The doctrine of I. P. Pavlov about two signal systems of reality. Higher nervous activity in humans, as well as in animals, is of a reflex nature. And a person develops conditioned reflexes to various signals from the external world or develops internal inhibition.
Common to both animals and humans are the analysis and synthesis of specific signals, objects and phenomena of the external world that make up the first signaling system.
The higher nervous activity of man has its own qualitative characteristics that place it above the entire animal world.
The collective labor activity of people contributed to the emergence and development of articulate speech, which introduced something new into the activity cerebral hemispheres brain. Only humans have a highly developed consciousness and abstract thinking. In the process of human development, an “extraordinary increase” in the mechanisms of brain function appeared. This is the second signal system of reality. In humans, signals of the second system appeared, developed and extremely improved in the form of words spoken, heard and read. Words and speech signals can not only replace direct signals, but also generalize them, highlight individual characteristics of objects and phenomena, and establish their connections.
The emergence of the second signaling system introduced a new principle into the activity of the cerebral hemispheres of the human brain. I. P. Pavlov wrote that if our sensations and ideas related to the world around us are the first signals of reality, concrete signals, then the signals going to the cortex from the speech organs are the second signals, “signals of signals.” They represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which is what constitutes our specifically human thinking. The development of verbal signaling has made generalization and distraction possible, which is expressed in concepts.
The second signaling system is socially conditioned. Outside of society, without communication with other people, it does not develop.
The first and second signaling systems are inseparable from each other; they function together. The higher nervous activity of man in this sense is united.
§3. Types of higher nervous activity
The concept of the type of higher nervous activity. Conditioned reflex activity depends on the individual properties of the nervous system. The individual properties of the nervous system are determined by the hereditary characteristics of the individual and his life experience. The combination of these properties is called the type of higher nervous activity.
Properties nervous processes. I.P. Pavlov, based on many years of studying the characteristics of the formation and course of conditioned reflexes in animals, identified 4 main types of higher nervous activity. He based the division into types on three main indicators:
1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition;
2) balance, i.e. the ratio of the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition;
3) the mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition, that is, the speed with which excitation can be replaced by inhibition, and vice versa.
Classification of types of higher nervous activity. Based on the manifestation of these three properties, I. P. Pavlov identified:
1) the type is strong, but unbalanced, with a predominance of excitation over inhibition (“uncontrollable” type);
2) the type is strong, balanced, with great mobility of nervous processes (“living”, mobile type);
3) a strong, balanced type, with low mobility of nervous processes (“calm”, sedentary, inert type);
4) weak type with rapid depletion of nerve cells, leading to loss of performance.
I. P. Pavlov believed that the main types of higher nervous activity found in animals coincide with the four temperaments established in people by the Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 4th century BC. e. The weak type corresponds to a melancholic temperament; strong unbalanced type - choleric temperament; strong, balanced, active type - sanguine temperament; strong, balanced, with low mobility of nervous processes - phlegmatic temperament.
However, it should be borne in mind that the hemispheres of the human brain, as a social being, have more advanced synthetic activity than those of animals. A person is characterized by a qualitatively special nervous activity associated with the presence of his speech function.
Depending on the interaction and balance of signal systems, I. P. Pavlov, along with four types common to humans and animals, identified specially human types of higher nervous activity:
1. Artistic type. Characterized by the predominance of the first signaling system over the second. This type includes people who directly perceive reality, widely use sensory images, and are characterized by figurative, objective thinking.
2. Thinking type. These are people with a predominance of the second signaling system, “thinkers”, with a pronounced ability for abstract thinking.
3. Most people belong to the average type with balanced activity of two signaling systems. They are characterized by both figurative impressions and speculative conclusions.
Plasticity of types of higher nervous activity. The innate properties of the nervous system are not immutable. They can change to one degree or another under the influence of upbringing due to the plasticity of the nervous system. The type of higher nervous activity consists of the interaction of the inherited properties of the nervous system and the influences that an individual experiences during life.
IP Pavlov called the plasticity of the nervous system the most important pedagogical factor. The strength and mobility of nervous processes can be trained, and children of the unbalanced type, under the influence of upbringing, can acquire traits that bring them closer to representatives of the balanced type. Prolonged overexertion of the inhibitory process in children of a weak type can lead to a “breakdown” of higher nervous activity and the emergence of neuroses. Such children have difficulty getting used to the new work schedule and need special attention.
Age-related characteristics of conditioned reflexes. Types of higher nervous activity of a child. Adaptive reactions of a newborn child to external influences are ensured by orienting reflexes. Conditioned reflexes during the neonatal period are very limited in nature and are developed only to vital stimuli. Already in the first days of a child’s life, one can note the formation of a natural conditioned reflex during feeding, which is expressed in the awakening of children and increased motor activity. Sucking movements of the lips appear before the nipple is inserted into the mouth. It is clear that such a reflex manifests itself only with a strict feeding regime for children. With a strict feeding regimen on the 6th-7th day, infants experience a conditioned reflex increase in the number of leukocytes already 30 minutes before feeding, and their gas exchange increases before meals. By the end of the second week, a conditioned reflex appears in the form of sucking movements when the baby is positioned for feeding. Here the signal is a complex of stimuli acting from receptors of the skin, motor and vestibular apparatus, constantly combined with food reinforcement.
From the middle of the first month of life, conditioned reflexes arise to various primary signal stimuli: light, sound, olfactory stimulation.
The rate of formation of conditioned reflexes in the first month of life is very low and increases rapidly with age. Thus, a protective reflex to light occurs only after 200 combinations, if its development began on the 15th day after birth, and less than 40 combinations are required if the development of the same reflex began in a one and a half month old child. From the first days of a child’s life, unconditional (external) inhibition appears. The baby stops sucking if a sharp sound is suddenly heard. Conditioned (internal) inhibition is developed later. Its appearance and strengthening are determined by the maturation of the nervous elements of the cerebral cortex. The first manifestations of differentiation of motor conditioned reflexes are noted by the 20th day of life, when the child begins to differentiate the feeding position from the changing procedure. A clear differentiation of visual and auditory conditioned stimuli is observed at 3-4 months. Other types of internal inhibition are formed later than differentiation. Thus, the development of delayed inhibition becomes possible from the age of 5 months (M. M. Koltsova).
