Biological evolution is the historical development of the organic world. The word "evolution" is Latin and in translation means - "deployment", and in broad sense- any change, development, transformation. In biology, the word "evolution" was first used in 1762 by the Swiss naturalist and philosopher C. Bonnet.

Life arose on Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. The forerunners of the first organisms were complex organic protein compounds that formed gelatinous lumps, the so-called coacervate droplets. These droplets, floating in the primary ocean, were able to grow, assimilating various nutrients... They disintegrated into daughter droplets, of which more perfect ones existed longer. The structure of coacervates gradually became more complicated, they formed a nucleus and other elements of a living cell. This is how the simplest single-celled organisms appeared.

Thousands of years passed, and the structure of living beings as a result of natural selection improved more and more. Some of these simplest organisms developed the ability to absorb the energy of the sun's rays and build organic matter in their bodies from carbon dioxide and water. This is how the first unicellular plants, blue-green algae, appeared.

Other living creatures retained the same way of feeding, but primary plants began to serve as food for them. These were the first animals.

Subsequently, as a result of evolution from unicellular protozoa, the first multicellular organisms-sponges, archaeocyates (extinct invertebrates), coelenterates arose. Gradually, the world of plants and animals became more complex and diverse, they settled on land.

From their fossil remains - prints, fossilized skeletons, scientists have established that the older the organisms, the simpler they are. The closer to our time, the more complex organisms become and more and more similar to modern ones.

As a result of the development of the organic world on Earth, higher plants and highly organized animals. From mammals - fossil great apes - man originated.

Such is short diagram evolution of life on our planet.

Evolution is one of the forms of movement in nature. It continuously and gradually leads to quality and quantitative changes living organisms that are exposed to both inanimate nature and other organisms.

The study of the causes and laws of evolution in biology deals with the evolutionary doctrine, a complex of knowledge about the historical development of living nature. The basis of this teaching is evolutionary theory.

Even the philosophers of the ancient world - Empedocles, Democritus, Lucretius Carus and others - expressed brilliant guesses about the development of life. But many more centuries passed before enough facts accumulated in science that allowed scientists to discover the variability of species, and then create a theory explaining the evolutionary process taking place in nature.

In the second half of the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. J. Buffon and E. J. Saint-Hilaire in France, E. Darwin in England, I. V. Goethe in Germany, M. V. Lomonosov, A. I. Radishchev, A. A. Kaverznev, K. F. Steering wheel in Russia and others created the doctrine of the changeability of species of animals and plants, which contradicted the teachings of the church about their creation by God and immutability. However, they did not consider the reasons that lead to these changes.

First attempt to create evolutionary theory was made by the French naturalist J. B. Lamarck (1744-1829). In his work "Philosophy of Zoology" (1809), he outlined a holistic theory of the origin of species, but he could not correctly explain what the driving forces of the development of the organic world are.

A truly scientific evolutionary theory was created by the English naturalist Charles Darwin. It was presented in the book The Origin of Species by Natural Selection, or the Conservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life, 1859). Darwin was able to identify the driving forces - the factors of the evolutionary process. It is indeterminate variability, a struggle for existence, natural selection.

As a result of the struggle for existence, the organisms most adapted to the conditions of life survive, and the less adapted, weak are eliminated from reproduction or perish. Thanks to natural selection, beneficial hereditary changes accumulate and accumulate in plants and animals, as well as new adaptations (adaptations) arise.

The struggle for existence and natural selection are the most important driving factors of evolution, they are interconnected. It is they who determine the further existence of the organism. In the process of biological evolution, the number of species of living organisms also increases. The formation of new species in nature - critical stage in the process of evolution.

As a result of the evolutionary process, the genetic composition of populations changes, biocenoses and the biosphere as a whole are transformed.

Evolutionary doctrine and its core - biological evolutionary theory - is the basis of modern progressive biology.

Nature is improving itself all the time. But evolutionary change is extremely slow. Compared to human life, of course. Only for billions of years of existence of the Earth, nature was able to achieve such perfection and diversity of life, which we see now.

Darwin suggested that the driving forces of evolution, or factors influencing the development of living nature, are:

• heredity and variability of individuals of the same species;

Heredity and variability

It is known that individuals of the same species are similar, but still not the same. They differ slightly in signs of external and internal structure, behavior. These differences can affect your ability to survive. More chances to survive and leave offspring have those special features which correspond to the habitat. These changes can be inherited by the offspring. As a result, the number of individuals with such traits increases in the next generation.

