As a result of studying Chapter 3, the student should:
know
- the nature of mental processes and their classification;
- basic mental states and their manifestation;
- the most important mental properties and their structural elements;
- the relationship of mental phenomena (processes, states, properties) with legal disciplines;
be able to
- distinguish mental processes, states and properties from mental patterns of personality and activity;
- use mental phenomena in jurisprudence;
- manage your mental manifestations in professional activities;
own
- basic concepts of mental phenomena, which are sensations, perception, memory, thinking, consciousness, etc.;
- ways and techniques of activating mental processes, states and properties in the activities of a lawyer.
Mental processes
Mental phenomena are a general psychological category that includes forms of mental reflection: mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual.
Mental processes are one of the components of the structure of consciousness. These include short-term processes (sensation, perception) and fairly persistent mental phenomena (the emergence of motives, feelings).
Without understanding their nature, it is simply impossible to understand the human psyche.
Cognitive mental processes include: sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, language and speech, attention, consciousness.
Sensation is one of the simplest mental processes, which is a reflection of individual properties, objects and phenomena of the material world that directly affect the human senses. Sensations reveal cognitive, emotional and regulatory functions of the psyche. Sensations allow a person to know the world and contribute to active psychological development.
Depending on the impact of the stimulus on the analyzer, sensations are divided into exteroceptive (organic, recording the state of the internal environment of the body) and proprioceptive (kinesthetic, reflecting irritations coming from the motor apparatus - muscles, ligaments, joints).
Exteroceptive sensations, in turn, can be contact (direct impact of the stimulus on the analyzer) and distant (impact is carried out at a distance). Contact exteroceptive sensations include, for example, taste, tactile, etc. A variety of distant exteroceptive sensations are considered visual, auditory, etc.
There are lower, upper and absolute thresholds of sensations. The lower threshold of sensations is the minimum value of the stimulus, which is capable of not causing nervous overexcitation (sensation) in the analyzer. The upper threshold of sensation is the maximum value of the stimulus after which the irritation ceases to be felt. The absolute threshold of sensations varies among people.
Olfactory sensations those. the ability to distinguish odors exists due to the effect that irritating substance molecules have on the nerve endings of the olfactory analyzer. With the help of smell, animals find food for themselves, as a result of which it is much more developed in them than in people, who distinguish only rather sharp or threatening odors. For example, when expecting an ambush, a criminal from afar can smell the cigarette of a smoking police officer, although in another situation he does not notice his friends sitting next to him smoking.
The nature of odor is very complex and still does not have a generally accepted scientific basis, despite many theoretical developments (Dermaker, Muncrief, Beck, Meisl, etc.). The most common is the adsorption theory (Mancrief, 1955), which explains the occurrence of odor by the process of adsorption of molecules of an odorous substance by the cells of the olfactory epithelium, as a result of which they heat up. Once heated to a certain degree, the receptors begin to perceive the molecules as odor. Odors are usually named by the objects that emit them: the smell of the sea, earth, burnt rubber, etc. According to experts, smell is the chemical “signature” of a person, by studying which one can obtain significant information about the individual. A.I. Vinberg wrote: “The smell comes from any person. It is individual: this individuality is determined by the specific characteristics of the skin, sweat, sebaceous glands and endocrine glands.” The sense of smell can replace other, less developed senses for a person. For example, deaf-blind people recognize friends by smell.
For a long time, odor information was used only in the activities of the canine service units of the internal affairs bodies. Today, forensic odology studies the problems of the nature and mechanism of the formation of scent traces, methods and technical means of using them for the purpose of solving and investigating crimes.
Taste sensations caused by exposure chemical substances, dissolved in saliva or water, on taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, the back of the palate and the epiglottis. We perceive them as sensations of sweet, sour, salty, bitter.
Visual sensations arise as a result of exposure to electromagnetic waves on the eye. The perceptive apparatus of the eye is represented by light-sensitive cells located in the retina opposite the pupil. They are divided into “cones”, capable of distinguishing bright colors, and “rods”, sensitive to diffuse light (they are also called the “twilight vision apparatus”) and not capable of color discrimination. The ability to distinguish color varies from person to person. With the help of a visual analyzer, a person can distinguish 180 color tones and more than 10,000 shades between them. Visual sensations have great importance when assessing the objectivity of the testimony of witnesses, victims and other participants in legal proceedings.
Auditory sensations are formed under the influence of the irritant of the auditory analyzer - air vibrations. Depending on the frequency and amplitude of a sound, its height, volume and timbre are distinguished. The vibration frequency determines the pitch, the amplitude determines the volume, and the shape determines the timbre. Less frequent vibrations are perceived as vibrations and shocks. Vibration sensations usually do not have significant significance for a person and are very poorly developed. However, in deaf people they partially compensate for the lack of hearing. It is very easy to distinguish the timbre of a sound, but unlike volume, it is extremely difficult to describe it (try to convey in words the features of the voice of a person you know, but not to your friend, so that he can then recognize him “by ear”).
Skin sensations are caused by the action of mechanical and thermal properties of objects on the surface of the skin, including the mucous membrane of the mouth, nose and eyes. They are divided into tactile, pain and temperature.
Tactile sensations (pressure, touch, vibration, itching) occur when receptors scattered in the skin are irritated. Their different concentrations make certain parts of the body unevenly sensitive to external influences.
Feeling pain cause thermal, mechanical, chemical stimuli when they reach high intensity. Pain signals danger and requires elimination. Pain sensations are formed by the central nervous system, starting with receptors, and are carried along special nerve pathways to the subcortical nodes and cerebral cortex. At present, science has not established whether there is a special perceptive apparatus in the cerebral cortex focused on pain; It is believed that each receptor, with sufficient irritation, can cause a sensation of pain.
All people feel pain in approximately the same way, but the emotional state has a significant influence. An anxious person may not notice the pain. For example, having been wounded with a knife in a fight, the victim, as a rule, first feels the blow, then sees blood or feels it flowing from the wound, and only after realizing that he is wounded does he begin to experience pain.
Temperature sensations occur when the skin is exposed to objects whose temperature is different from the skin temperature; they are associated with the conditioned reflex activity of the cortical part of the skin analyzer. Irritation of thermoreceptors can occur contact and remotely (at a distance - during radiant heat exchange).
Motor (kinesthetic )Feel are caused by irritations that occur in the organs of movement when their position in space changes and when muscles contract. Without kinesthetic sensations, a person could not develop a single motor skill. Thanks to the impulses continuously coming from the motor analyzer, a person knows in what position his body is.
Static sensations are caused by a change in the position of the body in space relative to the direction of gravity and arise as a result of irritation of a special analyzer of the vestibular apparatus, the receptors of which are located in the inner ear.
The ability to sense (reflect) the properties of objects and phenomena with greater or less accuracy is determined by sensitivity of analyzers. Each analyzer has a threshold value of excitation, which determines the strength of sensation. The least irritation that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the absolute lower threshold of sensation. The absolute sensitivity of many analyzers is very high; for example, the eyes are able to distinguish radiant energy equal to several quanta. The maximum frequency of the stimulus turns the sensation into pain - this is the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity. In addition, there is a threshold of sensitivity to discrimination (difference threshold), determined by the minimum increase in the magnitude of the stimulus. As the strength of the stimulus increases, the discrimination threshold increases.
The upper and lower thresholds of sensitivity vary from person to person. Sensitivity acuity reaches its maximum at 20–30 years of age. The classification of types of sensitivity coincides with the classification of sensations. The sensitivity of the body can be assessed not only on the basis of sensations, but also by the course of various psychophysiological processes.
When exposed to prolonged irritation, the analyzer loses the ability to adequately perceive it, the absolute threshold of sensitivity increases, and addiction to the state of excitation (adaptation) occurs. There are light, temperature and other types of adaptation. It is known that a person who finds himself in a darkened room, after 3-5 minutes, begins to see light penetrating there and various objects. After 20–30 minutes, he can already navigate quite well in the dark. Staying in absolute darkness increases the sensitivity of the visual analyzer to light by 200 thousand times in 40 minutes.
The degree of adaptation of analyzers varies. Olfactory and tactile analyzers are highly adaptable; gustatory and visual analyzers adapt somewhat more slowly. Sensory adaptation is characterized by the range of changes in sensitivity, the speed of this process, and the selectivity of changes in relation to the adaptive influence.