The development of internal inhibition in a child is an important factor in education. In the first year of life, it is advisable to cultivate inhibition, attracting facial expressions and gestures that characterize the negative attitude of adults, or stimuli that distract the child’s attention, i.e., they are an external inhibitor. For proper development For a child in the first year of life, a strict regime is very important - a certain sequence of alternating sleep, wakefulness, feeding, and walks. This is determined by the significance of the stereotype of interoceptive conditioned reflexes at this age. By the end of the first year, complexes of external exteroceptive stimuli that characterize the situation as a whole become important. The word becomes one of the important components of the complex of stimuli.
The first signs of the development of the second signaling system appear in the child in the second half of the first year of life. During the development of a child, the sensory mechanisms of speech, which determine the possibility of perceiving a word, are formed earlier than the motor ones, with which the ability to speak is associated. The period of formation of the function is especially sensitive to formative influences, so you need to talk with the child from the first days of his life. When caring for a child, you need to name all your actions, name the surrounding objects. This is very important, since in order to form connections of the second signal system, it is necessary to combine the verbal designation of objects, phenomena, surrounding people with their specific image - to combine primary-signal irritations with secondary-signal stimuli.
By the end of the first year of life, the word becomes a significant irritant. However, during this period, children’s reaction to a word does not have an independent meaning; it is determined by a complex of stimuli, and only later does the word acquire the meaning of an independent signal (M. M. Koltsova). During the first year of life, the child actively trains in pronunciation, first of individual sounds, then of syllables and finally of words. The formation of speech function requires a certain maturity of the peripheral apparatus - the tongue, muscles of the larynx, lips, and their coordinated activity.
The mechanism of speech reproduction is associated with the complex coordinated work of the nerve centers of the cortex, the formation of certain connections between speech centers and motor areas. A close connection between speech function and motor activity has been shown, especially with finely coordinated movements of the fingers. By developing finely coordinated actions, you can accelerate the formation of speech skills.
A child’s speech develops especially intensively between the ages of 1 and 3 years. At this age, the child’s behavior is characterized by pronounced exploratory activity. The child reaches out to each object, feels it, looks inside, tries to pick it up, and puts it in his mouth. At this age, injuries easily occur due to curiosity and lack of experience, and the frequency of acute infections increases due to the child’s increased contact with other children and his environment.
The conditioned reflex activity of children of this age changes significantly. In the second year of life, individual objects begin to be isolated from the generalized undifferentiated world surrounding the child as separate complexes of irritations. This is made possible by manipulating objects. Therefore, you should not limit the movements of children: let them dress, wash, and eat themselves.
Thanks to actions with objects, children begin to develop a generalization function. Extensive use of objects develops a child's motor analyzer.
In the second year of life, a child develops a large number of conditioned reflexes to the relationship between the size, severity, and distance of objects (identification of faster and slower stimuli, larger or smaller in comparison with others). Of particular importance is the development of systems of conditioned connections to stereotypes of exteroceptive stimulation. In early childhood, dynamic stereotypes are especially important. With insufficient strength and mobility of nervous processes, stereotypes facilitate children’s adaptation to environment, they are the basis for the formation of habits and skills. Noteworthy is the great strength of the system of conditioned connections developed in children under 3 years of age, and the associated pain due to the violation of the stereotype: children are capricious, cry if you stay with them for a long time; They do not fall asleep for a long time if they are placed in a new place. For children under the age of 3, the development of a large number of different stereotypes not only does not present difficulties, but each subsequent stereotype is developed more and more easily. However, changing the order of stimuli in one stereotype is an extremely difficult task. Systems of conditioned connections developed at this time retain their significance throughout a person’s subsequent life, therefore the formation of stereotypes that are beneficial for health and have educational significance is especially important at this age.
In the second year, increased development of speech begins, the child’s assimilation of the grammatical structure of the language, while a large role belongs to the imitative reflex. An adult, communicating with a child, must Special attention pay attention to the correctness of your speech.
At this stage of development, mastery of actions with objects also has a decisive influence on the formation of the generalization of objects into words, i.e., the formation of the second signaling system.
In the process of child development in the development of new reactions, everything higher value acquires the use of previously formed connections. Systems of conditioned connections developed in early and preschool age (up to 5 years) are especially strong and retain their significance throughout life. This fact is important for teaching practice. The habits and skills developed at this age, which arose on the basis of strong conditioned reflex connections, largely determine a person’s behavior.
In preschool age, the role of the imitative and play reflex is very important. Children copy adults, their gestures, words, manners.
By the end of the preschool period, significant changes occur in the interaction of excitatory and inhibitory processes. As the cerebral cortex develops, the generalization of the excitatory process is gradually removed. Internal, conditioned inhibition is formed and becomes increasingly important. Differentiations are better developed, and periods of inhibition retention become longer. All this contributes to a more selective and adequate response of the child to external influences. At this age, the generalizing function of the word increases, the ability to generalize with words not only specific objects, but also many objects of the external world, categories of objects. So, the child begins to understand that a doll, a bear, a car are all toys, and toys, furniture, dishes, clothes are things. In older preschool age, the reflection of reality is already based on the development of complex systems of connections, including the interaction of the first and second signaling systems.
By the age of 6-7 years, reactivity to verbal stimuli improves. The nature of the interaction between the first and second signaling systems changes. In 3-4 year old children, the first signaling system prevails and has an inhibitory effect on the second. At 6-7 years of age, the increasing activity of the second signaling system has an overwhelming effect on the first signaling system. The development of the second signaling system is one of the important indicators of a child’s readiness for school.
At primary school age, as the cerebral cortex progressively matures, the strength, balance and mobility of nervous processes improve. The development of cortical inhibition processes creates conditions for the rapid and differentiated formation of conditioned connections. The formation of connections in the higher parts of the central nervous system is facilitated by the intensive maturation at this age of intracortical associative pathways that unite various nerve centers. In the process of learning to write and read, the generalizing function of the word continues to develop intensively. The importance of the second signaling system is increasing.
Some changes in conditioned reflex activity are noted in adolescence. The onset of puberty is characterized by increased activity of the hypothalamus. This causes a change in the balance of cortical-subcortical interaction, resulting in an increase in generalized excitation and a weakening of internal inhibition. Compared to the previous age group, the formation of temporary connections becomes more difficult in adolescence. The rate of formation of conditioned reflexes to both primary and secondary signal stimuli decreases. The peculiarities of the higher nervous activity of adolescents require an attentive attitude towards them and a thoughtful organization of the educational process.