Struggle for existence

Natural selection

The struggle for existence leads to natural selection - predominant survival and reproduction of more adapted individuals of the species and the death of less adapted ones.

The action of natural selection throughout the life of many generations leads to the accumulation of small beneficial hereditary changes and the formation of adaptations of organisms to the habitat.

Inhabitant of European forests, the hedgehog has sharp thorns, which serve as protection from predators. Their occurrence is the result of the action of natural selection. Even a slight coarsening of the skin could help the distant ancestors of the hedgehog survive. For many generations, individuals with more developed thorns had the advantage in the struggle for existence. It was they who could leave offspring and pass on their hereditary changes to him. Gradually, new useful traits spread within the species, and all individuals European hedgehog became owners of thorns.

Acting for a long time, the driving forces of evolution lead to the formation of adaptations of living organisms to various environmental conditions, to the transformation of some species into others, to the emergence of more complex forms of life on the basis of simpler ones.

Adaptation (fitness)

Adaptations are the traits of living organisms, thanks to which they exist in nature. Helpful signs, arising in individual organisms as a result of variability, help them survive in the struggle for existence. These traits are preserved as a result of natural selection and are inherited by descendants. So, generation after generation, the signs of animals and plants are gradually changing for the better for them. evolutionary changes. And that is why all living organisms are so well adapted to the conditions in which they live.

Speciation

Speciation is the result of evolution. A population throughout the life of many generations can be isolated from other populations of a given species (for example, be located on great distance). Acting for a long time, natural selection leads to the accumulation of many differences between the isolated and other populations.

As a result, individuals of different populations lose the ability to interbreed with each other and give offspring. The emergence of insurmountable biological barriers to crossing leads to the process of speciation.

Speciation led to the emergence of two species of foxes - the common fox and the corsac fox. In the north, natural selection contributed to the survival of the largest individuals (which bigger size body, the less heat the body loses). As a result, the species Common fox was formed. In the southern regions, on the contrary, natural selection was aimed at preserving the smallest individuals (which smaller size body, the more heat the body gives off, while it does not overheat). As a result, the species of Fox-Korsak was formed.

By now, biological evolution has been fully confirmed on the basis of scientific facts accumulated in various branches of biological science. Evidence for evolution is based on a comparative study of the external and internal structure, development and life processes of modern representatives of ancient extinct species. For this, there is a scientifically grounded cytological,

Biological evolution is defined as any genetic change in a population that has occurred over several generations. These changes can be small or large, highly visible or insignificant.

For an event to be considered an example of evolution, changes must occur at the genetic level of the species and be passed on from one generation to the next. This means that, or more specifically, alleles in a population change and are transmitted. These changes are noted in the (pronounced physical traits that can be seen) the population.

A change in the genetic level of a population is defined as a small-scale change and is called microevolution. Biological evolution also includes the idea that all living organisms are related and can descend from one common ancestor. This is called macroevolution.

What isn't biological evolution?

Biological evolution does not determine the simple change in organisms over time. Many living things experience changes over time, such as loss or increase in size. These changes are not considered examples of evolution because they are not genetic and cannot be passed on to the next generation.

Evolution theory

How does genetic diversity occur in a population?

Sexual reproduction can create favorable combinations of genes in a population or remove unfavorable ones.

A population with more favorable genetic combinations will survive in its environment and reproduce more offspring than individuals with less favorable genetic combinations.

Biological evolution and creationism

The theory of evolution has sparked controversy since its inception, which continues to the present day. Biological evolution contradicts religion in regard to the need for a divine creator. Evolutionists argue that evolution does not address the question of whether God exists, but tries to explain how natural processes occur.

This, however, cannot be avoided by the fact that evolution contradicts some aspects of certain religious beliefs. For example, evolutionary accounting for the existence of life and the biblical account of creation are completely different.

Evolution assumes that all life is connected and can be traced back to one common ancestor. The literal interpretation of biblical creation suggests that life was created by an omnipotent supernatural being (God).

However, others have tried to combine the two, arguing that evolution does not exclude the possibility of God, but simply explains the process by which God created life. However, this view still contradicts the literal interpretation of creativity presented in the Bible.

For the most part, evolutionists and creationists agree that microevolution does exist and is noticeable in nature.