Sensitivity thresholds largely depend on professional experience and level of training, degree of fatigue and health status. For example, textile workers specializing in the production of black fabrics distinguish up to 40 shades of black. Experienced flour millers can determine by touch not only the quality of flour, but also the characteristics of the grain from which it is made.
Changes in the sensitivity of analyzers can occur under the influence of both the environment and the internal state of a person. An increase in the sensitivity of nerve centers under the influence of an irritant is called sensitization. There are two forms sensitization: physiological (washing the face with cold water increases the sensitivity of the visual analyzer) and psychological (giving the stimulus the meaning of a signal and including it in the corresponding task sharply increases sensitivity to it).
IN Everyday life a person experiences various sensations, as a result of which the sensitivity of the analyzers either increases or decreases (synesthesia and contrast). With synesthesia, under the influence of one stimulus, sensations characteristic of another may appear (for example, the appearance of vivid visual images from sound stimuli). With a contrast of sensations, the same stimulus is perceived by the analyzer depending on the qualitative characteristics of another stimulus. The impact can be carried out simultaneously or sequentially.
Each person has his own level of sensitivity development, certain qualitative characteristics of the analyzing systems that make up the sensory organization of his personality. The leading types of sensitivity are visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile.
The body's ability to perceive sensations is not unlimited. Thus, the human eye reacts to light stimuli with a wavelength from 380 to 770 millimicrons, but does not detect infrared and ultraviolet rays at all. These figures may vary depending on different conditions perception (strength of excitation, duration and intensity of the stimulus). For example, with significant amplification of light, visual sensitivity can range from 390–760 to 313–950 millimicrons. Visual acuity increases in cold weather and decreases in warm weather. It is strongly influenced by illumination.
Depending on the nature of the incident, the lawyer has to strain his vision, hearing and other senses. For example, during an inspection of a fire, an investigator not only looks for traces of a fire, the source of a fire, but also detects the smell of flammable substances. It must be remembered that the olfactory organs adapt very quickly to odors: full adaptation to burning and tobacco smoke occurs in 3–5 minutes, to the smell of iodine – after 50–60 seconds, camphor – after 90 seconds. There are many tactical, psychological and other recommendations for restoring the sensitivity of the organs of vision, hearing, and smell. Let’s say that in order to restore the sensitivity of the olfactory analyzers to the smell at the scene of an incident, you need to move some distance away from it or go out into the fresh air for 10–15 minutes, then return and continue working.
The eyes (like other sense organs) can provide inadequate information due to physical disabilities (myopia, farsightedness), inattention, optical illusions, etc., so the lawyer must also use tools (magnifying glass, electro-optical converter, etc.) when conducting an inspection of the scene of an incident, a search, an investigative experiment and other procedural actions, as well as when carrying out operational investigative activities.
A lawyer needs to know that sensations are in constant interaction: when the sensitivity of some analyzers changes, others become more acute, a stimulus is felt differently under the influence of other stimuli. For example, a light stimulus may be perceived differently against the background of noise interference from a different sound signal, etc.
We must not forget that sensitivity depends on the length of stay in a given environment, its characteristics, the person’s life and professional experience, his psychophysiological state at the time of exposure to various stimuli on the senses, etc. This must be taken into account when analyzing the testimony of witnesses, victims and other participants in legal proceedings.
Perception – the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in their integrity. The variety of individual properties of objects is reflected in our consciousness in the form of images. We see a book (but not black and white spots), eat an apple, admire a painting, pet a cat. When we encounter an unfamiliar object or phenomenon, its image is created by a large number of sensations.
Perception is a set of sensations; it is selective and depends both on subjective conditions, which are predetermined by the qualities of the perceiving person, and on the objective properties of the perceived objects. Just like sensations, perceptions are classified depending on the leading role of a particular analyzer: visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic.
Depending on the purposefulness of reality, perceptions are divided into intentional (involuntary) and unintentional (voluntary).
Unintentional perception can be caused by the interests of the individual, the peculiarities of the situation, or the unusualness of objects. There is no pre-set goal. For example, a person suddenly heard the squeaking of brakes, the noise of falling objects, etc., while there is no volitional activity.
Intentional perception is regulated by the task, the goal - to perceive an object or event. For example, when conducting a search, the investigator has a deliberate perception.
During perception, it is not the summation of individual sensations that is carried out, but their interpretation from the point of view of existing knowledge: the individual is reflected in perception as a manifestation of the general, i.e. objectification of the perceived occurs.
The most important form of perception for a lawyer is observation – deliberate, purposeful, systematic, planned and organized perception. The success of perception depends on knowledge, certainty and strength of the tasks, goals and preparation. A lawyer must have a broad outlook in legal activities, developed thinking, professional memory, attention.
A lawyer's observation is not an innate quality; it is developed through practice and exercise. “It is useful for the future investigator to specifically practice the following:
- in comparing and contrasting similar objects;
- in the quick perception of the greatest number of features of an object;
- in detecting insignificant, insignificant changes in objects;
- in highlighting what is significant from the point of view of the purpose of observation."
The main properties and patterns of perception are objectivity, integrity, structure, meaningfulness, organization of the field of perception, apperception, constancy, selectivity, illusoryness.
The objectivity and integrity of perception lies in the fact that even in those cases when we perceive only some signs of a familiar object, we mentally complete its missing fragments. Activity perception is expressed in the participation in it of the motor components of the analyzers (movement of the eyes, hands, etc.). Meaningfulness it is associated with thinking: a person tries to find an explanation for what he perceives, i.e. understand its essence. This is the difference between human sensations and animal sensations. “An eagle sees much further than a person, but the human eye notices much more in things than the eye of an eagle. A dog has a much more subtle sense of smell than a person, but it does not distinguish even a hundredth of those odors that for a person are definite signs of various things ".
The relative independence of the perceived characteristics of objects from the parameters of stimulation of the receptor surfaces of the sensory organs is constancy perception, i.e. the ability to perceive objects with a certain constancy of their properties, regardless of the conditions of perception. Selectivity perception - preferential selection of an object from the background, for example, along its contour.
A person always strives to organize the field of perception in such a way as to see this or that image in connection with some previous ideas, familiar objects. Thanks to the field of perception, the individual elements of an object or phenomenon are combined into the whole.
The dependence of perception on the general content of mental activity, experience, interests and orientation of the individual is called apperception. Installation plays an important role here, i.e. readiness to perceive specific objects. For example, we see more easily what we expect than what is unknown or unexpected. The new must have fairly striking features in order to stand out against the background of the ordinary and familiar. A distinction is made between stable apperception - the dependence of perception on stable personality characteristics (worldview, beliefs, education, etc.) and temporary apperception - the dependence of perception on mental states (emotions, mood, etc.).
Apperception, in which feelings have a formative influence on the expected perception, is called emotional. Everything that corresponds to the main experience is perceived much faster and more clearly than other circumstances.
The system of expectations created by professional skills and habits is called professional apperception. This phenomenon clearly manifests itself when people of various professions witness the incident. Professional apperception is essential for the reconstruction of a crime event.
Inadequate reflection of an object and its properties is called illusion of perception. Illusions can arise for various reasons (physical, physiological and mental) and can be both objective and subjective.
Physical illusions depend on the state of the object itself, which is adequately reflected by the analyzer. For example, the laws of light refraction in a liquid medium “break” an oar lowered into water, poor lighting “smoothes out corners,” fog “conceals” sound, etc.
Physiological illusions (mainly visual) are caused by imperfections of the perceptive apparatus. There are several options for visual illusions:
- a) contrast, when an object placed among those superior in scale appears smaller;
- b) overestimation of the upper part of the figure (when mentally dividing a vertical line in half, the middle always seems higher);
- c) distortion of lines under the influence of the direction of other lines intersecting the first;
- d) dependence of color perception on the background (light against a dark background seems brighter).
The possibility of physiological illusions should be borne in mind when the witness did not have the opportunity to calmly examine an object or person due to lack of time.
TO psychic illusions include false recognitions in an atmosphere of tense anticipation. For example, under the influence of a feeling of fear, a coat on a hanger may be mistaken for a person and cause corresponding defensive actions; insufficiently audible conversation – for collusion; the clink of metal - for preparation for an attack.
Hallucinations, which are perceptions that arise without the presence of a real object, should be distinguished from illusion.