Typological features of the child’s higher nervous activity. The formation of individual typological characteristics in the process of ontogenesis is determined by the gradual maturation of higher nerve centers. As will be shown below, during the development of a child, a change occurs in the relationship between the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures. This determines the characteristics of excitatory and inhibitory processes in childhood, and, consequently, the specificity of the manifestation of typological features.
N.I. Krasnogorsky, studying the higher nervous activity of a child on the basis of strength, balance, mobility of nervous processes, relationships between the cortex and subcortical formations, and the relationship between signaling systems, identified 4 types of nervous activity in childhood.
1. Strong, balanced, optimally excitable, fast type. Characterized by the rapid formation of conditioned reflexes, the strength of these reflexes is significant. Children of this type are capable of developing subtle differentiations. Their unconditioned reflex activity is regulated by a functionally strong cortex. Children of this type have well-developed speech with a rich vocabulary.
2. Strong, balanced, slow type. In children of this type, conditioned connections are formed more slowly, and extinct reflexes are also restored slowly. Children of this type are characterized by pronounced control of the cortex over unconditioned reflexes and emotions. They quickly learn to speak, but their speech is somewhat slow. They are active and persistent when performing complex tasks.
3. Strong, unbalanced, highly excitable, unrestrained type. It is characterized by insufficiency of the inhibitory process, strongly expressed subcortical activity, not always controlled by the cortex. Conditioned reflexes in such children quickly fade, and the resulting differentiations are unstable. Children of this type are characterized by high emotional excitability, temper, and affect. Speech in children of this type is rapid with occasional shouting.
4. Weak type with reduced excitability. Conditioned reflexes are formed slowly, unstable, speech is often slow. Easy to brake type. Characteristic is the weakness of internal inhibition with strongly pronounced external inhibition, which explains the difficulty of children getting used to new learning conditions and their changes. Children of this type cannot tolerate strong and prolonged irritation and get tired easily.
Significant differences in the basic properties of nervous processes in children belonging to different types determine their different functional capabilities in the process of learning and upbringing. The effectiveness of pedagogical influences is largely determined by an individual approach to students, taking into account their typological characteristics. At the same time, we have already pointed out that one of the distinguishing features of the types of higher nervous activity in humans is their plasticity. The plasticity of the cells of the cerebral cortex, their adaptability to changing environmental conditions is the morphofunctional basis for type transformation. Since the plasticity of nervous structures is especially great during the period of their intensive development, pedagogical influences that correct typological features are especially important to apply in childhood. I. P. Pavlov considered the plasticity of types to be the most important feature that allows one to educate, train and remake the character of people.
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Introduction
Human behavior is so different from the behavior of other representatives of the animal kingdom that scientists have come to the idea that humans have certain “...additional neurophysiological mechanisms that determine the characteristics of their higher nervous activity.”
Throughout history, many great minds of mankind have studied the differences in the functioning of the nervous system of animals and humans. Thus, the origins of the opposition between higher and lower forms of nervous activity go back to the ideas of the ancient Greek thinker Socrates about the existence of a “lower form of soul” in animals, different from the human soul, which has “mental power.”
For many centuries, ideas about the human soul and the unknowability of his mental activity remained inseparable in the minds of people. And although the idea of a reflex as a physiological phenomenon was first formulated by R. Descartes, who attributed this concept to automatic involuntary actions, it was only in the 19th century that the idea of the reflex nature of brain activity was revealed. This revolutionary theory was put forward by the founder of Russian physiology I.M. Sechenov in his book “Reflexes of the Brain”. In the work of I.M. Sechenov showed that all brain activity, including mental activity, is a chain of reflex processes. The merit of the development and experimental confirmation of the theoretical assumptions of I.M. Sechenov about the reflex nature of the work of the cerebral hemispheres belongs to I.P. Pavlova.
I.P. Pavlov also made a major discovery - the discovery of the conditioned reflex as the main mechanism of activity of the cerebral cortex. He also introduced the term “higher nervous activity” into science. The term “higher nervous activity” was used by I.P. Pavlov as a contrast to the concept of “lower nervous activity”, which is carried out on the basis of innate mechanisms and is aimed mainly at maintaining the homeostasis of the body in the process of its vital activity. He defined GNI as a combined conditioned and unconditioned reflex function of the cerebral cortex and subcortex, equivalent to the concept of “mental activity.”
The Soviet physiologist P.K. also made a great contribution to the study of GNI. Anokhin, who showed that the main condition for the formation of goal-directed behavior is the ability to achieve a biologically important result of the action. A.A. also studied problems of higher nervous activity. Ukhtomsky, N.A. Bernstein, G.G. Shpet, I. Muller, C. Bell, G. Helmholtz, K. Ludwig, E. Dubois-Reymond and others.
Currently, VND is defined as “the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, ensuring the most perfect adaptation of animals and humans to the environment.” In other words, GNI is “a set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, as well as higher mental functions that ensure adequate behavior in changing natural and social conditions» .
However, man is not only a product biological evolution, but also the social environment. The activity of the human brain is determined by all past experiences of humanity and the conditions of social life. The motivation to act to achieve a useful result is not inherent in the human brain, is not given to him from above, and is not merely a biological motivation aimed at the survival of only a given organism and maintaining its homeostasis. A person’s active behavior is often aimed at high goals, for the sake of which he not only upsets his balance with the environment, but sometimes even sacrifices his life.
A full disclosure of the features of human higher nervous activity and the mechanisms of his brain activity belongs to the future. It will bring a person extraordinary power - power over himself.
1. Anatomical and physiologicalbasicshighestnervousactivitiesperson
Since higher nervous activity is primarily a set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, we will focus primarily on them to identify the differences between the GNI of humans and higher animals.
The concept of “reflex” means a purposeful reaction of the body to irritation of its receptors with the participation of the central nervous system. From a physiological point of view, the reflex mechanism is described in the form of a reflex arc, or ring. This concept was formulated and confirmed by the English anatomist and physiologist C. Bell. The anatomical basis of the reflex arc, or, according to C. Bell, the nerve ring, is “... the conduction of excitation along the sensory nerve, its processing in the nerve center and transmission along the effector nerve to the organ of movement.” In other words, a reflex arc is a set of formations involved in the implementation of a reflex and represents a path from the receptor to the executive organ - a muscle or gland.