However, macroevolution refers to an evolutionary process that is at the species level, and where one species evolves from another species. This is in stark contrast to the biblical view that God was personally involved in the formation and creation of living organisms.

So far, the evolution / creationist debate continues, and it seems that the differences between the two are unlikely to be resolved anytime soon.

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directional change of any process, system, object that is irreversible. This change always occurs in real (dynamic or historical) time. Evolution happens different types: 1) from simple to complex and vice versa, 2) progressive and regressive, 3) linear and nonlinear, 4) spontaneous and conscious, etc. As a rule, it occurs gradually, by accumulating a large number of micro-changes in the phenomenon. Directed changes play an important role not only in biological, and even more so - social sphere, but also in physical and chemical processes, as well as - in the cognitive sphere. (See change, progress, revolution).

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Evolution

(Evolution). The book of Ch. Gift of Wine "The Origin of Species" (1859) caused heated disputes between theologians and scientists. Darwin's defenders raised it on the shield as a new word in science, with the help of which it is possible to reinterpret the entire experience of human existence. Others called the theory of evolution a product of the devil with no scientific value. But most people are in between. In this article, we will try to analyze the various theories explaining the origin of man, and to connect them with the biblical account of the creation of man, as well as to present a criticism of these theories.

Liberal views. Darwin's contemporary O. Comte put forward an evolutionary theory of three stages in the development of religion: (1) fetishism, a separate will, an edge, affects material objects; (2) polytheism is a multitude of gods acting through inanimate objects; (3) monotheism is a single, abstract will that governs the entire universe. Liberal theologians have applied this theory to interpret the Bible (the concept of "gradual revelation"). According to this theory, God was revealed to people gradually at first as a cruel, ruthless tyrant of the OT, who treated them as temporary members of the community who had no personal value. But ideas about God changed through the suffering experience of the Babylonian captivity Israel comes to a tense expectation of a personal God, expressed in the psalms, and, finally, to faith in Jesus Christ as the personal Savior and Lord of every Christian.

The rise in high-level criticism has fueled the development of liberal exegesis. Commenting on the Pentateuch, the liberals questioned not only the authorship of Moses, but also the authenticity of the biblical account of the creation of the world and the flood because of their alleged similarity with the Babylonian epic Enuma elish. From now on, liberal theologians regard the Bible as a great literary monument and, along with necessary, vital truths, find in it many purely human errors and outdated teachings.

The Catholic theologian and anthropologist P. Teilhard de Chardin (18811955) viewed the theory of evolution in a biblical context. He tried to interpret Christian evangelism from an evolutionary perspective. According to his concept, original sin is not a consequence of the disobedience of the first people, but rather the action of the negative forces of counter-evolution, i.e. evil. It is an evil mechanism for the creation of an unfinished universe. God creates the world of the beginning of time, constantly transforming the universe and man. The blood and the cross of Christ are symbols of a new rebirth, through which the universe develops. Accordingly, Christ is no longer the Savior of the world, but the pinnacle of evolution that determines its movement and meaning. Then Christianity is primarily a belief in the gradual unification of the world in God. The mission of the Church is to alleviate human suffering, not to redeem the world spiritually. This mission is directly related to the inevitable progress generated by evolution.

The views of evangelical Christians. Evangelical Christians regard the Bible as the Word of God and the only infallible guideline for faith and behavior. Nevertheless, among evangelical Christians, there are at least four theories that relate biblical exegesis to discoveries in modern science: (1) theories about people before Adam, (2) "fundamentalist creationism", (3) theistic evolutionism, and (4) the theory of gradual creation of the world.

Theories about people before Adam. These theories fall into two groups. The "Interval Theory" says that after the creation of heaven and earth and before the situation described in Genesis 1: 2, there was a chronological gap, during which a great cataclysm devastated the earth. Jeremiah 4: 2326 is usually quoted in support of this; Isa 24: 1; 45:18. According to this theory, early human remains testify to people before Adam, whose creation is described in Genesis 1: 1. The theory of two Adam states that the first Adam from Genesis 1 was the Adam of the long-past Stone Age, and the second Adam from Genesis 2 was the Adam of the New Stone Age and the ancestor modern man... Thus, the entire Bible tells about the fall and salvation of Adam of the new stone age and his descendants.