Perception of space consists of the perception of size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects. It is influenced by the combination of visual, tactile, and kinesthetic sensations in a person’s experience.
The perception of volume and distance of objects is carried out through vision. In this case, linear (frontal) and angular perspectives, as well as the degree of illumination, play a role. For the perception of relief and the volume of an object, binocular vision (vision with two eyes) is of primary importance. The movement of objects in space is perceived depending on their distance and speed of movement. The objectivity of perception depends on the eye (static and dynamic).
For time perception there is no specific analyzer. Time is perceived as something moving from the past to the present, from the present to the future. The natural regulators of time for humans are the change of day and night, the sequence of ordinary activities and the rhythm of biological changes occurring in the body. With the accumulation of life experience, the indicator of time becomes the sequence of thoughts and feelings in our consciousness, creating a subjective perception of time and making it dependent on the content of mental life. Despite the fact that a person constantly compares the subjective sense of time with the objective one, the discrepancy between them can be significant.
Basic forms of time perception:
- a) chronometric (by instruments, watches, light display, etc.);
- b) chronogiosic (the sequence of events, dates, etc. is recorded);
- c) psychological (perception associated with experience, psychological stress, etc.).
Movement perception – this is a reflection in the human mind of changes in the position of an object in space: speed, acceleration, direction. Visual, auditory, kinesthetic and other analyzers are involved in the perception of movements.
The perceptual activity of a lawyer consists of direct sensory reflection of individual properties of objects (sensation) and objects as a whole (perception). When inspecting the scene of an incident, searching, presenting for identification and other procedural actions, the investigator carries out a deliberate, systematic, purposeful perception. During a court hearing, the judge, lawyer, and prosecutor constantly monitor the events taking place in the courtroom. At the same time, connections are established between objects and phenomena, and the information received is comprehended. In the process of communicating with people, justice workers evaluate the external manifestations of people’s inner world, determine the worldview, character, temperament, needs, motives and other qualities of participants in legal proceedings in order to identify the psychological essence of their actions and deeds and use the information received to organize targeted influence on the psyche of these individuals .
The results of a lawyer’s perception depend on the ability to identify in objects and phenomena those properties and qualities that are important for the investigation, conducting operational investigative activities, and considering cases in court. For example, an experienced investigator uses a familiar surveillance system and has developed professional observation skills - the ability to notice subtle details and unusual situations, and quickly identify the relationship of the object of observation to the event under investigation. The judge and lawyer pay attention to the manifestations of psychophysiological traits of the defendant, victim, witness and other participants in the trial. Actions and external manifestations of a person can suggest the direction of performing a specific procedural action, adjust the formulation of questions, and choose a tactical technique to establish psychological contact. Perception is always associated with memory, imagination, thinking, etc.
Observing the object of study, the lawyer must be able to determine pretense from sincerity, see behind the emotional expressive movements the real state and stable characterological properties of the witness, victim, suspect, accused.
In the process of professional selection of applicants, graduates of law universities, and specialists for law enforcement agencies, special attention is paid to an individual’s ability to notice certain phenomena of reality, understand their nature, identify patterns of legal activity, etc.
As a result of overwork, there may be an increased perception of common external stimuli. For example, the light is blinding, the sounds are deafening, the knock on the door sounds like a shot, etc. These changes in perception are called hypertension. A decrease in sensitivity to external objects and situations is also possible. For example, objects look faded, sounds come muffled, there is no intonation among those around, etc. This condition, the opposite of hypertension, is called hypoesthesia.
Memory – the mental process of capturing, storing and reproducing information about events in the external world and the body’s reactions; mental reflection of a person’s past interaction with reality and its use in subsequent activities.
Thanks to memory, a person can master the knowledge accumulated by previous generations and successfully apply his personal experience in practical activities, expand your skills and abilities. “Without memory, we would be creatures of the moment,” wrote S. L. Rubinstein, “our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it passes, would irrevocably disappear into the past. There would be no knowledge or skills based on the past. There would be no mental life, closing in the unity of personal consciousness, and the fact of essentially continuous teaching, passing through our entire life and making us what we are, would be impossible."
Memory is based on associations or connections. Associations can be simple or complex.
Simple associations include associations by contiguity, similarity and contrast:
- association but contiguity is a connection in time or space;
- associations by similarity - a connection between two phenomena that have similar features: when one of them is mentioned, the other is also remembered;
- associations by contrast connect two opposite phenomena (for example, organization and laxity; health and illness, etc.).
The main factor determining the formation of associative mental processes, including memory processes, is the activity of the individual.
Memory is divided into several types, of which the leading one is verbal-logical memory, for the understanding of the connections between events and their relationship in time depends on it. This is a "memory for dates". The main content of verbal-logical memory is our thoughts expressed in verbal form. This type of memory is closely related to speech, since any thought is necessarily expressed in words. Particular importance is attached to figurative speech and intonation. In the work of an investigator, verbal-logical memory plays an important role: for example, when investigating a complex, multi-episode case.
Emotional memory preserves the feelings that a person experienced as a participant or witness to an event. It is called the memory of feelings, it is closely related to figurative memory and serves as a prerequisite for the development of the ability to sympathize and empathize. The lawyer’s emotional memory helps him penetrate deeper into the emotional sphere of the personality of the victim, witness, and accused.
A feature of emotional memory is the breadth of communication and the depth of penetration into the essence of feelings experienced in the past. The properties of emotional memory depend on the sense organs and their characteristics.
Motor memory allows you to save skills and automatically perform habitual actions. It's called "habit memory." With the participation of motor memory, practical and labor skills, physical dexterity, and dexterity are formed. For example, when describing, the investigator can reproduce the actions that he performed when communicating with the criminal.
Figurative memory retains ideas, pictures of nature and life, as well as sounds, smells, tastes and is divided into visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory. This type of memory is well developed among representatives of creative professions. Figurative memory is of great importance in human educational activity.
A person has all types of memory, but depending on individual characteristics, one of them may predominate (for example, visual memory).
According to the goals of activity, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary. Involuntary memory manifests itself in activities that do not have the goal of remembering the circumstances accompanying it for a long time. Lawyers encounter this type of memory when analyzing the testimony of a witness who happened to be an eyewitness to an incident. Arbitrary memory mediated by the goal and objectives of capturing, preserving and reproducing any facts, knowledge, i.e. it is purposeful memorization and reproduction.
The effectiveness of voluntary memory depends on memorization and memorization techniques (mechanical repeated repetition of material, logical retelling, etc.).
Depending on how the memorized is used, memory is divided into long-term (permanent), short-term and operational. Long-term memory valid throughout a person’s life. The material stored in it is systematically processed and organized. Names, addresses, grammatical forms of the language we speak, our feelings for loved ones, skills and habits - all this, once fixed, remains in memory forever. True, our reproduction mechanism is far from perfect and individual facts every now and then “fall out” of memory, but some time passes and they “emerge” again without visible effort. Long-term memory stores a very large amount of information. The difficulty is to access it at the right time. Any lawyer should fully possess this skill.
Short-term memory – of a different kind, it is fleeting. Many impressions, as soon as a person is distracted from them, are erased and disappear from consciousness. This memory is characterized by a very short period of retention of traces after a single exposure to a stimulus. Reproduction of a trace using short-term memory is possible only in the first seconds after perception. Translating some facts from short-term memory to long-term memory requires a volitional effort or a vivid impression left by an emotional experience. Short-term memory covers a significant number of details, in contrast to long-term memory, which is always somewhat schematic.
The intermediate link between these types is RAM. It is a combination of momentary, short-term memory with that information from long-term memory that is currently necessary to perform any complex action. When an action is completed, the RAM “switched on” to it ceases to function. Working memory is used to achieve personal activity goals.
The role of RAM is great in the activities of an investigator involved in a criminal case. With the end of the investigation, many circumstances, details, facts in the case are completely lost in memory as having lost their relevance and meaning.
The following phases are distinguished in memory:
- 1) memorization (consolidation);
- 2) preservation;
- 3) reproduction (updating, renewal);
- 4) forgetting.
Memorization - a process that ensures the storage of material in memory. In psychology, a distinction is made between voluntary and involuntary memorization.