In the process of evolution, firmly fixed reflexes arose that provide the adaptive capabilities of the body, combine and coordinate its functions, are innate reactions and are inherited. All animals are born with certain reflexes characteristic of a given species. These reflexes, called innate or, according to I.P. Pavlov, of course, is provided with adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
However, for more effective interaction with the outside world, in higher animals in the process of individual life, qualitatively new reflex reactions arise, which I.P. Pavlov called them conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes are mobile, can be formed by irritation of any receptor apparatus and occur during any activity of the body. In each specific case, they are developed on the basis of the current dominant motivations.
The basic patterns of conditioned reflex activity are also common to both humans and higher animals. These patterns include the development of conditioned reflexes to various signals from the external world or internal state body; the emergence, under appropriate conditions, of unconditional or conditioned inhibition; irradiation and concentration of excitation and inhibition, induction, formation of dynamic stereotypes, etc.
When comparing unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, we can emphasize the following. Unconditioned reflexes are innate, inherited; are constant and relatively stable throughout life; are characteristic of all parts of the central nervous system, but are characteristic of its lower parts: subcortical nuclei, trunk and spinal cord; carried out by irritating a specific receptor with an adequate stimulus for it. Conditioned reflexes are acquired in the process of individual development of the organism; changeable: they can arise, become fixed or be lost if the need for them disappears; are produced with the obligatory participation of the cerebral cortex; can be formed in response to any irritation of any receptor fields (a conditioned food reflex can be developed to irritate visual, auditory, skin and other receptors). However, it is important that the stimulus, which would then act as a conditional stimulus, certainly precedes or coincides in time with the action of the unconditional: if the unconditional stimulus is given first and then the conditioned stimulus, then the conditioned reflex is not developed. Conditioned reflexes are formed and reinforced only after a sufficient number of repeated combinations. Their stability and rate of formation depend on the intensity of the unconditioned reaction (food conditioned reflexes are developed faster in a hungry animal). The formation of conditioned reflexes is also influenced by the strength of the conditioned stimulus: reflexes are more difficult to develop to weak signals than to stronger ones.
Conditioned reflex connections are carried out mainly in the cortex and subcortex of the brain. In every person, one of the cerebral hemispheres (the left for right-handers, the right for left-handers) is dominant, and it is also the one for speech. The anterior parts of the speech hemisphere are responsible for the dynamic organization of speech utterances. The posterior parts of the speech hemisphere are responsible for speech codes (phonemic, articulatory, semantic, etc.). Broca's center, located in the lower parts of the third frontal gyrus, in the left hemisphere of most people, controls the implementation of speech reactions. When it is damaged, one’s own speech is impaired, but the understanding of someone else’s speech is largely preserved. Wernicke's center belongs to the posterior parts of the speech cortex. It is located in the temporal lobe and facilitates speech understanding. The non-speech hemisphere (the right one in right-handed people) cannot provide the function of naming an object, but is capable of recognizing it. Although the linguistic abilities of right-handers are mainly associated with the left hemisphere, nevertheless, the right hemisphere also has some linguistic functions: it can understand written speech.
“The left hemisphere is involved mainly in analytical processes; it is the basis for logical thinking. It ensures speech activity: its understanding and construction, work with verbal symbols. The right hemisphere provides concrete figurative thinking, deals with non-verbal material, is responsible for certain skills in handling spatial signals, for structural-spatial transformations, and the ability for visual and tactile recognition of objects.”
There is an opinion that the functions of different hemispheres reflect different ways of cognition. The functions of the left hemisphere are identified with analytical thinking. The function of the right hemisphere is intuitive thinking. Musical abilities are also associated with the right hemisphere.
Normally, both hemispheres work in close cooperation, complementing each other.
2. Signalsystems.AvailabilitysecondsignalsystemsHowmaindistinctivepeculiarityperson
The perception and analysis of signals coming from the receptors of sensory organs and causing a certain response from the body is a common property of all representatives of the kingdom Animalia. At the same time, a person in the process of labor activity and social development An additional mechanism for the development of conditioned reflexes associated with verbal signals combined into speech appeared, developed and improved. It consists in the perception and analysis of words as conditioned stimuli. I.P. Pavlov, while studying reflex connections, introduced the concept of “signal systems,” dividing them into the first signaling system, common to animals and humans, and the second, specific only to humans.
The first signaling system - direct sensations and perceptions - forms the basis of GNI and is reduced to a set of conditional and unconditioned reflexes to immediate stimuli. In humans, it is characterized by a greater speed of spread and concentration of the nervous process, its mobility, which ensures rapid switching and formation of conditioned reflexes. It was found that animals are better at distinguishing individual stimuli, while humans are better at distinguishing between their combinations.
The second signaling system was formed in humans on the basis of the first as a system of speech signals (spoken, audible, visible), words. The words contain a generalization of the signals of the first signaling system. The process of generalization by word is developed during the formation of conditioned reflexes when group activities person.
Speaking about the features of human higher nervous activity, N.N. Danilova quotes the words of I.P. Pavlova: “The specificity of human higher nervous activity arose as a result of a new way of interaction with the outside world, which became possible during the work of people and which was expressed in speech. Speech arose as a means of communication between people in the process of work. Its development led to the emergence of language."
Thus, considering the evolution of the second signaling system, we can build the following logical chain: objects and phenomena of the objective world - their perception by sensory systems - the corresponding reaction of the body - the desire to transform the surrounding reality to satisfy needs - combining the efforts of several group members to obtain a more effective result - necessity communicate to coordinate actions - the emergence of words - combining them into speech - the formation of language as a system of generalized reflection of reality, understandable to all members of a given group of people.
The qualitative difference between the connections of the second signal system and the first is that the word, although it is a real physical stimulus (auditory, visual, kinesthetic), reflects not specific, but the most essential, basic properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. It is the word that provides the possibility of a generalized and abstract reflection of reality, which is formed only in the process of communication, i.e. determined by both biological and social factors.
The first and second signaling systems are inseparable from each other. In humans, all perceptions, ideas and most sensations are designated by words. It follows from this that the excitations of the first signal system, caused by specific signals from objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, are transmitted to the second signal system. Separate functioning of the first signaling system without the participation of the second (with the exception of pathology) is possible only in a child before he has mastered speech. Any learning and any creative activity are associated with the development and improvement of the second signaling system.
