)
Scientific research has proven that all religious prophecies and miracles were generated either by the ignorance of people or the work of fraudsters.
"Unexplained phenomena" are another matter. Of course, there are many inexplicable things and unexplained things in our life. Some of them may never be explained or understood. And some of the existing explanations may simply not be available to a single person.

Do atheists admit the existence of only what is scientifically reliably established and explained? (16)
The meaning of science is precisely to explore the unknown and mysterious, and not to deny it.
Everything that science reveals about the essence of the phenomena of the world was once declared to be the direct work of the hands of God. God retreats from the area into which science enters. No scientific discovery confirms what religion says, but provides reasonable, rational explanations for mysterious phenomena.

Do atheists allow only material objects to exist? (17 )
Of course no. Energy, time, information and many other things are not material objects in the general physical sense of these words.

What is "militant atheism"? (18)
Militant atheism is a false concept introduced by clerics to combat atheism. Atheists have never been warlike or militant.
On the contrary, many wars in the history of mankind, starting with the Crusades and ending with numerous regional conflicts of today (Kosovo, Macedonia, the Indo-Pakistani conflict, Israel and others), are based on religious roots and motives.
But there has never been a single war aimed at establishing atheism.

What about the destruction of churches and repression of clergy in Russia during the reign of Stalin? (19)
First, the data about these repressions are greatly exaggerated by Christians themselves, as they love to do since the days of Ancient Rome. The percentage of repressed clergy is the same as in other groups of the population and is significantly lower than the number of repressed political workers. It is not necessary to present the matter in such a way that predominantly Christians suffered from the Stalinist repressions. This is not fair, to say the least.
Secondly, all these repressions were carried out by the Stalinists who professed the Stalin Personality Cult - a kind of fanatics of a social religion that deified a living leader.
And, finally, it must be remembered that it was I.V. Stalin, who, by the way, had an unfinished church education, personally restored the Orthodox Church in Russia in 1942 and appointed a patriarch to it. It was this church (now called the ROC) that existed comfortably until the end of the 80s in close cooperation with state structures.

Is “anti-Christianity” part of atheism? (twenty)
The denial of Christian values ​​and the Christian meaning of life is undoubtedly part of atheism. However, "anti-Christianity" itself can be an attribute of a religious concept different from Christianity and exist outside the framework of atheism. For example, the anti-Christianity of the pagans.

The Christian religion teaches love. What's bad about it? (21)
Love among Christians concerns only fellow believers. For non-believers, Christians have a different approach - this is the Inquisition, and the crusades, and religious wars.
Therefore, Faith in God is organically linked with crimes against humanity, with rudeness, hostility, hatred, evil intentions and cruelty towards one's neighbor.

Is it taught in religion that man is a supreme being? (22)
Religion affirms the helplessness and insignificance of man in relation to God. Any religion teaches that a person is secondary in relation to God, he is his slave, his creation, the assessment of a person will be given after death.

Atheism denies the secondary importance and insignificance of man in relation to God, asserts the self-worth of man without any regard for God, does not consider being and the world in this life intermediate and empty.

Man is not secondary to God. Man is valuable in himself without any god or other higher being.

It is believed that religion teaches a person the meaning of life. Is it so? (23)
Religion, especially Christianity, affirming the idea of ​​an "eternal" afterlife, denies and belittles the value of being and the world in this life, considers worldly life a preparation for the main event - immortality; therefore, the religious existence of a person is devoid of other goals and other meaning than preparation for death.

Are Buddhists Atheists? (24)
A common misconception about the "atheism" of Buddhism is generated by the lack of a clear understanding of Buddhism. Modern Buddhism is a religion and Buddhists are not under any circumstances atheists. However, we must not forget that initially Buddhism really was an original philosophical system, not a religion, and only with the "second turn of the Wheel of Dharma" the ideal of Buddha - a person who activated his superconsciousness, free from suffering, is replaced by the ideal of the Buddha, which is the cosmic principle, the Highest principle that exists in the Universe. Studying early Buddhist philosophy can help an atheist develop atheistic views.

We often hear that atheism is one of the variants of Satanism (or vice versa). Is it so? (25)
No. This is a false statement widely promoted by the clergy. As for the ministers of the Christian cult, they see the machinations of Satan in everything that is contrary to their confessional interests.
In fact, Satanism is a common religious movement with its churches, priests, and even the Bible.
Atheism treats Satanism in the same way as any other religious system - that is, it denies the existence of Satan and considers all the views associated with him unfounded.
Accordingly, no Satanist can be considered an atheist, and no atheist can be a Satanist.