Voluntary memorization always selective. It is divided into mechanical (multiplicity, stereotypical repetitions, for example, “cramming”) and semantic. The closer this process comes to thinking and practical activity, the better the material is remembered (for example, repeating the text in your own words helps).
At involuntary memorization a person does not set himself the task of remembering this or that material. An elementary form of involuntary memorization is sequential images. These are the results of reflection, preserved by consciousness after the stimulus has ceased to act on the analyzer (most often the auditory or visual one).
Individuals have the ability to eidetism – preserving in memory and reproducing an extremely vivid and detailed image of previously perceived objects and phenomena. They are sometimes of particular interest to lawyers because they can involuntarily capture an object so well that they subsequently reproduce it in every detail.
Memorization often occurs in the form of image-representations. “In an image-representation, our memory does not passively retain the imprint of what was once perceived, but does deep work with it, combining a whole series of impressions, analyzing the content of the object, communicating these impressions, combining our own visual experience with knowledge about the object,” believed A.R. Luria. The idea of an object is the actual processing of a mental image.
Memorization is always associated with human actions, which means that what is included in purposeful activity is remembered better. The process of memorization is actively influenced by emotions. Against the background of heightened emotional states, memorization is more productive. Memorization is always selective: not everything that affects our senses is retained in memory. Something that is important to a person, causes interest, emotion, an increased sense of responsibility, joy, etc., is actively and firmly remembered.
Memorization is facilitated by the characterological characteristics of the suspect, accused, witness, and victim. For example, people who are cheerful, cheerful, and optimistic tend to remember pleasant things; Pessimists remember unpleasant things more.
There are some techniques to improve memorization:
- drawing up a detailed plan, which includes background information, a system of actions, issues to be clarified, grouping material on effective grounds, etc.;
- drawing up auxiliary diagrams and tables reflecting the connections between the elements of the event under study;
- comparison of similar situations;
- classification, systematization, grouping of material.
Playback is a memory process, as a result of which the previously fixed is updated by extraction from long-term memory and translation into operational memory. During the process of reproduction, people, events, and certain situations are recalled.
Recall – mental actions associated with searching, restoring and retrieving necessary information from long-term memory. Therefore, it is advisable, for example, to begin an interrogation with a free story, since this promotes active recall of the facts imprinted in the memory of the interrogated.
The reproduction process is carried out either voluntarily (at our request) or involuntarily. Playback can be fast (instantaneous) or painfully long. It includes recognition, reproduction itself, and memory.
Recognition - This is the reproduction of an object upon repeated perception. It can also be voluntary or involuntary. With involuntary recognition, recall is carried out effortlessly, imperceptibly for the individual, it is often very incomplete and uncertain. Thus, when we see a person, we can experience the feeling that we are familiar with him, but we will have to make an effort to remember him, to “clarify” the recognition.
To recognize an object means, on the one hand, to attribute it to a certain class of objects in the surrounding world, and on the other, to establish its individuality. Recognition is divided into simultaneous (synthetic) and successive (analytical). Simultaneous recognition occurs quickly, intuitively, without analyzing details and, most often, without error. Successive involves careful examination of an identifiable object in order to compare memories with the proposed original; in this case, the characteristics of an object are divided into three categories: those reliably belonging to a person or object; remembered clearly, but not making it possible to accurately establish their individual identity; allowing to classify this phenomenon into a certain class. It is well known that the accuracy and correctness of the testimony will depend on the degree of recognition of the information being reported. Therefore, when assessing the testimony of witnesses, victims, accused, and suspects, it is necessary to carefully determine the extent to which their testimony corresponds to reality. In legal practice, there are known cases of incorrect, distorted perception (illusion), which can lead to honest misconception and investigative errors.
The actual playback occurs without re-perception of the object. It is usually caused by the content of the activity being carried out at the moment, although it is not specifically aimed at reproduction. This is involuntary reproduction. However, it requires a push - the perception of various objects and phenomena. The content of reproduced images and thoughts is determined by those associations that were formed in past experience. Involuntary reproduction can be directed and organized when it is caused not by a randomly perceived object, but by the content of the activity being performed at the moment.
Types of reproduction are memories, associated with retrieving from memory events, images of the past from the life of a person and society. The involuntary nature of memories is relative: memory retrieves information through the mechanism of association. As mentioned above, associations arise from contiguity, similarity and opposition.
Voluntary memory associated with achievement specific purpose and, as a rule, requires memory stimulation. The simplest way of stimulation is to concentrate attention on a certain range of ideas, allowing the mechanism of associations to turn on. Emotional memory plays an important role in restoring lost details. Excitement, anger and others emotional states, experienced repeatedly, contribute to the activation of ideas about the remembered event, give them a figurative character and help to remember details. In cases where reproduction is difficult and effort is required in solving a productive task, we talk about recall.
The quality of reproduction depends on subjective and objective reasons. Reproduction is strictly individual. Its volume and sequence depend on the life experience, knowledge, age, intelligence, physical and mental state of the subject. Big influence Objective factors (situation, operating conditions, etc.) also influence the efficiency of reproduction.
Forgetting – a process reverse to memorization and preservation. It depends on several factors. The less often a person uses material in activities, the faster it is forgotten. Weakening interest in the learned material or overstrain of the central nervous system also causes the process of forgetting.
Forgetting is a physiologically natural phenomenon. It normalizes the ability to recall and reproduce, regulates the intensity of recollection of information accumulated in a person’s memory. There are cases of memory lapses (amnesia), which arise from various local brain lesions and manifest themselves in the form of a disorder in recognizing objects. Memory lapses can occur, for example, in a victim after an injury or fainting. Lawyers who skillfully use associative techniques seek to eliminate memory lapses in victims, defendants, and others.
Forgetting is often associated with the age of the subject.
Memory develops under constant load on the mechanisms of memorization, storage and reproduction.
Methods for activating memory include:
- a) creation of objective conditions under which the subject is excluded from exposure to extraneous stimuli that distract or cause negative emotions;
- b) appeal to figurative memory, use of visualization, skillful combination of recognition and reproduction;
- c) using the memory that is better developed in a given individual or is dominant in a particular situation (for example, visual);
- d) establishing supporting (key) places in the captured event and semantic connections between them, identifying associations between disparate facts based on contiguity, similarity, and contrast;
- e) assisting individuals in reproducing events in chronological order.
A lawyer's memory can become a source of important information on specific cases, and sometimes the only condition for proving the truth. The ability to correctly retrieve necessary information from memory is one of the most important professional skills of a justice worker. A lawyer’s professional memory must be distinguished by sufficient volume, accuracy of memorization and reproduction of circumstances important in his work, and high mobilization readiness to recall the required information at the right time. Lawyers need to know general rules memory formation and basic techniques for its activation.
- memory training (systematic reproduction of events, facts that occurred during the day, week, etc.);
- repetition of what has been learned (consists of periodically refreshing your memory of events, actions, etc.);
- active self-monitoring of memory ;
- performing special exercises and tasks (for example, memorizing poetry, prose);
- strict adherence to memory hygiene (proper nutrition, during intense mental work, take breaks (10–15 minutes), do not abuse tonic drinks (alcohol, tea, coffee).
Imagination (fantasy) – This is the creation of new images based on existing ones. Imagination allows you to foresee the future and anticipate the results of activities, but these processes are not identical. The imagination operates with images, and the results of the proposed activity appear in the form of more or less vivid ideas. It helps to analyze problem situations when there is not enough data to solve the problem.
The process of imagination always accompanies creative, search, and mental activity and is accompanied by emotions and experiences. The most important significance of imagination is that it allows you to imagine the result of labor before the work itself begins, orienting the individual in his activity. Imagination enters into everything labor process, is a necessary side creative work. The role of imagination is especially active in the activities of the investigator aimed at investigating a crime, since in the process of investigation there is constantly a need to mentally restore the mechanism of the criminal event, the image of the wanted criminal, based on individual traces, physical evidence, and consequences that have occurred. Without imagination, it is impossible for an investigator to create a mental model of a criminal event and put forward substantiated versions of the crime, as well as recreate a picture of a criminal event.
The imagination creates new images through agglutination (combining incompatible qualities, properties), hyperbolization (increasing or decreasing individual characteristics and qualities of people, objects, phenomena), sharpening (sharp selection, emphasizing any characteristic inherent or attributed to a specific object), typification ( identifying the essential, repeating in homogeneous phenomena). Thus, imagination is a departure from reality, but the source of imagination is objective reality.