In the process of ontogenesis, several phases of development are distinguished joint activities two signaling systems. Initially (from infancy) “...conditioned reflexes are carried out at the level of the first signaling system. that is, the direct stimulus comes into contact with immediate vegetative and somatic reactions.” Conditioned reflexes to verbal stimuli appear only in the second half of the year of life, as the brain matures and new and increasingly complex associative-temporal connections are formed. The word is usually combined with other immediate stimuli, and as a result it becomes one of the components of the complex: “The transformation of the word ... into a “signal of signals” occurs at the end of the second year of life.”
Thus, it can be noted that the second signaling system develops in a person on the basis of the first and is formed only in the process of his socialization. With the emergence of language, humans developed new system stimuli in the form of words denoting various objects, phenomena of the surrounding world and their relationships. The ability to understand and then pronounce words develops in a person from childhood in the process of his development as a result of the association of certain combinations of sounds (words) with visual, tactile and other impressions of external objects. By joining the direct image of an object or phenomenon, the word highlights its essential features, analyzing and generalizing its qualities; thereby it translates the meaning this image into a system of meaning that is understandable both to the speaker himself and to any listener. “Through the word, a person can gain knowledge about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world without direct contact with them. The system of verbal symbols expands the possibilities of a person’s adaptation to the environment, the possibility of his orientation in the natural and social world.”
United into special sign systems - languages - words have become a powerful stimulus and regulator of human behavior. There are currently more than 2,500 known living developing languages. Language knowledge, unlike unconditioned reflexes, is not inherited. However, humans have genetic prerequisites for acquiring language and communicating through speech. They are embedded in the characteristics of his central nervous system, speech apparatus, and larynx. Language acquisition occurs as a result of learning; Therefore, the fact of what language a person acquires as a native language depends on the environment in which he lives and the conditions of his upbringing.
Language is realized and realized in speech - the process of speaking, which occurs over time and takes on audio or written form. This speech process has several functions, each of which affects the higher nervous activity of a person. During the communicative function (communication between people), either an indication of an object or phenomenon is carried out (i.e., attracting the interlocutor’s attention to it), or the listener is encouraged to take some action. The regulatory function of speech realizes itself in higher mental functions - conscious forms of mental activity. The programming function is expressed in the construction of semantic schemes of speech utterances, grammatical structures sentences, in the transition from a plan to an external, detailed statement, i.e. produces "internal programming", carried out using inner speech.
Thus, human speech expresses the general features and qualities of the surrounding world, presented in all the diversity of specific phenomena and sensations, and therefore the importance of speech for the development of human thinking is enormous. The system of verbal symbols developed in the process of evolution expanded the possibilities of man’s adaptation to the environment, the possibility of his orientation in the natural and social world.
To summarize the above, it should be noted that humans are characterized by two types of brain function. The first determines the transformation of immediate stimuli into signals various types activity of the organism, related to the system of concrete, immediate, sensory images of reality. The second type of brain work is responsible for the function that deals with verbal symbols (“signals”), which refers to a system of generalized reflection of the surrounding reality in the form of concepts, the content of which is fixed in words, mathematical symbols, and images of works of art.
The peculiarity of the integrative activity of the human nervous system is carried out not only on the basis of direct sensations and impressions, but also by operating with words. At the same time, the word acts not only as a means of expressing thoughts, but also rebuilds the thinking and intellectual functions of a person, since the thought itself is accomplished and formed only with the help of the word.
nervous reflex consciousness human
Conclusion
A feature of human higher nervous activity is parallel existence two signaling systems: “In humans, unlike animals, there are two systems of signal stimuli: the first signal system, consisting of the direct influences of the internal and external environment on sensory inputs, and the second signal system, consisting mainly of words denoting these influences.”
The replacement of a reaction-provoking sensation with a word occurs in a person in the process of his social and labor activity, and the word is also a means of cognition of the surrounding reality, a generalized and indirect reflection of its essential properties. In words, in language, it is no longer concrete, but abstract thinking that is expressed; it is formed in language, and cannot exist without it.
Thanks to the second signaling system (the word), humans form temporary connections more quickly than animals, because a word carries the socially developed meaning of an object. Temporary human neural connections are more stable and persist without reinforcement for many years.
The first and second signaling systems are interconnected. The second functions thanks to the information that comes from the first signaling system, transforming it into specific concepts. The action of a word as a conditioned stimulus can have the same force as the immediate primary signal stimulus, and the signal meaning of the word is determined by its semantic perception. Thus, not only mental, but also physiological processes are influenced by words. This is the basis of suggestion and self-hypnosis.
In all people, the second signaling system predominates over the first, and the degree of this predominance is not the same, which gives grounds to divide people into three types:
1) thinking;
2) artistic;
3) average (mixed).
The thinking type includes persons with a significant predominance of the second signaling system over the first. They have more developed abstract thinking (mathematicians, philosophers); Their direct reflection of reality occurs in insufficiently vivid images. The artistic type includes people with a lesser predominance of the second signaling system over the first. They are characterized by liveliness and brightness of specific images (artists, writers, performers, designers, inventors, etc.). The average, or mixed, type of people occupies an intermediate position between the first two. People with excessive development of the first signaling system, as a rule, have a poorly developed tendency to abstraction and theorization. However, the excessive predominance of the second signaling system, bordering on its separation from the first signaling system, is also an undesirable quality of a person.
A feature of a person’s GNI is also the awareness of many internal processes his life. Consciousness is the main function of the human brain; thinking itself is inextricably linked with this next, second stage in the development of higher nervous activity, characteristic only of man. Reflecting reality in logical forms of thinking, that is, ascending from sensations, impressions and concrete sensory representations to abstract general concepts, a person identifies what is essential in objects and phenomena. With the help of three inherent features - consciousness, thinking and speech - he reveals more fully and deeply the real essence of the objective and subjective world.
Thus, although the higher nervous activity of both animals and humans is based general mechanisms, it is the above-mentioned features that have made Homo sapiens today's crown of evolution.
Listusedliterature:
1. Danilova, H.H. Physiology of higher nervous activity / H.H. Danilova, A.L. Krylova. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2005. - 478 p.
2. Zhdan, A.N. History of psychology: Textbook / A.N. Zhdan. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990. - 367s.
3. Kemp, P. Introduction to biology / P. Kemp, K. Arms; [transl. from English]. - M.: Mir, 1988. - 671 p.
4. Leiman, D. Biology without secrets / D. Leiman; [transl. from English and ed. A.E. Dobrochaeva]. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. - 416s.
5. Nemov, R.S. Psychology: Textbook for students of higher pedagogical educational institutions: in 3 books. / R.S. Nemov. - 3rd ed. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 1997. - Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. - 688s.