"Fundamentalist Creationism". It includes all theories, according to the Crimea, the creation of the world, described in Genesis 1, literally lasted twenty-four hours. These views suggest that the Earth is 10 thousand years old, and most of the modern (if not all) organic fossils were formed as a result of the Flood. They accept the chronology developed by Archbishop J. Usher (15811656) and J. Lightfoot, the edges are built on the assumption that the biblical genealogy was to serve as the basis of chronology. Proponents of "fundamentalist creationism" reject all evolutionary development of organisms and explain modern species differences by differences among the original organisms created by God. From their point of view, the theory of evolution is the culmination of an atheistic worldview, which undermines the authority of the Bible and calls into question the story of the creation of the world. Thus, any evolutionary approach to the story from Genesis 1 means a blow to the Christian faith.

Theistic evolutionism. Proponents of this theory see in Genesis an allegory and a poetic presentation of spiritual truths about man's dependence on the Creator and falling away from God's grace. Theistic evolutionists have no doubts about the authenticity of the Bible. They also acknowledge that God created man through organic evolution. They believe that the Bible only tells us that God created the world, but does not reveal how He created it. Science has proposed a mechanistic explanation for the origin of life in terms of evolutionary theory. But the two levels of explanation should complement each other, and not contradict one another. Despite the need to reject the historicity of the Fall, theistic evolutionists understand that the theory of organic evolution, embedded in the Christian understanding of the origin of life, cannot shake the fundamental Christian doctrine of original sin and the need for redemption.

The theory of the gradual creation of the world. This theory seeks to combine science and Holy Scripture. Proponents of this view are trying to interpret Holy Scripture in a new way, focusing on new scientific discoveries. Without dismissing the irrefutable scientific evidence of the ancient age of the Earth, they see in the traditional theory of "era-days" an image of a long period of time, and not a day, consisting of 24 hours. They regard this interpretation as sound exegesis, appropriate to the ancient age of the Earth.

Representatives of this trend are cautious in their assessments of the scientific theory of evolution. They accept only the microevolutionary theory, according to the cut mutations formed as a result of natural selection, contributed to species diversity. They are skeptical about macroevolution (from ape to man) and organic evolution (from molecule to man), since these theories are not consistent with the well-studied mechanism of natural selection. Therefore, for the supporters of the gradual creation of the world, modern differences between organisms are the result of species divergence and a consequence of microevolution, which began with prototypes originally created by God. There are at least three versions of the "days-era" theory: (1) the theory, according to the cut "day" is a geological period, and each day of creation from Gen 1 corresponds to a certain geological era; (2) the "intermittent day" theory each stage of creation was preceded by a day of 24 hours; (3) the theory of overlapping "days of ages" each era of creation begins with the phrase, "And there was evening and there was morning," but overlaps somewhat with other eras.

Criticism. Liberal evolutionism. The influence of humanism with its exaggerated analytical criticism, which sought to eliminate everything irrational and supernatural from the Bible, led to the fact that in the Holy Scriptures they began to see just a great religious book, and not the Word of God. The only truth of Holy Scripture with its obsolete traditions began to be considered human experience, which found expression in the Jewish aspirations of personal liberation, and its completion in the person of Jesus Christ. However, the attempt to reduce the meaning of the Bible to the search for personal salvation was unsuccessful. Too often it has turned into a verbose sensibility unrelated to the truth and historicity of the biblical account.

Liberal evolutionism placed man in a closed space of relative ethics, where there were no moral criteria, with the help of which he could evaluate the conflicting moral values, asserted by himself and others.

Theories about people before Adam. According to some scholars, the "gap theory" is untenable for two reasons: (1) it is not supported by biblical evidence; (2) it was invented by religious geologists who sought to reconcile the apparent contradictions between the creation of light and plants before the appearance of the sun and the antiquity of human remains. References to Jer 4:23; Isa 24: 1 and 45:18, allegedly testifying to God's judgment on His creation before the events described in Genesis 1: 2, is a big stretch. The context shows that these passages herald things to come. The word "was" in Genesis 1: 2, which the supporters of this theory interpreted as "became", must be understood exactly as "was", since no other interpretation follows from the context. The word “refill” in Genesis 1:28 should be taken literally, not “refill”, as this theory suggests, trying to depict the once inhabited Earth, the edge was devastated. The theory of the two Adams cannot be considered exegetically correct; moreover, it contradicts the idea of ​​the unity of the human race, which is shared by all anthropologists and orthodox theologians.