Imagination allows you to determine the content of an object before the concept itself is formed. In terms of imagination, a holistic image of the situation is created before a detailed picture of what is contemplated.
Imagination can be passive or active. Passive is divided into voluntary (daydreaming, daydreaming) and involuntary (hypnotic state, dream fantasy). Passive imagination is subject to internal, subjective factors. Images and ideas of passive imagination ensure the preservation of positive emotions and the repression of negative ones. Active imagination is aimed at solving a creative or personal problem; daydreaming and “groundless” fantasy are practically absent. Active imagination is determined by volitional efforts and is subject to volitional control; it is more directed outward, a person is less busy with internal problems.
Depending on the degree of originality of the images, imagination is divided into recreative and creative. The first allows us to understand what we do not directly perceive at the moment. The second creates completely new, original images. The results of creative imagination can be material and ideal images.
The process of imagination sometimes takes the form of a special internal activity, which consists in creating an image of the desired future, i.e. in a dream. A dream is a necessary condition for the transformation of reality, a motivating reason, a motive for activity, the final completion of which was delayed.
Imagination is an element of human creative activity, an image of the products of labor that ensures the creation of a cognitive program. Active creative imagination is a professionally important quality of a lawyer. It is especially necessary for an investigator whose cognitive activity is associated with predicting results in situations of greatest uncertainty. For example, during an inspection of the crime scene, the investigator imagines what could have happened here, how the participants in the criminal event should have behaved. At the same time, he has to highlight essential features, generalize phenomena, i.e. perform certain mental operations.
Thinking is a process of cognitive activity, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality, the highest degree of human consciousness. Thinking makes it possible to understand what we do not observe and to foresee the results of future actions. Thanks to thinking, a person navigates the world around him.
Forms, types and operations of thinking are distinguished.
The main forms of thinking are concept, judgment, inference.
Concept called a mental idea of a thing expressed in a word. The concept never coincides with the image. The image is specific and consists of many sensually reflected details. The formation of concepts is based on abstraction, so they reflect some generalized and indirect characteristics.
The concept is revealed in judgments that are expressed in verbal form - oral or written, out loud or silently.
Judgment there is a connection between the two concepts. The psychological (subjective) side of a judgment is the content of its elements, combined in the form of an affirmation or negation. Judgments can be general (when something is stated), particular (applies only to individual objects) and individual (applies to only one object).
Conclusion – a logical form of thinking, with the help of which a new one is derived from several judgments. The ability to make inferences develops in a person in the process of learning and practical activity. Inference can be divided into logical and intuitive, abstract (abstract) and concrete, productive and unproductive, theoretical and empirical, voluntary and involuntary.
The development of human thinking occurs in the course of objective activity and communication. There are different types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal.
Visual-effective thinking characterized by the fact that the solution of the problem is carried out using a real transformation of the situation, testing the properties of objects. Visually effective thinking is replaced by more perfect thinking - visually figurative , which allows you to operate with images without concrete sensory manipulation of objects. However, as a way of understanding, this thinking remains and forms the basis of the so-called practical mind. Visual and effective thinking is manifested, for example, in the actions of an investigator who uses various technical means of forensics to find traces at the scene of an incident. Visual-figurative thinking is associated with the representation of situations and changes in them. Its role is especially great in the learning process. Verbal and logical thinking characterized by the use of concepts and logical constructions; it functions on the basis of linguistic means.
Mental operations include analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, systematization, concretization, classification, induction, deduction, etc.
Analysis (from Greek analysis – “decomposition”, “dismemberment”) – mental or real division of an object (object, phenomenon, process) into parts; the first stage of scientific research.
Synthesis (from Greek synthesis - “connection”) is a process opposite to analysis, which consists in the mental or real connection of objects into a single whole. This is a type of thinking that, together with analysis, allows one to move from particular concepts to general ones, from general ones to systems of concepts.
Comparison there is a mental comparison of objects, establishing similarities and differences between them. In the process of comparison, judgments are made about the commonality or difference of the properties of two or more cognizable concepts.
Abstraction - this is a distraction from certain properties, signs of an object in order to highlight its leading qualities and turn them into an independent object of consideration. Abstraction allows a person to move in the process of thinking from abstract objects to concrete ones, i.e. the abstract is filled with concrete content. In this way, the shape, color, size, movement and other properties of objects are highlighted.
Generalization comes down to the unification of many objects and phenomena according to some common characteristic.
Systematization – it is the mental arrangement of many objects in a certain order.
Specification is the movement of thoughts from the general to the specific.
Classification – assignment of a separate object or phenomenon to a group of objects or phenomena.
The movement of knowledge from individual statements to general provisions is called by induction. Psychology studies the development and patterns of impairment of inductive reasoning. Induction is closely related to the opposite mental operation - deduction, which denotes the movement of knowledge from the general to the specific, individual, the separation of consequences from premises. In the process of thinking, some other mental operations are also used.
Particular importance is attached to the quality of thinking, i.e. individual and professional thinking characteristics.
In relation to the thinking of a lawyer, the following qualities have been identified:
- independence – the ability to put forward tasks, versions, proposals and find effective ways to solve them;
- flexibility of thought - the ability to quickly change your actions when the situation changes;
- criticality of mind - the ability to objectively evaluate one’s own and others’ thoughts, taking into account available evidence;
- receptivity – the ability to timely predict the development of events in a specific situation;
- insight - the ability to determine the motives that guide a person and foresee possible consequences;
- efficiency - the ability to understand a new situation in a limited time, think about it, complete the task and make the right decision;
- multidirectionality – the ability to solve issues using legal and special knowledge (forensic, accounting, etc.), life and professional experience;
- selectivity - the ability to separate the important from the unimportant and direct effort in the right direction.
These qualities of thinking are acquired by a person in the process of life and professional activity.
The thought process often unfolds as a process of solving a problem and consists of a number of stages: preparation (correlating the task with the need-motivational sphere of the individual), orientation in the conditions of the problem, determination of means and methods of solution; the decision itself (obtaining the result). The process of solving a problem eliminates uncertainty in the subject’s activities. The situation of uncertainty encourages the activation of thinking.
The activity of a lawyer requires the development of all mental operations (analysis, synthesis, etc.). A significant role in the work of the investigator is played by developed predictive thinking, associated with the need to foresee all stages of the case up to the trial. The intuition of a lawyer, in particular an investigator, is of particular importance.
Intuition (lat. intueri – “closely, carefully look”) is a way of thinking in which inference goes from individual facts to a general conclusion. Knowledge that arises without awareness of the ways and conditions for its acquisition.
Psychological intuition is a direct reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of the real world. Intuition has two forms: a) unconscious primitive thinking, carried out on the basis of a certain reflex; b) thinking that has already become unconscious and is carried out according to the signs of automaticity of mental skills.
A correct understanding of the psychology of intuition is important for shaping decision making. However, conclusions that are based on intuition are probabilistic in nature and require mandatory verification.
Law enforcement officials think retrospectively and reconstructively as they examine the circumstances of events that occurred in the past. A feature of a lawyer’s thinking is reflexivity, which manifests itself in the constant comparison of one’s own actions and deeds with the behavior of persons who find themselves in the orbit of his activities. Therefore, his thinking is characterized by cognitive activity, depth and breadth, flexibility, mobility, and independence. There are various techniques and methods that activate creative thinking: stimulation of the motivational sphere, inclusion in activities, verbalization of the thought process in combination with the organization of information, playing roles, group stimulation of thought processes, etc.
Thinking is closely related to language and speech. Without language and speech, thinking cannot exist. A clear thought is always associated with a clear verbal formulation.
Language is a system of signs necessary for human communication, thinking and expression of individual self-awareness. This is a special system in which socio-historical experience and public consciousness are captured. Once mastered by a specific person, language becomes his real consciousness. Language is the most important, but not the only means of communication. It interacts with non-linguistic (auxiliary) means of communication, including human reactions reflected in his behavior: gestural, intonation, facial-somatic.
The development of language is determined by collective work, the need for communication and interaction. Since language is closely related to thinking, it is involved in almost all mental functions. Basic language units – say And offer. The word as a stimulus appears in three forms: auditory, visual and motor. The word has meaning and meaning. Meaning is the content of information embedded in a word. The meaning of words is expressed in individual, subjective perception and understanding of phenomena and objects of objective reality.