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Features of higher nervous activity in humans The principles and patterns of higher nervous activity are common to both animals and humans. However, the higher nervous activity of humans differs significantly from the higher nervous activity of animals. A person, in the process of his social and labor activity, develops and achieves high level development of a fundamentally new signaling system. The first signaling system of reality is the system of our immediate sensations, perceptions, impressions of specific objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The word (speech) is the second signaling system (signal of signals). It arose and developed on the basis of the first signaling system and is significant only in close connection with it. Thanks to the second signaling system (the word), humans form temporary connections more quickly than animals, because the word carries the socially developed meaning of the object. Temporary human nervous connections are more stable and remain without reinforcement for many years. The word is a means of cognition of the surrounding reality, a generalized and indirect reflection of its essential properties.
With the word “a new principle of nervous activity is introduced - distraction and at the same time generalization of countless signals - a principle that determines limitless orientation in the surrounding world and creates the highest human adaptation - science.” The action of a word as a conditioned stimulus can have the same power as the immediate primary signal stimulus.
Not only mental, but also physiological processes are influenced by words (this underlies suggestion and self-hypnosis). The second signaling system has two functions - communicative (it ensures communication between people) and the function of reflecting objective patterns.
A word not only gives a name to an object, but also contains a generalization. The second signal system includes the word audible, visible (written) and pronounced. The typological features of higher nervous activity were discussed above.
They are common to humans and higher animals (four types). But people have specific typological features associated with the second signaling system. In all people, the second signaling system prevails over the first. The degree of this predominance varies. This gives grounds to divide the higher nervous activity of a person into three types: 1) mental; 2) artistic; 3) average (mixed). The thinking type includes persons with a significant predominance of the second signaling system over the first.
They have more developed abstract thinking (mathematicians, philosophers); Their direct reflection of reality occurs in insufficiently vivid images. The artistic type includes people with a lesser predominance of the second signaling system over the first. They are characterized by liveliness and brightness of specific images (artists, writers, performers, designers, inventors, etc.). The average, or mixed, type of people occupies an intermediate position between the first two.
Excessive predominance of the second signaling system, bordering on its separation from the first signaling system, is an undesirable quality of a person. “We must remember,” said I.P. Pavlov, “that the second signal system has meaning through the first signal system and in connection with the last, and if it is separated from the first signal system, then you turn out to be an idle talker, a chatterbox and will not find a place for yourself in life." People with an excessive predominance of the first signaling system, as a rule, have a less developed tendency to abstraction and theorization.
Modern research higher nervous activity is characterized by the development of an integral approach to the study of the holistic functioning of the brain. Motivation and regulation of behavior. Mental processes and states. Motivation of activity and behavior. The concept of activity and behavior Activity is the purposeful interaction of a person with the environment, carried out on the basis of its knowledge and aimed at transforming it to meet human needs.
Activity is a complex and multifaceted category that includes many aspects of humankind’s interaction with the world. Activities are determined by internal (mental) and external conditions and are carried out in the form in various ways(systems of techniques and operations), with the help of certain means. In the ontogenetic development of a person, three leading types of activity are usually distinguished: play, learning, work. But this is only the most general classification of activities.
It excludes such an important form of human life as the activity of including a person in the system social connections, formation of socially adapted behavior. Behavior is called social significant system human actions. Individual behavioral actions are called an act if they correspond to generally accepted norms of behavior, and a misdemeanor if they do not correspond to these norms. Socially dangerous, criminally punishable, guilty behavior committed under the control of the will and consciousness of a person is called a crime.
One of the main prerequisites for criminal behavior is the negative qualities of a person: selfishness, individualism, disregard for the rights and interests of other citizens, acquisitiveness, careerism, vindictiveness, cruelty, the desire to stand out in the reference, attractive this person, group. These qualities are not innate, but are formed depending on conditions mental development person.
The formation of a person is the formation of his needs and ways of satisfying them. Needs, motivational states and motives of activity The prerequisite for human behavior, the source of his activity is need. Needing certain conditions, a person strives to eliminate the deficit that has arisen. The conditions necessary for the life and development of a person are divided into the following groups: a) conditions necessary for the life and development of a person as a natural organism (hence natural or organic needs); b) conditions necessary for the life and development of a person as an individual, as a representative of the human race (conditions for communication, knowledge and work); c) the conditions necessary for the life and development of a given person as an individual, to satisfy a broad system of his individualized needs.
Need is the need to equalize deviations from the parameters of life that are optimal for a person as a biological being, an individual and a personality.
Needs determine the direction of a given person’s psyche, its increased excitability to certain aspects of reality. Needs are divided into natural and cultural. Cultural needs are divided into material, material-spiritual (books, art objects, etc.) and spiritual. Human needs are socially conditioned. Depending on the range of social requirements these needs are associated with, their different levels differ.
Human needs are hierarchized, i.e. organized in a certain subordinate scheme. The hierarchy of individual needs constitutes the main distinguishing feature of the individual—its orientation. But despite the significant diversity of individual needs, it is possible to isolate the basic scheme of personal needs. All levels of needs are interconnected, the regulation of human behavior simultaneously interacts with all levels - the so-called “end-to-end regulation” occurs, associated with the interaction of these levels.
Deprivation of one of the needs leads to deformation personal behavior in general. For example, the inability to satisfy the need for security leads to an increase in the level of anxiety of the individual, to a curtailment of his opportunities for self-realization; difficulty in satisfying physiological needs leads to a decrease in cognitive needs, etc. The hierarchy of personal needs changes with the development of the individual; its highest levels “mature” only when the individual reaches psychological maturity.
But once the higher levels of needs are formed, especially the needs for self-realization and self-improvement, they begin to play a system-forming role in the system of needs. Autonomy of its individual levels leads to a narrowing of the interests of the individual, and in some cases to asocial ways of their implementation. A socialized individual has a need for self-esteem, to understand himself, the meaning of his existence.
It has great importance for its adaptation to the environment. Hierarchy of human needs Need for self-realization Cognitive needs Need for recognition, respect Need for affection Need for security Physiological needs For normal social functioning, it is necessary for a person to be involved in activities in which he would find the meaning of his existence. This implies the need for work, creative work, in which the basic abilities of a person would be revealed.
The absence of this fundamental human need is the main indicator of social deformation of the individual. Organic human needs arise without their special formation, while all social needs arise only in the process of their special formation and education. People's needs depend on the historical level of production and consumption, on human living conditions, on traditions and prevailing tastes in a given social group.