"Fundamentalist Creationism". The main difficulty facing the supporters of this view is how to explain the ancient age of the Earth. Because atheistic evolutionary theories look at vast periods of time, this line of thought argues that the concept of the ancient age of the Earth is a compromise with atheism that undermines the Christian faith. Therefore, they reject the principle of uniformitarianism ("the real key to the past") and all dating methods, which confirm the ancient origin of the Earth in favor of a worldwide cataclysm. However, due to the lack of clear evidence of the Flood and an explanation for the amazing distribution of various animals on different continents the Flood theory remains unproven as before. In addition, its supporters neglect a lot of data confirming microevolutionary processes that can be observed in nature and in laboratory conditions. Many saw in this biased approach to scientific discoveries, based on a specific biblical exegesis, is a continuation of the medieval obscurantism that gripped the Church during the Copernican revolution.

Theistic evolutionism. If a person is a product random events natural selection, then theistic evolutionists must convince the secular world of the supernatural origin of man, created in the image and likeness of God, and of the validity of the doctrine of original sin. The allegorical interpretation of the creation story strikes at these two most important Christian teachings. By denying the historicity of the first Adam, this point of view calls into question the meaning of the crucifixion of Christ the Second Adam (Rom. 5: 1221) and thus all Christian evangelism.

Genesis 1: 12: 4 is related to each other and introduced by repeated phrases. Therefore, some theistic evolutionists speak of the "poetics" of these structures. However, this interpretation is inconclusive for two reasons. First, the creation account in Genesis 1: 12: 4 is unlike any other known poetry.

The story from Genesis has no parallels in the extensive biblical poetry and extra-biblical Semitic literature. The commandment to keep the Sabbath is explained by the events of the first week of the creation of the world (Ex. 20: 811). An allegorical interpretation cannot become the actual basis of this commandment, and therefore it is unconvincing.

Eleven verses ending with the words: "Here is the genealogy [life] ..." from the first thirty-six chapters of Genesis reproduce the historical picture of primitive and patriarchal life (1: 12: 4; 2: 55: 1; 5: 26: 9a; 6: 9610: 1; 10: 211: 10a; 11: 10b27a; 11: 27625: 12; 25: 1319a; 25: 19636: 1; 36:29; 36: 1037: 2). New Zealand considers the events described in Genesis as really existing ^ 10: 6; 1 Cor 11:89).

The creation of Eve (Gen 2: 2122) is also a mystery to theistic evolutionists who accept a naturalistic explanation of the animal-human origin. Moreover, Gen 2: 7 says: "And the Lord God created man from the dust of the earth, and breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living soul." Although the process of creation is not described in detail, the first chapters of Genesis conveyed the idea of ​​creating a person from inorganic matter, and not from a previously existing living form.

Heb. the word meaning "living soul" (Gen. 2: 7) is identical to the expression from Gen. 1: 2021,24: "... let the water produce reptiles, the living soul ..." In the original, all these verses contain the word nepes (" soul"). The difference between humans and animals is that humans are created in the image of God, but animals are not. Therefore, Gen 2: 7 implies that humans became living souls, like all other animals. Therefore, these verses should not be interpreted as if people arose from the animal that preceded them.

Religious evolutionists place too much confidence in the theory of organic evolution, which has not yet been reasonably formulated. In their quest to reconcile naturalistic and religious approaches to the question of the origin of life, they involuntarily show inconsistency, denying the miracle of the creation of the world, but taking on the supernatural character of Christian evangelism. This inconsistency is partly due to the idea that reality can be analyzed on many levels, each of which is more or less complete. This is how another difficulty arises (from a holistic Christian point of view), reality splits into spiritual and physical. Such a dualism is hidden in the theistic evolutionary approach to man as a product of natural evolution and spirit, which God "breathed" into him through a supernatural act.

Gradual creation of the world. Proponents of this position argue that, in addition to scientific data testifying to the ancient age of the Earth, there is also biblical evidence proving that the "day" in Genesis can be understood as an indefinitely long period of time and that biblical genealogies cannot serve as a basis for an accurate chronology was not meant to be.