From early childhood, a person gradually masters the words and grammatical structure of the language spoken by those around him, i.e. takes over speech. Speech is an activity during which people communicate with each other through language. Human thinking is also carried out with the help of speech (external and internal).
Inner speech as a means of thinking, it uses specific symbolic units (code of images, objective meaning). External speech , both written and oral, has a specific structure and uses the word as its basic unit. Speech is always individual and reflects the socio-psychological characteristics of the individual, its orientation, and level of development.
People can exchange ideas orally or in writing, in the form of dialogue or monologue. The main type of speech is oral speech, and written speech reproduces on paper the features of oral and auditory speech.
General requirements for dialogic and monologue forms oral speech are the same, but professionals have to take some features into account. Thus, during a monologue (the speech of a prosecutor or lawyer), it is necessary to pay attention to the sequence of presentation, argumentation, evidence, while interrogation (of the accused, witness, victim) - dialogic speech– involves the ability not only to ask questions, but also to respond to the interlocutor’s statements appropriately.
Written speech has much in common with oral communication: first of all, it is a means of communication; moreover, for its functioning, both use the word. However, written speech uses graphics and is subject to slightly different syntactic and stylistic rules. Professional writing is characterized by special functional styles. Lawyers use it primarily in legal proceedings and in the preparation of various documents.
Speech activity involves the perception of audible and visible speech signals. The analysis of verbal signals obeys the general laws of analytical-synthetic activity. Simultaneously with analysis, synthesis occurs - the formation of new connections between the sounds that make up words and the words that make up sentences. Establishing temporary connections between the elements of speech itself (sounds, words and sentences) makes it possible to form various associations between them and designated objects and phenomena.
Acting as a regulator of interpersonal relationships, speech performs three main functions: designation, expression and influence. Speech as a means of expression has two forms: a verbal description of the experienced non-speech mood and an attitude towards what is being described. The first requires a special gift of oral speech, the second depends on the expressiveness of the presentation. The expression given to speech makes it a means of influence. A simple form of speech influence is the verbal designation of a certain requirement in the form of an order, request, advice. Speech can, unnoticed by the interlocutors, turn into a means of suggestion, even in cases where the speaker does not set himself such a goal.
The requirements for professional speech are clarity, literacy, argumentation, consistency, and in relation to a lawyer, also skillful use of terminology. After all, when terms are used, for example, by doctors, it is assumed that they should be understandable primarily to their colleagues, while during a court hearing, the statements of lawyers should be accessible to all participants in the process. At the same time, only the use of terminology allows us to avoid ambiguity and ambiguity, since the term cannot be used in a figurative meaning and does not have additional interpretation. Fluency in terminology is an indicator of a lawyer’s professional literacy.
Attention – this is the concentration of the subject’s activity at a given moment in time on any real or ideal object (object, image, event, etc.). Attention ensures the productivity and effectiveness of cognitive processes and all psychological activity. Attentiveness is a personality quality that is the most important prerequisite for the success of an activity.
There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.
At involuntary attention thinking processes are not connected, it is passive and lasts as long as the external stimulus acts. The most common manifestation of involuntary attention are the so-called indicative reactions.
Voluntary attention arises and develops as a result of volitional effort to concentrate on an object. Voluntary attention is characterized by a number of qualities: volume, stability, switchability, distribution, fluctuation, concentration, absent-mindedness, etc.
Postvoluntary attention is a continuation of the process of voluntary attention, volitional effort is replaced by natural interest and an object: first, a person forces himself to concentrate on something by willpower, and then attention is concentrated on the subject of the activity, as if by itself.
The success of legal activities (investigative, judicial, etc.) largely depends on the quality of attention of the investigator, operative worker, and judge. The main qualities of attention are: stability, distribution, concentration, fluctuation, direction, etc.
Sustainability of attention - This is the ability to hold consciousness for a long time while performing one type of activity. The inability to engage in concentrated, purposeful activity is called absent-mindedness; it can be caused by a variety of factors: from fatigue and lack of appropriate motivation to certain clinical disorders, often associated with thinking disorders. Stability of attention is formed in the process of learning and perception and requires constant training. People who are not accustomed to long-term concentration find it difficult to force themselves to do the same thing for a long time. They quickly become distracted, i.e. Passive attention stops the consistent train of thoughts and introduces new, unnecessary, but pleasant and attractive ideas into the field of consciousness.
The simplest way to maintain stability of attention is volitional effort. But its effect is limited in time by fatigue and depletion of the body’s internal reserves. It is recommended to prevent fatigue by short breaks in work, especially when inspecting the scene of an incident, searching, etc.
The stability of attention depends on the performance of the body. Fatigue, illness, hunger, insomnia and other factors reduce it. Therefore, when conducting, for example, a search, in order to maintain optimal performance, the investigator and other participants in the procedural action are recommended to change objects of attention, to “switch.” Switchability - this is the ability to rebuild a previously planned action on the fly, the ability to quickly move from one type of activity to another. Those who easily succeed in this are called people with flexible attention and good reactions, and those who tend to “get stuck” on experiences when circumstances require switching are called slow, slow-witted. When working with slow people, you should give them time to finish their thoughts, since the completion of the previous action is necessary to switch attention.
Distribution of attention is the ability of a person to simultaneously perform two or more actions in the absence of the possibility of sequential switching. This ability depends on the individual characteristics of the individual and the development of appropriate skills in performing each action.
During the interrogation, the investigator must distribute his attention in such a way as to not only perceive speech information, but also monitor the intonation, facial expressions, and peculiarities of the interrogated person’s speech. When conducting a search, the investigator studies the situation, examines possible hiding places (hiding places), carefully monitors the behavior of the person being searched, the actions of the members of the investigative team, etc.
The opposite property of sustained attention is distractibility. The psychophysiological explanation for distractibility is considered to be external inhibition caused by stimuli. Distractibility is expressed in fluctuations that contribute to weakening of attention.
Concentration of attention – this is a high intensity of attention with a volume of one object. A lawyer focuses on the main thing while simultaneously distracting from the unimportant. For example, when examining a crime scene, an investigator concentrates all his attention on the external examination of the corpse.
Focus of attention a lawyer is the ability to perceive what is happening and at the same time think, remember, analyze, etc. For example, during an interrogation, the investigator receives information, analyzes it, compares it with the available data on the case, etc.
Factors that determine attention are divided into external and internal. External factors include the strength of the stimulus (sharp sound, bright light, strong odor, etc.), its contrast and novelty. They influence analyzers, especially with a structurally ordered organization of stimuli. Therefore, in any type of activity, it is important for a lawyer to ensure the most rational forms of organizing the flow of information: neutralize negative factors or attract positive ones that stimulate attention.
To summarize, it should be noted that thanks to attention, a person sorts the necessary information, ensuring selectivity of various activity programs, while maintaining constant control over his actions.
The psyche, as a form of active reflection of reality by a specific subject, has different levels, the highest of which is consciousness.
Human consciousness includes the body of knowledge about the world around us. The structure of consciousness includes:
- a) cognitive processes (sensation, perception, memory, imagination, thinking);
- b) the difference between subject and object (i.e., what belongs to a person’s “I” and his “not I”);
- c) ensuring goal-setting human activity;
- d) a person’s attitude to the objective world.
Cognitive processes allow us to gain knowledge about the world around us. Only a person is able to distinguish between subject and object, to know himself, to independently evaluate his actions (deeds) and himself as a whole. Conscious reflection, in contrast to the mental reflection characteristic of animals, is a reflection of objective reality, inherent only to a person (person). The functions of consciousness include the formation of goals of activity, motives for performing actions, and making volitional decisions.
Many mental properties (knowledge, skills, abilities, etc.), emotions, experiences, feelings, i.e. everything that makes up inner world person are not realized by him. Unconscious – indispensable component mental activity and the person himself. This is an outdated psychological term, gradually being replaced by the concept of “unconscious”. The area of the unconscious includes mental processes, states, properties that arise in a dream, responses caused by various stimuli, movements brought to automatism, unconscious goals, etc. Sigmund Freud paid a lot of attention to the unconscious (the theory of psychoanalysis).