Needs are consolidated in the process of satisfying them. The satisfied need first disappears, but then arises with greater intensity. Weak needs become more persistent in the process of their repeated satisfaction. More and more new needs arising as a result of activity are the main stimulus for both the development of the individual and the historical progress of society as a whole.
A need becomes the basis of a behavioral act only if there are or can be created to satisfy it. necessary funds and conditions (subject of activity, instrument of activity, knowledge and methods of action). The more diverse the means of satisfying a given need, the more firmly they are fixed. A need, from a neurophysiological point of view, is the formation of a dominant, a stable excitation of certain brain mechanisms that are associated with the regulation of necessary behavioral acts.
The emerging need causes motivational excitation of the corresponding nerve centers, inducing the body to a certain type of activity. At the same time, all the necessary memory mechanisms are revived, data on the presence of external conditions are processed, and on the basis of this, a purposeful action is formed. So, an actualized need causes a certain neurophysiological state - motivation. Motivation is the need-driven excitation of certain nervous structures (functional systems) that cause directed activity of the body.
The admission of certain sensory stimuli into the cerebral cortex, their strengthening or weakening, depends on the motivational state. The effectiveness of an external stimulus depends not only on its objective qualities, but also on the motivational state of the body (a well-fed body does not respond to the most attractive food). External stimuli become stimuli, that is, signals to action, only with the appropriate motivational state of the organism.
Thus, need-driven motivational states are characterized by the fact that the brain models the parameters of objects that are necessary to satisfy the need, and patterns of activity to master the required object. These patterns - behavior programs - can be either innate, instinctive, or based on individual experience, or newly created from elements of experience. The implementation of activities is controlled by comparing the achieved intermediate and final results with what was pre-programmed.
Satisfying a need relieves motivational tension and, causing a positive emotion, “affirms” this type of activity (including it in the fund of useful actions). Failure to satisfy a need causes negative emotion, increased motivational tension and, at the same time, search activity. Thus, motivation is an individualized mechanism for correlating external and internal factors that determines the behavior of a given individual.
In the animal world, modes of behavior are determined by a reflexive correlation of the external situation with current, pressing organic needs. Thus, hunger causes certain actions depending on the external situation. In human life, the external environment itself can actualize various needs. Thus, in criminal dangerous situation one person is guided only by the organic need of self-preservation, another is dominated by the need to fulfill his civic duty, the need to help other people, the third is to show valor in a fight, to distinguish himself, etc. All forms and methods of conscious behavior of a person are determined by his relationship to to various parties reality.
Human motivational states differ significantly from the motivational states of animals in that they are regulated by a second signaling system - the word. Human motivational states include attitudes, interests, desires, aspirations and drives.
Types of motivational states: attitudes, interests, desires, aspirations, drives An attitude is a stereotypical readiness to act in a certain way in a corresponding situation. This readiness for stereotypical behavior arises on the basis of past experience. Attitudes are the unconscious basis of behavioral acts in which neither the purpose of the action nor the need for the sake of which it is performed is realized.
The following types of attitudes are distinguished: 1) Situational-motor (motor) attitude (for example, the readiness of the hand to operate large or small objects). 2) Sensory-perceptual installation (waiting for a call, identifying a significant signal from the general noise background). 3) Social-perceptual attitude - stereotypes of perception of socially significant objects (for example, the presence of tattoos is interpreted as a sign of a criminalized personality). 4) Cognitive-cognitive attitude (the investigator’s prejudice regarding the guilt of the interrogated leads to the dominance of incriminating evidence in his mind, while exculpatory evidence recedes into the background). 5) Mnemonic setting - setting to memorize significant material. But in most cases, a person is aware of the actions necessary under given conditions, anticipates their results in ideal images, is aware of the purpose of these actions.
Objective conditions of behavior are recognized in a system of concepts. The motivational state of a person is a mental reflection of the conditions necessary for the life of a person as an organism, an individual and a personality.
This is a reflection necessary conditions carried out in the form of interests, desires, aspirations and drives. Interest (from the Latin “means”) is a selective attitude towards objects and phenomena as a result of understanding their meaning and emotional experience of significant situations. Interests are determined by the dominant orientation of the individual. The interests of the individual are determined by his belonging to a certain social group.
A person’s interests are determined by the system of his needs, but the connection between interests and needs is not straightforward, and sometimes it is not realized. Interest, like everything else mental states, significantly influences the course of mental processes and activates them. In accordance with needs, interests are divided by content (material and spiritual), by breadth (limited and versatile) and sustainability (short-term and sustainable). Direct and indirect interests also differ (for example, the interest shown by the investigator in any material evidence is an indirect interest, while his direct interest is the disclosure of the entire crime as a whole). Interests can be positive or negative.
They not only stimulate a person to activity, but they themselves are formed in it. The breadth and depth of a person’s interests determines the usefulness of his life. The narrowness of the circle of interests, their dependence only on material needs, and the lack of full-fledged sustainable interests often underlie criminal behavior.
Personality characteristics include determining the range of interests of a given person. References To prepare this work, materials from the site http://www.portalus.ru were used.
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In experiments with animals I.P. Pavlov found that in some animals positive conditioned reflexes are formed quickly, and inhibitory reflexes are formed slowly. In other animals, on the contrary, positive conditioned reflexes are developed slowly, and inhibitory ones faster. In the third group of animals, both reflexes are easily developed and firmly established. It was found that the effect of certain stimuli depends not only on their quality, but also on the typological features of the GNI- This refers to the dynamics of the course of nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) in individual individuals. It is characterized by the following three typological properties:
1) the power of nervous processes- the performance of nerve cells during excitation and inhibition;
2) balance of nervous processes- the relationship between the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance or the predominance of one process over the other;
3) mobility of nervous processes- the rate of change of processes of excitation and inhibition.
Depending on the combination of these properties, 4 types of GNI are distinguished.
The first type is characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, their balance and high mobility (living type).
The second type is characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, but they are not balanced, the excitatory process predominates over the inhibitory process, these processes are mobile (uncontrolled type).
The third type is characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, their balance, but low mobility (calm type).
The fourth type is characterized by reduced strength of nervous processes and reduced mobility (weak type).
That is, the type of GNI is a certain combination of stable properties of excitation and inhibition, characteristic of the GNI of a particular individual.