To prove that the day of creation is a long period of time, the following arguments are made. (1) God created the Sun with the function of determining days and years only on the fourth day. Consequently, the early days were not twenty-four hours long. (2) In opposition to the theory of "days of ages", the fourth commandment is usually cited, which is not always justified, since this argument is based on analogy, and not on identity. The establishment of the Sabbath year (Ex 23:10; Lev 25:37) seems to confirm that the Sabbath is a day of rest. People should rest one day after six days of work, and the earth should rest one year after six years of harvest, since God worked six "days" and rested on the seventh. (3) The words: "And there was evening and there was morning ..." completing each "day of creation" cannot be an argument in favor of the theory of an ordinary day, consisting of twenty-four hours. The word "day" can mean a period of time of indefinite length (Gen. 2: 4; Ps. 89:14) and also daylight opposed to night (Gen. 1: 5); therefore, the constituent parts of the "day" can also be understood allegorically (Psalm 89:56). Moreover, if these expressions are taken literally, then evening and morning together make up night, not day. (4) The events of the sixth day of creation, described in Genesis 2, seem to have continued for an extremely long time. This length of time is expressed in Heb. the word happaam (Gen. 2:23) is "behold," which Adam pronounces. This word indicates that Adam was waiting for a girlfriend for a long time, and finally his wish was fulfilled. This interpretation is supported by the fact that this word occurs in the OT in the context of elapsed time (Gen. 29: 3435; 30:20; 46:30; Ex 9:27; Judgment 15: 3; 16:18).

As for the biblical genealogies, the famous biblical scholar W. Green analyzed them and came to the conclusion that they cannot serve as a basis for an accurate chronology. Other biblical scholars have confirmed this conclusion. Green established that in biblical genealogies only the most important names are given, and the rest are omitted, and the words "father" "gave birth" to "son" are used in a broad sense.

The traditional interpretation of "era-day" refers to days in different geological periods. However, the days of creation are difficult to relate to real fossils. In addition, the creation of earthly greenery that sows seed, and trees that bear fruit, before the creation of animals is a certain difficulty, because many seed and fruit bearing plants require insects for pollination and fertilization. The theory of intermittent and overlapping "day-ages" solves this problem by proposing the following hypothesis: trees bearing fruit and animals were created at the same time. Modern model the origin of the earth and Solar system agrees well with the story from Gen. According to the theory Big bang, The universe was expanding from a superdense state. Thirteen billion years ago, an explosion occurred, and in the process of the gradual cooling of the Universe, interstellar matter was formed, from which galaxies, stars, the Earth and other planets arose. The events of the first three epochs of the creation of the world correspond to the modern theory of the origin of the Earth and planets from a dark gas and dust nebula. It contained water vapor, from which oxygen was released, necessary for the photosynthesis of plants.

All three of these models assume a process of change after the creation of each prototype of living organisms. Interpreting the seventh day of creation, when the Lord rested, the model of overlapping "ages" suggests the following hypothesis: the creation of the world was completed at the end of the sixth day (Gen. 1:31), and on the seventh day God rested. This concept is consistent with traditional views. However, according to the model of "intermittent day", the creation of the world continues, and we live in an era, the edge began on the sixth solar day and lied between the sixth and seventh days of creation. God continues to create, transforming inorganic and organic nature. The seventh day of the unconditional day of rest (Heb. 4: 1) will begin only after the birth of a new heaven and a new earth (Rev. 21:18). This later view creates certain difficulties in the interpretation of Genesis 2: 1: "Thus are heaven and earth and all their host made perfect."

The problems faced by "gradual creationism" are not as insurmountable as those faced by other models, because it deliberately tries to link science with the Holy Scriptures. But there are two more complex problems... (1) How does the ancient origin of man relate to the highly developed civilization described in Genesis 4? Despite the absence of ancient remnants of material culture, physical anthropology suggests that humans have probably existed on Earth for millions of years. Therefore, the first important problem how to explain the huge time interval between the emergence of man and human civilization, which arose over 9 thousand. years BC? Attempts to smooth over the difficulties include references to the civilization of Cain and Abel, described in the Bible very sparingly, and to the supposedly disappeared civilization (Gen. 4:12), which perished due to sin. Human culture could have reappeared with the onset of the Neolithic, about 11 thousand years ago. (2) What is the extent of the flood? Due to the lack of clear evidence of a Flood, many proponents of "gradual creationism" accept the theory of a local flood, which only swept through Mesopotamia. The main argument of this theory is that there was a kind of metonymy, ancient oriental written records call a significant part instead of a whole (see Gen. 41:57; Deut 2:25; 1 Samuel 18:10; Ps 22:17; Matt 3: 5 ; John 4:39; Acts 2: 5). Thus, the "universality" of the flood can mean the universality of the experience of those who talked about it. Yes, Moses could not imagine the Flood, not knowing the true dimensions of the Earth.