Are there many atheists in Russia? (26)
According to various estimates, from 30 to 50% of the Russian population does not believe in God. 7 to 15% describe themselves as atheists. However, the difference between atheists and believers is that they are not required to get together on Sundays. Atheism is not only a worldview, but also a lifestyle that does not oblige atheists to unite under someone else's leadership.

However, atheists unite in organizations? (27)
Yes. In 1999-2001, atheist organizations appeared in almost all large cities. This is due to the struggle of atheists for their civil rights. In fact, now in Russia a course has been taken to create a religious, theocratic state, the church has been provided with unthinkable benefits and opportunities, huge sums from the state. budget allocated to finance the ROC. Children are involved in religious organizations, schools are trying to forcefully teach children "the law of God." Churches create their own armed detachments (squads), which are already beginning to intimidate and beat people.
In such a situation, some of the atheists are simply forced to unite in order to defend their civil rights.

French philosophy of the 18th century. commonly called the philosophy of the Enlightenment. This name is French philosophy of the 18th century. received due to the fact that its representatives destroyed the established ideas about God, the world around him and man, showed innovation in their philosophical research, openly promoted the ideas of the emerging bourgeoisie and, ultimately, ideologically prepared the Great French Revolution of 1789–1794.

There are three main directions in the philosophy of the French Enlightenment:

Deistic;

Atheistic-materialistic;

Utopian-socialist (communist).

2. Deism (not to be confused with the dualism of Descartes - the interconnectedness and equality of materialism and idealism) is a trend in philosophy, the supporters of which:

Rejected the idea of ​​a personal God;

They did not agree with the identification of God and Nature (pantheism);

We saw in God the first principle, the cause of all that exists (but no more);

They rejected the possibility of God's intervention in the processes of nature and the affairs of people, His any influence on the course of history, the surrounding world after its creation.

Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Condillac belonged to the deistic trend.

3. Another possible direction of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment was atheistic-materialistic.

Atheists rejected the very idea of ​​the existence of God in any form, explained the origin of the world and man from materialistic and natural-scientific positions, and preferred empiricism in matters of cognition.

Representatives of the atheistic-materialist philosophy were Mellier, Lametrie, Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach.

4. The utopian-socialist (communist) trend in the philosophy of the French Enlightenment began to form in the middle of the 18th century, but became especially widespread during the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794. and after its completion.

The French utopian socialists (communists) included Mably, Morelli, Babeuf, Owen, Saint-Simon.

The utopian socialists focused their main interest on the problem of developing and building an ideal society based on equality and social justice.

Deistic direction of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment of the 18th century.

1. Deism is a trend in philosophy, the adherents of which admitted the existence of God only as the primary cause, the Creator of everything, but rejected His any subsequent influence on the world around, man, the course of history, spoke out as against the personification of God (endowing Him with personal traits), and against the identification of God with nature (pantheism). Prominent French philosophers-deists included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Condillac.

2. Voltaire (real name - Arouet) Francois (1694 - 1778) - philosopher, writer, publicist, one of the founders of the French Enlightenment, who:

He passionately opposed religion, especially Catholicism (in relation to religion, he owns the famous saying: "Crush the reptile!");

He considered God to be the founder of the surrounding world, the connecting principle of all that exists, but he was convinced that no theory and practice could reliably prove either His presence or His absence;

I saw the need to recognize the existence of God from a moral and aesthetic point of view in order to maintain order in society, to keep people (under the threat of God's punishment) in obedience and rigid framework of morality;

With regard to knowledge, he advocated the combination of empiricism and rationalism, giving preference to the former;

He advocated a humane attitude towards the common people and respect for their rights, but he considered the ideal of the state to be an absolute monarchy headed by an enlightened ruler (that is, he put forward the idea of ​​"enlightened absolutism"), and also corresponded with a number of "enlightened" monarchs (including the empress Russia Catherine II) and gave practical recommendations for the development of the state. 3.Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689 - 1755), a French philosopher, writer, lawyer, scientist (in many fields of knowledge), was a contemporary and in many ways a like-minded person of Voltaire, who:

He spoke from the standpoint of deism - he saw in God the creator, but rejected His ability to interfere in the affairs of people and the processes of nature;

I saw in God a means to maintain order and educate morality;

He rejected the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul, criticized Christianity and the Catholic Church for claims to power and influence in society, misleading believers (in many issues) and suppressing human initiative;

He believed that history is made by people, and not by virtue of divine predestination;