Psychoanalysis ("Freudianism" ) is a term that focuses on the psychological method of studying the subconscious of an individual. The subconscious is a process of psychological reflection that ensures the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge. Psychoanalysis complements consciousness and the unconscious in human mental activity. Modern approach in psychology presupposes integrity human psyche, when the activities of consciousness and the unconscious (unconscious) are considered in harmonious unity.
Goal-setting human activity consists in the formation of goals, objectives, motives, volitional decisions, and adjustments to activities. Any violation of the ability to carry out goal-setting activities, its coordination and direction is considered as a violation of consciousness (for example, as a result of a disease).
A person’s consciousness includes a world of feelings and emotions that allow him to maintain public or personal relationships.
Thus, a person maintains clarity of consciousness when he objectively evaluates the information received, taking into account the knowledge, skills, and experience he already has, distinguishes himself from the environment, and also maintains the existing system of relations between people and controls his behavior.
The act of consciousness contains three components: cognition, experience, attitude.
Cognition - this is the process of obtaining true knowledge about the objective world in the course of activity. The words “cognition” and “consciousness” have a common root, which shows their interconnection, as well as their close connection with knowledge. Knowledge is a set of concepts in any field. The elementary form of cognition is feeling, highest – creative thinking and memory. Knowledge is closely related with assimilation.
Assimilation - the main way an individual acquires socio-historical experience. Assimilation has three voluntary or involuntary stages: understanding, memorization, and the possibility of practical use. With suggestion, assimilation is involuntary.
Experience – one of the elements of consciousness, reflecting the real world in the form of satisfaction or dissatisfaction (compassion), excitement or calmness (i.e. simple emotions).
Attitude person to the surrounding reality - essential component consciousness, closely related to emotions and feelings. Relationships can be objective and mental (the latter are a reflection of objective ones).
The most important characteristic of consciousness is its level clarity, which can be lower (confused consciousness) and higher (self-consciousness). Self-awareness is a person’s awareness of his own “I”, his role in society and their active regulation.
Consciousness has individual, group, social and collective forms.
Individual consciousness – this is a characteristic of a person’s consciousness in terms of socially significant differences from the consciousness of other people, i.e. uniqueness of consciousness.
Social consciousness represents the generalized consciousness of a large number of individuals.
Group consciousness occupies an intermediate position between individual and social. The subject of group consciousness is a small group. Group consciousness expresses group views, opinions, moods, etc.
Collective Consciousness - this is a manifestation of social consciousness that regulates the activities of individuals in a particular team and the team as a whole. Collective consciousness is similar to group consciousness, but not identical to it.
Consciousness determines the mental model of a person’s actions.
All mental phenomena are inextricably linked, but traditionally they are divided into three groups:
1) mental processes;
2) mental states;
3) mental properties of the individual.
Mental processes should be considered as basic phenomena, and mental states and personality traits as a temporary and typological modification of mental processes. Taken together, all mental phenomena form a single stream of reflective-regulatory activity.
Let us give a brief general description of these three groups of mental phenomena.
I. Mental processes are individual integral acts of reflective-regulatory activity. Each mental process has its own object of reflection, its own regulatory specificity and its own patterns.
Mental processes represent the initial group of mental phenomena: on their basis, mental images are formed.
Mental processes are the active interaction of the subject with the object of reflection, a system of specific actions aimed at its cognition and interaction with it.
Mental processes are divided into: 1) cognitive (sensation, perception, thinking, imagination and memory), 2) volitional, 3) emotional.
Human mental activity is a combination of cognitive, volitional and emotional processes.
II. Mental state is a temporary uniqueness of mental activity, determined by its content and a person’s attitude to this content. Mental condition– current modification of the human psyche. It represents a relatively stable integration of all mental manifestations of a person with a certain interaction with reality.
The mental state is manifested in the general functional level of mental activity, depending on the direction of a person’s activity at the moment and his personal characteristics
All mental states are divided into:
1) motivational – needs-based attitudes, desires, interests, drives, passions;
2) states of organized consciousness (manifest in various levels attentiveness, efficiency);
3) emotional (emotional tone of sensations, emotional response to reality, mood, conflicting emotional states - stress, affect, frustration);
4) volitional (states of initiative, determination, determination, perseverance, etc.; their classification is related to the structure of complex volitional action).
There are also different borderline mental states of the individual - psychopathy, accentuation of character, neuroses and states of delayed mental development.
III. Mental properties of a person are features of his psyche that are typical for a given person, features of the implementation of his mental processes.
Mental properties of a person include: 1) temperament; 2) personality orientation (needs, interests, worldview, ideals); 3) character; 4) abilities (Fig. 3).
This is the traditional classification of mental phenomena, coming from I. Kant. It underlies the construction of traditional psychology. However, this classification suffers from an artificial separation of mental processes from mental states and typological properties of the individual: cognitive, volitional and emotional processes are nothing more than certain mental capabilities (abilities) of the individual, and mental states are the current uniqueness of these capabilities.
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- dysfunctions and pathological syndromes.
- The following stand out:levels of organization of sensory corrections, on the basis of which the implementation of actions of varying complexity is organized and regulated:
- Level A. LEVEL OF TONUS REGULATION, RUBRO-SPINAL, PALEOKINETIC.
- hyperfunction (with pathology of higher levels): “rest tremor” in parkinsonism; catalepsy;
- hypofunction: tremor when performing goal-directed actions (which may also be associated with level C lesions).
- Level B . LEVEL OF SYNERGY AND STAMPS, LEVEL OF REGULATION OF ACTIONS IN THE “BODY SPACE”, THALAM-PALLIDARY, NEOKINETIC.
- hyperfunction: excessive synergies and synkinesis, hyperkinesis;
- hypofunction: symptom complex of parkinsonism turning off the functions of the level itself and removing control over level A; deautomation of various complex subject actions; perseveration at the moment of starting and stopping movements.
- Level C . LEVEL OF REGULATION OF ACTIONS IN THE SPATIAL FIELD, PYRAMID-STRIAL.
- Level D LEVEL OF ACTION, PARIETIO-PREMOTOR, CORTICAL
- Level E . HIGHER CORTICAL LEVELS OF SYMBOLIC COORDINATION.
- Basic stages of the formation processmotor skills and abilities:
- familiarization with what movement looks like externally, “outside”;
- clarification of the internal picture of movement recoding of external afferent signals: a) into internal movement programs; b) afferent commands that ensure the development of correct corrections;
- distribution of sensory corrections across hierarchical levels of movement organization.
- gradual transfer of individual components of movement or the entire movement completely to the background levels;
- linking, coordinating the activities of all lower levels of sensory corrections;
- selection of existing motor programs that were previously developed for the implementation of other movements and can be part of a new motor action.
- achieving strength and noise immunity of the movement being performed;
- achieving stereotyping by effective use reactive and inertial forces in order to ensure dynamic stability of the motion trajectory.
- Higher mental functionshuman (HPF) these are complex self-regulating processes, social in origin, mediated (by tools, language, signs) in their structure, conscious and voluntary in the way of their functioning (A.R. Luria here agrees with L.S. Vygotsky).
- Physiological basis of HMFneuro-anatomical structureshuman cerebral cortex, on the basis of which it differentiates and develops dynamic system neuro-physiological functions. HMFs are formed and developed in a person throughout individual life in external forms of interaction with objects of the surrounding world and with other people. A necessary physiological condition for the formation of human HMF is the cerebral cortex, the anatomical and morphological features of which can potentially serve as the basis for the formation and implementation of various neuropsychological functional systems in ontogenesis.
- VPFs are complex functional systems thatare causally determined by external human interactionswith the objective world and people. Interactions with the outside world, in turn, determine the formation and development of new neurodynamic relationships between different parts of the brain. Wherein:
- the main reason for the formation of HMF is the orienting and research activity of a person in the outside world, organized in joint actions shared with other people and in communication;
- neurophysiological processes and functions are a necessary condition (but not the reason!) for the formation of HMF. Brain functions adapt to the implementation of new ways of orientation and organization of interactions with the outside world, which are acquired by the subject.
- The cerebral localization of neurophysiological mechanisms that ensure the implementation of HMF is formed in ontogenesis and depends on the characteristics of a person’s individual development, which are set by external forms activities and communication . The cerebral localization of HMF is ensured by the ontogenetic maturation of neural anatomical and morphological structures and the formation of new functional-dynamic physiological systems on their basis. At different stages of ontogenesis, the structure of the HMF changes; at the same time, their dynamic functional-physiological organization and cerebral localization also change.