Conclusion. Liberal evolutionists have questioned the reliability of human moral judgment. Proponents of "fundamentalist creationism" adhere to certain theological traditions that diminish the objectivity of science. Theistic evolutionists surrender important theological positions to atheists and liberals, offering an allegorical interpretation of the creation and the Fall. Supporters of "gradual creationism" seem to be able to preserve the integrity of both Scripture and science.

R. R. T. Pun (translated by A. K.) Bibliography: R. J. Berry, Adam and Are: A Christian Approach to the Theory of Evolution; R. Bube, The Human Quest; J. O. Busweli, Jr., Systematic Theology of the Christian Religion; H.M. Morris, Biblical Cosmology and Modern Science; R.C. Newman and H.J. Eckelmann, Jr., Genesis One and the Origin of the Universe; E. K. V. Pearce, Who Was Adam? P.P.T. Pun, Evolution: Nature and Scripture in Conflict? B. Ramm, The Christian View of Science and Scripture; J.C. Whitcomb and H.M. Morris, The Genesis Flood; E.J. Young, Studies in Genesis One.

See also: Creation, teaching about it; Man (his origin); Age of the Earth.

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General concept of evolution

We often come across the term "evolution" in the literature. But we cannot always clearly explain its meaning. Therefore, in this article we will consider the issue of evolution in general and the evolution of living organisms in more detail. The explanatory dictionary gives the following explanation of this term:

The key points in this definition are the theses about the irreversibility of changes and the gradual (step-by-step) transition from one state to another.

In a broad sense, we can talk about the evolution of morals, the evolution of fashion, implying any development. Now let's take a closer look at biological evolution.

Biological evolution

Remembering the well-known phase: "Everything flows, everything changes", we can successfully apply it to living organisms. They are also undergoing changes. The evolutionary process is typical for them. Modern biology gives the following interpretation of the concept of evolution:

Definition 2

"Biological evolution is a natural irreversible process of development of living nature, which is accompanied by a change in the genetic composition of populations, the formation of adaptations, speciation and extinction of species, the transformation of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole."

During the development of science, a large number of theories arose that tried to explain the mechanism of evolutionary transformations.

Development of evolutionary views in science

From the very beginning of the development of human knowledge, a complex of closely related sciences was formed that studied nature. This complex was named natural science.

Already in ancient times, naturalists (then they were called natural philosophers) were engaged in the description of plants and animals. For a long time, the descriptive method of cognition prevailed in science. But often it only led to a haphazard, chaotic accumulation of scientific facts. Even Aristotle and Theophrastus tried to systematize knowledge about living organisms, dividing them into plants and animals. Karl Linnaeus tried to create a harmonious system of the organic world. But for a long time, scientists could not explain the reasons for the species diversity of living organisms, the mechanism of the appearance of changes in living organisms.

Metaphysical views deny changes in the organic world. And creationism presupposes the intervention of a certain force - the "Creator" in the creation of life and living organisms. Both theories cannot explain the presence of fossil forms and the reasons for their extinction.

The theory of transformism, which arose on the crest of the industrial revolution and social transformations of the $ 18th - 19th $ centuries, already recognized the possibility of species change and tried to explain the mechanism of these changes.

The ideas of transformism have found their further development in the works of the famous French scientist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. He was the first to create a holistic theory of the historical development of flora and fauna. He actively opposed the metaphysical postulate of the immutability of the forms of the living.

Lamarck admitted the possibility of spontaneous generation of life from inanimate nature. The complication of the organization of living organisms from the lowest to the highest in the process of evolution Lamarck called gradation. But Lamarck's views also reflected an idealistic worldview. So, for example, he explained the evolution of higher animals by the desire for improvement.

Remark 1

The ideas of Lamarckism, discoveries in cytology, advances in paleontology and personal observation allowed the outstanding British researcher Charles Darwin to develop his evolutionary theory. Darwin's theory of the origin of species for many years provided biological science with a reliable theoretical foundation for further research.

But human knowledge does not stand still. Darwin's theory can no longer explain new facts. Therefore, the synthetic theory of evolution (STE) is now generally accepted. It is a synthesis of classical Darwinism and population genetics... STE makes it possible to explain the connection between the material of evolution (genetic mutations) and the mechanism of evolution (natural selection).