I saw the influence of climate and geography on the structure of society (southern countries with a hot climate usually gravitate towards despotism, northern ones with a cold climate - towards democracy, Central European countries with a temperate climate periodically move from despotism to democracy and vice versa);

He believed that before the emergence of the state, there was a "natural state" where people freely showed their instincts and satisfied their needs, regardless of each other, but when such an existence became impossible, people created the state on the basis of a "social contract", which provided for the mutual recognition of rights and each other's responsibilities and the emergence of public authority;

He put forward the idea of ​​"separation of powers" - that is, the division of state power for the purpose of its more effective functioning and prevention of despotism into three branches - legislative, executive and judicial;

Advocated for the rule of law.

Montesquieu's philosophy was of great importance for the entire further history of mankind, the philosopher put forward the fundamental ideas on which most modern democratic states are built:

The idea of ​​the priority of the law;

The idea of ​​separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial.

4. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) focused on socio-political philosophy, spoke from the standpoint of revolutionary democracy.

In general, the following basic provisions of Rousseau's philosophy can be distinguished. He:

I saw in God the world will and the world mind;

He believed that matter is uncreate and objectively always exists;

He believed that man consists of a mortal body and an immortal soul;

He was convinced that a person is not able to fully cognize the world (in particular, the essence of things and phenomena);

He spoke out against religion as such, against Christianity, but out of fear that if religion was liquidated, morals would fall and moral restrictions would disappear, he proposed creating a substitute for religion - "civil religion", "cult of a great being (God)" will ", etc .;

He was a supporter of empirical (experimental) knowledge;

He considered private property to be the main cause of contradictions in society;

In a just, ideal society, everyone should have equal rights, and private property should be equally distributed among all citizens in the amount necessary for life (but not for enrichment);

Power should be exercised not through parliament, but by citizens - directly through meetings, gatherings,

In the future state, a fundamentally new system of raising children should be applied: children should be isolated from the outside world in special educational institutions, where they will educate people of a new society - on the ideas of personal freedom, mutual respect, intolerance to religion and despotism, who own the profession and understand leading sciences.

5. Etienne Condillac (1715 - 1780) paid less attention to the problems of society and devoted his main efforts to the study of problems of cognition (epistemology). The following fundamental ideas of his philosophy can be distinguished:

The world is cognizable;

A person can cognize the external world as much as his human capabilities (mind, senses) will allow;

The world around us is the source of all knowledge;

Cognition is based on sensory perception (reflection by the sense organs of the surrounding reality in the human mind);

Independent cognition by the mind without the participation of sensory perception does not exist.

Question 33. The atheistic-materialistic direction of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment of the 18th century.

1. Atheism is a direction in philosophy, the supporters of which completely deny the existence of God in any of its manifestations, as well as religion.

Materialism is a trend in philosophy that does not recognize an independent ideal (spiritual) principle in the creation and existence of the surrounding world and explains the surrounding world, its phenomena, man from the point of view of natural sciences.

Atheistic-materialist philosophy was widespread in France in the 18th century, on the eve and during the Great French Revolution. Its prominent representatives were Melier, Lametrie, Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach.

2. Jean Mellier (1664 - 1729) - a priest by profession, in the course of his life came to a complete denial of God and religion (atheism), a materialist philosopher:

He did not admit the existence of anything supernatural (including God);

I did not believe in the existence of ideas separated from matter, the immortality of the soul;

He believed that the entire surrounding world consists of a special substance - matter;

Matter is the root cause of all things, of all that exists, it is eternal, uncreated, really exists, changes and constantly develops thanks to the property inherent in it itself - motion;

Matter is made up of tiny particles that combine to create things;

Cognition is a reflection of matter by matter itself;

Feelings are the source of most knowledge;

He saw the cause of social antagonisms in private property, which arose "by the ill will" of some people who wanted to get rid of physical labor;

He advocated the overthrow of absolutism, the elimination of the existing state and private property;

As a society of the future, I saw the union of fraternal communities, whose members are equal, live together, engage in productive labor, evenly share the income received and enjoy life.

For his socio-political views, Melier is often referred to as the utopian socialists, the first communists.

3. Julien Lametrie (1709 - 1751) also spoke from an atheist-materialist position:

Completely rejected idealism and theology;

He considered the surrounding world as a set of various manifestations of a single substance - matter, which is uncreate, eternal, infinity;

Soul, consciousness, feelings, according to La Mettrie, have a natural origin, are properties of matter;

Since matter is self-sufficient, there is no eternal need for God;

He advocated the complete cognizability of the world, and assigned the main role in cognition to the senses;

He was a utilitarian - he believed that the meaning of human life is personal happiness;

He considered private property to be a guarantee of human freedom;

He saw "enlightened absolutism" as the ideal of the state.

4. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) - one of the most prominent French materialist philosophers. Diderot made a great contribution to the Enlightenment, putting forward the idea of ​​creating an "Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts". The "Encyclopedia" was free from religious prejudices and contained the foundations of leading sciences, art and knowledge in the field of production, laid the foundations of the bourgeois worldview. The leading philosophers of the era - Diderot's contemporaries: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Condillac, Holbach, and others took part in its creation. It took over 20 years to create the Encyclopedia.

Diderot's philosophical views are close to the views of other French materialist enlighteners:

He recognized matter as the only existing substance, the manifestation of which he considered all single things;

He explained motion by such a property of matter as heterogeneity (the interaction of an innumerable set of heterogeneous parts of matter leads to motion);

He rejected the spiritual principle of the universe, considered consciousness to be a property of matter;

At the heart of society and the state he saw a "social contract", on the basis of which, he denied the divinity of the power of the king and the feudal lords;

He considered the ideal of the state to be "an enlightened monarchy", and to the economy as a reasonably divided private property, taking into account the interests of the majority.

5. Such enlightenment philosophers as Holbach (1723 - 1789) and Helvetius (1715 - 1771) had similar views.

The significance of the activities of French philosophers of the atheistic-materialist direction for philosophy and for society as a whole is that they:

They clearly identified two leading philosophical trends - materialism and idealism (the "line of Democritus" and "the line of Plato");

Freed philosophy from many religious prejudices;

Gave a more realistic definition of substance - matter;

They put forward an idea (widespread at the present time) about consciousness as a property of matter to reflect itself;

Pre-experienced, supersensible ("pure") knowledge was criticized;

Justified and disseminated the theory of materialistic sensationalism (cognition is based on sensory sensations);

Put forward the idea that all single things are different combinations of microparticles;

They paid attention to motion not as a supernatural phenomenon, but as a property of matter;

Substantiated the ideas of social justice;

Ideologically prepared for the Great French Revolution.

15. Philosophical and ethical ideas of Kant in the aspect of free thought.
Continuing the tradition of European free-thinking, Kant broke with the religious foundation of morality: it is not the commandments of God, but the duty to humanity that makes us behave morally. However, everything that Kant subverted in his "Critique of Pure Reason" as absolutely unprovable - the immortality of the soul, free will, the existence of God - is restored in the "Critique of Practical Reason" as postulates that, although they do not expand our knowledge, but in general "give reason has the right to such concepts, to justify even the possibility of which it otherwise could not afford. " 3

In his theory of ethics, Kant asserts the primacy of practical reason over the theoretical itself, the primacy of activity over cognition. In the broadest sense of the word, in the practical sphere of his teaching, he relates ethics, the doctrine of state and law, the philosophy of history and religion. But in the narrow sense of the term, practical reason in Kant means law-making reason, which means that it creates the principles and rules of moral behavior.

Kant's philosophical system is characterized by a compromise between materialism and idealism. Materialistic tendencies in Kant's philosophy are reflected in the fact that he recognizes the existence of objective reality, things outside of us. Kant teaches that there are "things in themselves" that do not depend on the cognizing subject. If Kant had consistently followed this view, he would have come to materialism. But in contradiction with this materialistic tendency, he argued that "things-in-themselves" are unknowable. In other words, he came out as a proponent of agnosticism. Agnosticism leads him to idealism.

In the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant expounds a theory of ethics. Practical reason in the teachings of Kant is the only source of the principles of moral behavior; it is a mind that grows into will. Ethics of Kant is autonomous and a priori, it is directed towards what should be, and not towards existence. Its autonomy means the independence of moral principles from non-moral arguments and grounds. The benchmark for Kantian ethics is not the actual actions of people, but the norms arising from the "pure" moral will. This is the ethics of duty. In the a priorism of duty, Kant seeks the source of the universality of moral norms.

An imperative is a rule that contains "objective compulsion to act." The moral law is coercion, the need to act in spite of empirical influences. This means that it takes the form of a compulsory command - an imperative.

Hypothetical imperatives (relative or conditional imperatives) indicate that actions are effective in achieving certain goals (for example, pleasure or success).