Various types GNI underlies the four temperaments : sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic.
Strength, balance and mobility of the nervous processes ensure faster and more effective adaptation to the situation. If the strength of nervous processes is insufficient, then the body suffers from strong external influences and reacts inadequately to their action (their significance is exaggerated, breakdowns of nervous activity and neuroses occur).
With insufficient mobility of nervous processes
11.) the body cannot quickly adapt to changed conditions; breaking a stereotype is especially painful for it; it often causes neurotic conditions. But, as studies by I.P. have shown. Pavlov, the strength and mobility of nervous processes can increase under the influence of training, education, and appropriate living conditions. The natural constitutional characteristics of the body can be changed - such an optimistic conclusion was made by I.P. Pavlov, based on scientific and experimental data.
Features of human GNI
The principles and patterns of GNI discussed above are common to animals and humans. However, the GNI of humans differs significantly from the GNI of animals. In a person, in the process of his social and labor activity, a fundamentally new signaling system arises and reaches a high level of development.
The first signaling system of reality is the system of our immediate sensations, perceptions, impressions of specific objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Word (speech) is second signaling system (signal signal). It arose and developed on the basis of the first signaling system and is significant only in close connection with it.
Thanks to the second signaling system (the word), humans form temporary connections more quickly than animals, because the word carries the socially developed meaning of the object. Temporary human nervous connections are more stable and remain without reinforcement for many years.
The word is a means of cognition of the surrounding reality, a generalized and indirect reflection of its essential properties. I.II. Pavlov: with the word “a new principle of nervous activity is introduced - distraction and at the same time generalization of countless signals - a principle that determines limitless orientation in the surrounding world and creates the highest human adaptation - science.”
The action of a word as a conditioned stimulus can have the same power as the immediate primary signal stimulus. Not only mental, but also physiological processes are influenced by words (this underlies suggestion and self-hypnosis).
The second alarm system has two functions - communicative(it provides communication between people) and function of reflecting objective patterns. A word not only gives a name to an object, but also contains a generalization.
The second signaling system includes the word is audible, visible (written) and spoken.
There are 4 types of IRR (see above). But people have
11.) There are specific typological features associated with the second signaling system. In all people, the second signaling system prevails over the first. The degree of this predominance varies. This gave I.P. Pavlov’s basis for dividing human GNI into three types:
1) thinking: The thinking type includes persons with a significant predominance of the second signaling system over the first. They have more developed abstract thinking (mathematicians, philosophers); Their direct reflection of reality occurs in insufficiently vivid images.
2) artistic: The artistic type includes people with a lesser predominance of the second signaling system over the first. They are characterized by liveliness and brightness of specific images (artists, writers, performers, designers, inventors, etc.).
3) average (mixed): the type of people occupies an intermediate position between the first two.
Excessive predominance of the second signaling system, bordering on its separation from the first signaling system, is an undesirable quality of a person.
“You need to remember,” said I.P. Pavlov, “that the second signaling system has meaning through the first signaling system and in connection with the last, and if it is detached from the first signaling system, then you turn out to be an empty talker, a chatterbox and will not find a place for yourself in life.”
People with an excessive predominance of the first signaling system, as a rule, have a less developed tendency to abstraction and theorization.
So, the main provisions of the teachings of I.P. were discussed above. Pavlova about GNI. Many of these provisions have not lost their significance today. However, some of them were refined and further developed by the students and followers of the great physiologist.
Modern research into GNI is characterized by the development of an integral approach to the study of the holistic functioning of the brain.
The main difference between the HNA (higher nervous activity) of humans and animals is the presence in humans of an “extraordinary achievement” of evolution - a special signaling system associated with the verbal designation of objects. I.P. Pavlov called it the second signaling system.
The first signaling system, common to humans and animals, is associated with the perception of specific signals from the surrounding world, carried out by all senses. The second signaling system is associated with the perception of speech (oral, written). The development of speech and verbal-logical thinking associated with language became at a certain stage of evolution the fundamental difference between mental and cognitive activity humans from other representatives of the animal world. The language performs the following functions.
- Designation function or nominative function. Each word in the language denotes a certain object, action, concept, etc.
- Generalization function. A word is not only a designation specific subject, but also by designating a group of objects and concepts. The generalization function is closely related to abstract thinking.
- Function of communication or communication. The concept of communication includes the following components:
— Information function;
— Figurative function: with the help of words and intonations, a person can express not only thoughts, but also feelings.
— Function of expression of will.
- The regulatory function of speech is associated with the ability of verbal information to control human behavior, from the simplest forms of activity to the most complex. The word can also regulate activity internal organs, muscle tone, etc. It is important for the doctor to understand the huge role of the word in medicine: the word can be both a healing factor (psychotherapy) and the cause of so-called iatrogenic diseases.
- Functional asymmetry of the cerebral cortex
Experimentally, the unequal role of the left and right hemispheres in the functioning of the first and second signaling systems was discovered. In most people (right-handed), the left hemisphere specializes in analyzing signals from the second signaling system, and damage to certain areas of the cortex of this hemisphere as a result of injury, tumor or hemorrhage leads to severe impairment language functions, recognition and purposeful activity. It was concluded that in right-handed people, as well as in 70% of left-handed people, the left hemisphere is responsible for the development of abstract logical thinking. The right hemisphere is responsible for the perception, processing, analysis and synthesis of signals from the first signaling system, that is, direct impressions of the world around us. Thus, the existence of people with a predominance of logical or figurative thinking is associated with the dominance of the cortex of the left or right hemisphere of the brain.
Due to the fact that the main centers of speech are concentrated in the left hemisphere, this hemisphere began to be considered dominant. Functions of the right, subdominant hemisphere associated with the perception of non-verbal signals, spatial structures and other sensory signals. The perception of the surrounding world by the right hemisphere is continuous, synthetic. The right hemisphere is more emotional and is more associated with subconscious processes.
There is also an emotional inter-personal asymmetry. Positive emotions In humans, they are associated mainly with the left hemisphere, and negative ones - with the right hemisphere. In this regard, the left half of the face reflects negative emotions to a greater extent, and the right half reflects positive emotions.
It must be emphasized that the close connection of the first and second signaling systems, the possibility of their continuous interaction is realized only through the connection of both hemispheres through the nerve fibers of the corpus callosum, optic chiasm, anterior and posterior commissures. Functional asymmetry of the cerebral cortex occurs only in the process of language acquisition.