The principles of morality go back to one supreme principle - the categorical imperative, which prescribes actions that are good in themselves, objectively, regardless of any other than morality itself, the goal (for example, the requirement of honesty). The categorical imperative reads:

"Act only according to such a maxim, being guided by which you at the same time may wish it to become a universal law" [options: "always act so that the maxim (principle) of your behavior can become a universal law (do as you could wish everyone to do it) ”];

“Act so that you always treat humanity both in your person and in the person of everyone else as well as a goal, and never treat it only as a means” [version of the wording: “treat humanity in your person ( as well as in the person of any other) always as to the goal and never - only as to the means "];

"The principle of the will of each person as a will that establishes universal laws with all its maxims": one should "do everything proceeding from the maxim of one's will as such, which could also have itself as an object as a will that establishes universal laws."

These are three different ways of representing the same law, and each of them combines the other two.

The existence of man "has in itself the highest goal ..."; "... only morality and humanity, insofar as it is capable of it, have dignity," writes Kant.: 136

Duty is the necessity of action out of respect for the moral law.: 140 - 141

In ethical teaching, a person is considered from two points of view:

man as a phenomenon;

man as a thing in itself.

The behavior of the first is determined exclusively by external factors and obeys a hypothetical imperative. The behavior of the second must obey a categorical imperative, the highest a priori moral principle. Thus, behavior can be determined by both practical interests and moral principles. Two tendencies arise: the pursuit of happiness (satisfaction of some material needs) and the pursuit of virtue. These aspirations can contradict each other, and this is how the "antinomy of practical reason" arises.

As the conditions for the applicability of the categorical imperative in the world of phenomena, Kant puts forward three postulates of practical reason. The first postulate requires the complete autonomy of human will, its freedom. Kant expresses this postulate with the formula: "You must, then you can." Recognizing that without the hope of happiness, people would not have enough mental strength to fulfill their duty in spite of internal and external obstacles, Kant puts forward the second postulate: "there must be the immortality of the human soul." Thus, Kant resolves the antinomy of the striving for happiness and striving for virtue by transferring the hopes of the individual to the superempirical world. For the first and second postulates, a guarantor is needed, and it can only be God, which means that he must exist - this is the third postulate of practical reason.

The autonomy of Kant's ethics means the dependence of religion on ethics. According to Kant, "religion is no different from morality in its content."

Teaching about law and state

The state is an association of many people subject to legal laws

In his doctrine of law, Kant developed the ideas of the French enlighteners: the need to eliminate all forms of personal dependence, the establishment of personal freedom and equality before the law. Kant deduced legal laws from moral ones. Kant recognized the right to freely express one's opinion, but with the proviso: "argue as much as you like and about anything, just obey."

State structures cannot be unchanged and change when they cease to be necessary. And only the republic is strong (the law is independent and does not depend on any individual).

In the doctrine of relations between states, Kant opposes the unjust state of these relations, against the rule of the strong in international relations. He speaks for the creation of an equal union of peoples. Kant believed that such a union brings humanity closer to the realization of the idea of ​​eternal peace.

The doctrine of expediency. Aesthetics

As a connecting link between the Critique of Pure Reason and the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant creates a Critique of Judgment, which focuses on the concept of expediency. Subjective expediency, according to Kant, is present in the aesthetic judgment ability, objective - in the teleological one. The first is expressed in the harmony of the aesthetic object.

In aesthetics, Kant distinguishes between two types of aesthetic ideas - the beautiful and the sublime. The aesthetic is what is liked about the idea, regardless of the presence. Beauty is perfection associated with form. In Kant, the beautiful acts as a "symbol of the morally good." The sublime is perfection associated with infinity in power (dynamically sublime) or in space (mathematically sublime). An example of a dynamically sublime is a storm. An example of a mathematically sublime is mountains. A genius is a person capable of embodying aesthetic ideas.

The teleological ability of judgment is associated with the concept of a living organism as a manifestation of expediency in nature.

About a human

Kant's views on man are reflected in the book "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View" (1798). Its main part consists of three sections in accordance with the three human abilities: cognition, feelings of pleasure and displeasure, the ability to desire.

A person is “the most important object in the world,” since he has self-awareness.

Man is the highest value, it is a personality. Self-consciousness of a person gives rise to egoism as a natural property of a person. A person does not manifest it only when he considers his “I” not as the whole world, but only as a part of it. It is necessary to curb egoism, to control the mental manifestations of the personality with the mind.

A person can have unconscious ideas - "dark". In the darkness, the process of the birth of creative ideas can take place, about which a person can only know at the level of sensations.

From sexual feelings (passion) the mind becomes cloudy. But in a person, a moral and cultural norm is imposed on feelings and desires.

Such a concept as genius was subjected to Kant's analysis. "The talent for invention is called genius."

from lat. deus - god) - religious philosophy. current, combining materialistic. tendencies with concessions to religion and idealism; arose in the 17-18 centuries. in England and other countries of the West. Europe. The predecessor of the English. deists was Jean Boden. The ancestor of D. is considered Herbert Cherbury (Herbert E. of Cherbury, "De veritate", 1624). Major representatives of Denmark - Locke, Shaftesbury, Bolingbroke, Collins, Toland, Priestley (England late 17th - early 18th centuries), Voltaire, Rousseau (18th century France), Dietel, Edelman, Reimarus (18th century Germany) ... D. considered religion as "natural. Light of reason". Recognizing God as the highest rational principle and the primary cause of the world, he denied his further interference in the affairs of nature, supernaturals. phenomena and miracles. D. rejected the doctrine of revelation and demanded the study of nature with the help of experimental knowledge. Among deists, there were various streams, from believing Christians interpreting biblical texts from the point of view of reason, to those approaching outright atheism (Toland); ethics is especially highlighted. a direction that believes that the justification of morality does not need religion. faith (Shaftesbury). In the conditions of the early period of the struggle of the bourgeoisie against the feud. ideology was used by materialist philosophers as "... a convenient and easy way to get rid of religion" (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 2, p. 144). D. was the worldview of certain circles of the enlightened aristocracy and the big bourgeoisie, he in a peculiar way reflected the bourgeois. aspirations to limit queens. power (D., according to Plekhanov, "heavenly parliamentarism"). The God of the deists is, as it were, constitutional. monarch limited in his rights. It is characteristic of Denmark to proclaim freedom of thought only for a select few and to preserve religion as a means of keeping the broad masses in obedience. In the 17-18 centuries. D. played a progressive role in the struggle for freedom of thought, for the independence of science from religion. In the present. time D. adhere to certain bourges. natural scientists who do not want to openly admit their spontaneous materialistic. position. On the other hand, for the present. D. often conceals the desire to justify religion, to adapt it to science (for example, in modern Catholicism). Lit .: K. Marx, F. Engels, Holy Family .., K. Marx and P. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., Vol. 2; Plekhanov G.V., On religion and. church, Fav. production., M., 1957; (Orbinsky R. B.), Eng. deists of the 17th and 18th centuries, Odessa, 1868 (Western Novoross. University, v. 3, v. 1); Deborin A. M., Essays on the history of materialism of the 17-18 centuries, M.-L., 1930; Voronitsyn I.P., History of Atheism, 3rd ed., (Ryazan, 1930), Lechler G. V. , Geschichte des englischen Deismus, Stuttg., 1841; Leslie S., History of English thought in the eighteenth century, L., 1876; Sayous A. E., Les d? Istes anglais et le christianisme ..., P., 1882. E. M. Weizmann. Moscow.

The key concept of Western rationalism (late 17th - 18th centuries), which recognizes the existence of God, but is extremely skeptical about religious rituals, the other world and divine intervention in worldly affairs. All the greatest thinkers of the eighteenth century were deists.

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DEISM

from lat. deus - god) - religious philosophy. a direction that rejects the idea of ​​a personal god and his daily intervention in the life of nature and society. D. considered God only as the primary cause, as the creator of the world - an impersonal principle that informed the world of its laws, which from the time of creation act independently. The early bourgeois. ideologues D. was a compromise form of struggle against officers. religion the ideology of feudalism, the "bourgeois variety" of Christianity (K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 1955, p. 85). The emergence of deistic. worldview was associated, in the words of Plekhanov, with the desire of the bourgeoisie "to limit royal power." Many progressive philosophers of the 16th and 17th centuries. reveal a tendency "to such a system of ideas in which the power of God is limited from all sides by the law and nature. Deism is heavenly parliamentarism" (Plekhanov G. V., On religion and church, 1957, p. 290). Putting reason (or feelings) as a criterion for the truth of knowledge, deist philosophers demanded reasonable faith, denied "positive" religion with its mystical. doctrine of revelation, opposed many dogmas and rituals, defended freedom of conscience and thought and strove to create a "natural religion", "the religion of Reason." D. saw the proof of the existence of God as the primary cause of the world in the harmony and expediency of the "amazing machine" of nature (the so-called "physical-theological" proof of the existence of God). Thus, opposing miracles and the idea of ​​everyday intervention of God in the life of the universe, D. allowed the original miracle. Cherbury is considered the founder of D. ("Treatise on Truth ..." - Herbert?. Of Cherbury, De Veritate ..., 1624). D. did not appear in philosophy. the views of its representatives as a single trend: materialists, idealists, thinkers with eclecticism acted under its flag. worldview. Certain idealist philosophers - Leibniz, Hume, and Kant (Religion Within Reason Only, 1793, Russian translation, 1908) - adjoined to D.. D.'s supporters in its progressive version tended to interpret the most important natural phenomena or to metaphysics. materialism, considering matter as an inert mass, set in motion by the "first impulse", or to dualism; many of them based their ideas about the world on new discoveries of natural science, defended independence from the religion of science, reason and morality based on it. Explanations of the phenomena of societies. they were looking for life in the laws of nature, and they considered man as a part of a cut (see Social Contract). For materialists, as Marx put it, D. "is nothing more than a convenient and easy way to get rid of religion" (K. and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 2, p. 144), since he made it possible, hiding behind the recognition of God, to consider the laws of nature and society outside the deities. predetermines, as independent and, moreover, comprehensible of natures. cognizes. by human means. Deists-materialists in England included Toland (Letters to Serena, 1704, Russian translation 1927; Pantheistikon, 1720, Russian translation 1927), Collins (Study of Human Freedom - A philosophical inquiry concerning human liberty ", 1717), Priestley et al., in Germany - Edelman, in Russia - Lomonosov and Radishchev (about the presence of deistic inconsistency, in whose materialism there is controversy, see Voprosy filosofii, 1958, No 5). Deists were such progressive thinkers as Newton (Letter to Bentley, Feb. 11, 1693), Locke (Four Letters Concerning Tolerance, etc., 1685-1704, ed. 1689-1706 ; "Experience of the Human Mind", 1690, Russian transl. 1898, p. 312; 625–30; 702–09), Voltaire (Candide, 1759, Russian translation, see this book: Selected works ., 1947, pp. 45-58, 124-26; "Conversations between A, B and C", 1768, Russian translation see ibid., Pp. 457-99), Jefferson, Franklin ("Origin" - "First principles", in his book: Works, v. 2, 1840, pp. 1-3). Deists were also the "freethinkers" Shaftesbury (A Letter concerning Enthusiasm, 1708), Tyndall (Christianity not as old as Creation, 1730), Bolingbroke, Rousseau (The Confession Faith of the Savoyard Vicar ", 1762, see VKN .:" Emil, or about education ", St. Petersburg, 1912, pp. 265–79; 298–309), Lessing. D. was widespread among the Russian. progressive thinkers late 18 - early. 19th century (I.P. Pnin, I.D. Ertov, A.S. Lubkin, some Decembrists). However, by the end of the 18th century. in France, D. was criticized by the French. metaphysical. materialists and atheists - Holbach ("The System of Nature", Moscow, 1940, pp. 321–43), Diderot ("Rameau's Nephew" and other works, see Collected works, vol. 1, M.-L. , 1935, pp. 91-122; 142-77; 292-98; 367-82). In Russia in the 1920s. 19th century D. was criticized by N. Kryukov, A. P. Baryatinsky (Selected Social-Political and Philosophical Productions of the Decembrists, vol. 2, 1951, pp. 400–01; 437–40). K ser. 19th century D. turned into a reactionary. system used by supporters of theological. worldview to shield religion from criticism of atheists and materialists. In modern. bourgeois. idealistic. philosophy, reviving the idea of ​​the Middle-century. scholasticism, D. does not play on his own. role, but it is adhered to by many. natural scientists who see in the ordering of the world as evidence of the existence of an impersonal creator (see. E. Long, Religious beliefs of American scientists, Phil. 1952; Yu. A. Levada, Modern fideism and science, "Problems of Philosophy", 1957, No 3, p. 77; the author cites material characterizing deistic. tendencies in the worldview of nek-ry modern naturalists). Lit .: Excellent definition

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With the onset of the industrial revolution in Europe, the worldview of people was rapidly changing. Science was actively developing: the textile industry appeared, metallurgy was invented, many natural phenomena were explained from the point of view of physics. As a result, the dogmas of the Catholic Church were questioned, and persecutions began against scholars who had renounced the faith (Inquisition).

The European society of the 16-17th centuries needed a new teaching that would give people comprehensive answers to the questions that arose. Deism was called upon to explain the unsolvable questions within the framework of religion.

Definition

What is meant by deism? Can it be considered a religion?

Deism in philosophy is a direction of social thought that arose in the 17th century. It is a synthesis of rationalism with the idea of ​​God. According to deism, the original cause of the emergence of the world was God or some It was he who gave the impetus for the development of that amazing and beautiful that surrounds us. Then he left the world to develop according to natural laws.

Deism in philosophy appeared thanks to the revolutionary bourgeoisie, which denied feudalism and the unlimited power of the Church.

It's time to figure out what deism is: religion, philosophy, or a worldview concept? Most sources define it as a direction or course of thought that explains the world order. Deism is definitely not a religion because it denies dogma. Some scholars even define this philosophical trend as latent atheism.

Where did deism begin?

The birthplace of deism was England, then the doctrine became popular in France and Germany. In each of the countries, the direction had its own characteristic color, combined with the mentality of the people. These three countries were the centers of the ideology of the Enlightenment, most of the scientific discoveries took place in them.

In England, deism was not widespread among educated people. Only a narrow stratum of writers and philosophers, led by Lord Cherbury, “ignited” a new idea. They wrote numerous works based on the ideas of ancient philosophers. The founder of deism sharply criticized the church: he believed that she had unlimited power based on the blind faith of people.

The second name for deism is the religion of reason, described in A Treatise on Truth, Cherbury's work. The peak of popularity of the trend in England fell on the first half of the 18th century: the ideas of the doctrine began to be shared even by deeply religious people.

Deism was of great importance to France: Voltaire, Mellier and Montesquieu harshly criticized the authority of the church. They protested not against belief in God, but against the prohibitions and restrictions imposed by religion, as well as against the great power of church officials.

Voltaire is a key figure in The scientist from Christian to deist. He recognizes rational faith, not blind faith.

German Deists read the works of their English and French contemporaries. They then formed the popular Enlightenment movement. The German philosopher Wolf was a deist: thanks to him, the Protestant religion became freer.

Deists - famous historical figures and scholars

Unsurprisingly, the classic deist had a college degree and a history. When a person knows physics, it is impossible to convince him that a rainbow or thunder are divine phenomena. A scientist can assume that the primary cause of everything was God, who formed a harmonious and beautiful world, gave him logical laws by which everything lives and moves. But the Almighty does not interfere in the events taking place. They occur in accordance with open physical laws.

Famous deists were:

• Isaac Newton.
• Voltaire.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
• David Hume.
• Alexander Radishchev.
• Jean Boden.
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck.
• Mikhail Lomonosov.

The ideas of deism are still popular today. Many Western scientists are deists - they recognize the Divine principle of the world, while they are well aware of their field of science.

Theism, deism, pantheism - what is the difference?

The difference between these similar-sounding words is great:

• Theism is a worldview concept based on faith in one God. The two world religions - Christianity and Islam - are theistic. They refer to that is, they recognize one God.
• Deism is not a religion, as mentioned earlier, but a symbiosis of two Creators and the laws of science. This philosophical trend is not based on revelation, but recognizes reason, intellect and statistics.
• Pantheism is a religious and philosophical trend that equates God with nature. It is possible to understand “God” through a rapprochement with the Universe and with nature.

Having defined the concepts, we list the main differences between these concepts from each other:

• Theism is the same as religion. Recognizes the existence of one God, who created the world and to this day helps people. Pantheism and deism are philosophical trends that describe the world order.
• Deism is a flow of thought that combines the idea of ​​God, who created the Universe, and the idea of ​​the further development of the world according to certain laws, already without the intervention of the Creator. Pantheism is a philosophical trend that identifies the concept of God with nature. Deism and pantheism are fundamentally different things that should not be confused with each other.

The influence of deism on the development of philosophy

Deism in philosophy is an absolutely new direction, which gave rise to at least three worldview concepts:

• Empiricism.
• Materialism.
• Atheism.

Many German scholars relied on the ideas of deism. Kant used them in his famous work "Religion Within Only Reason." Even to Russia, the echoes of the European Enlightenment reached: in the 18-19th centuries, the new direction became popular with Russian progressive figures.

Deistic ideas contributed to:

• Combating prejudice and superstition.
• Dissemination of scientific knowledge.
• A positive interpretation of progress.
• The development of social thought.

conclusions

Deism is a fundamentally new direction in philosophy, which rapidly spread throughout Europe. The inquisitive minds of medieval scientists, philosophers and thinkers combined the idea of ​​God the Creator with scientific discoveries.

We can say that the public demand for a new ideological concept was successfully satisfied. Deism contributed to the development of science, art and free thinking.