- The implementation of the VPF is ensuredthree interconnected functional blocks brain:
- block regulation of tone and wakefulness: reticular formation, subcortical formations, frontal parts of the cerebral cortex;
- block, providing reception, processing and storageinformation: occipital, parietal and temporal parts of the cerebral cortex;
- block, providing programming, regulation and controlactivity: frontal parts of the cerebral cortex.
- serve as a projection in the cerebral cortex of one or another receptor or effector system;
- provide clearly defined receptor or effector functions;
- are included as mandatory components in the construction of complex functional systems.
- For focal lesions brain disorders of higher mental functions are subject to a number ofpatterns. Depending on which part of the brain in the neuro-functional system is damaged, the same HMF will be impaired to varying degrees: a) may partially or completely disintegrate; b) functionally restructure based on the use of other methods of neuro-dynamic organization. Damage to the same part of the brain can simultaneously lead to specific disorders of many different HMFs and manifests itself as many simultaneously occurring symptoms as a syndrome.
- At different age periods The organization of HMFs differs: a) in the psychological composition of the indicative and executive operations and actions included in them; b) according to the functional and structural features of the neurophysiological mechanisms that ensure their implementation. The effect of damage to a certain area of the brain at different stages of development of HMF will be different:
- in the early stages of HMF ontogenesis, the brain “center” that is higher in relation to the affected area will suffer, because its formation and development is based on the functions of the underlying “centers”;
- at the stage of already established HMF and brain functional system when the same area of the cortex is damaged, the lower (regulated) “center” in relation to the affected area will predominantly suffer.
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Psychology and esoterics
The main factor determining the development and functioning of living organisms, as well as individual physiological systems within the body, is not a past event, but preparation for events that have not yet occurred, which is ensured by predicting the results of upcoming actions based on advanced reflection and goal-setting mechanisms. Any behavioral act of a living organism is ensured by a number of systemic mechanisms and processes that are organized into a functional system: the mechanism of afferent synthesis...
PAGE 1
LECTURE 5. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL APPROACHES AND THEORIES THAT HAVE A SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Plan
The traditions of modern Russian psychology were initially laid in the works of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlova. If in Sechenov’s concept there was initially a desire to derive mental phenomena from complex relationships between the organism and the environment, then in the theories of Pavlov (and especially among his followers-physiologists) there is an implicit desire to reduce complex mental phenomena to reflex connections between the organism and the environment, and ultimately to the physiological mechanisms of the formation of temporary neurophysiological connections in the brain.
In the 30-60s. theory I.P. Pavlova in the USSR was used as an ideological foundation that ensured the limitation of scientific research in the field of psychology.
Later concept conditioned reflex within the framework of physiology, it was transformed into the concept of a “reflex ring with feedback realized through sensory corrections” in the theories of P.K. Anokhin and N.A. Bernstein. Both outstanding Russian physiologists directly pointed out the need to develop psychological aspects of the organization of behavior that go beyond the scope of physiological research.
Within the framework of cultural-historical and activity-based approaches to explaining mental phenomena, the relationship between the neurophysiological functions of the brain and the human psyche was most consistently theoretically constructed by A. R. Luria.
1. Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin (1898 1974). Theory of functional systems in the organization of life of living organisms
2. Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein (18961966). Theory of organization of purposeful actions and behavior based on sensory correction mechanisms
Theory of organization of purposeful actions and behavior based on sensory correction mechanisms N.A. Bernstein is one of the most frequently mentioned physiological theories by psychologists. Theoretical approach N.A. Bernstein's approach to explaining the mechanisms of organizing purposeful actions is often also called “physiology of activity.”
Motor tasks can be: a) locomotor acts; b) object-manipulative actions (in higher animals); c) symbolic actions (in humans).
Such synthesized complexes of sensory corrections underlie a variety of skills and abilities.
Localization and anatomical substrates: smooth muscles innervated by the autonomic nervous system (as opposed to neokinetic striated muscles); spinal cord and stem group of the red nucleus (palaeorubrum, neorubrum).
Leading afferentation: information about the position and direction of the body in the gravitational field, proprioception of pressure and body posture in close connection with the vestibular system.
Characteristics of movements: provides the tone of striated muscles, reciprocal innervation of antagonist muscles due to tone, changes in the excitatory and mechanical characteristics of muscle tone.
Movements where this level acts as a leader: trembling, rhythmic vibration movements, taking and holding a certain pose. Moreover, most of the movements that are regulated by this level remain involuntary and unconscious throughout life.
Dysfunctions and pathology:
Localization and anatomical substrate: visual thalamus as brain centers of afferentation; corpus pallidus (part of the extrapyramidal system) as effector centers, which: a) hierarchically subordinate the red nucleus group (level A); b) subordinate to the subcortical effector striatum.
Leading afferentation: joint-angular proprioception of speeds and positions of body parts (the body acts as the initial coordinate system), exteroceptive skin sensitivity.
Characteristics of movements: body movements without reference to anything outside adaptability to extensive muscle synergies; harmony and consistency of muscle movements over time, their alternation and repeatability.
Movements where this level of regulation acts as a leader: expressive facial expressions and pantomimes, plastic exercises, floor exercises, control of the rhythm of movement, ensuring alternation of the work of large groups of flexor and extensor muscles.
Dysfunctions and pathologies:
Includes two sublevels.
Localization and anatomical substrate: striatum (corpus striatum), consisting of the caudate nucleus (nuclei caudati) and the putamen (putaminis), which is the upper floor of the extrapyramidal system; primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; giant pyramidal area of the cerebral cortex; cortex of the neocerebellar hemispheres; tangoreceptor; vestibular apparatus.
Leading afferentation: synthetic perception of the spatial field of the external world, as well as external objects; perception of one's own movements in the coordinates of the external spatial field.
Regulation of aperiodic, precise, geometrically configured around external objects, purposeful movements, as well as regulation of objective actions.
Sublevel C 1 striate (extrapyramidal system).
Characteristics of movements: involuntary locomotor and manipulative movements in accordance with the tasks and characteristics of the spatial field.
Movements where this level of regulation acts as a leader: all kinds of movements of the whole body in space, moving objects; ballistic movements with a focus on strength.
Dysfunctions and pathologies: disorders of involuntary movements in the coordinates of the external spatial field.
Sublevel C 2 pyramidal (cortical)
Characteristics of movements: voluntary movements in a spatial field, requiring aiming, copying, imitation, practical actions taking into account physical properties items.
Movements where this level of regulation acts as a leader: precise, purposeful, voluntarily regulated actions in relation to the external physical characteristics of objects.
Dysfunctions and pathologies: disorders of voluntary movements (dystaxia, ataxia); violation of the accuracy of movements in space.
Leading afferentation: ideas about the plan of action and final results.
Characteristics of movements: organization of movements in accordance with the intended result and the method of achieving it, and not with the external physical characteristics of objects; organization of weapon actions; There is left- and right-sided asymmetry of movements.
Movements where this level of regulation acts as a leader: systems of mutually subordinate actions that provide solutions to problems, the conditions of which require the establishment of interdisciplinary relationships.
Characteristics of movements: movements are not subject to physical objects, but to mental schemes, concepts, symbolic operations, and abstract ideas.
This level of regulation of actions is associated with higher mental functions and the organization of mental actions.
a) Period initial acquaintance with the movementidentification of the operational and motor composition of the movement:
b) Period movement automation:
during stabilization and standardization of motor skills:
3. Alexander Romanovich Luria (19201975). Theory of systemic dynamic localization of higher mental functions in the brain
At the same time, the functional organization of the cerebral cortex has a hierarchical structure (the law of the hierarchical structure of the cortical zones that are part of each neuropsychological function).
Primary projection zones of the cerebral cortex:
Secondary The projection zones of the cerebral cortex serve to integrate and organize the processes occurring in the primary projection zones.
Tertiary The projection zones of the cerebral cortex serve to integrate the processes occurring in the secondary projection zones and ensure the integration of the results of the activities of different analyzers and effectors into holistic images and behavioral programs.
As well as other works that may interest you |
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| 25123. | Classification of algorithmic languages | 31.5 KB | |
| There are two levels of machine-oriented languages: symbolic coding assemblers and macro languages, macroassemblers. This requirement is significantly reduced when using machine-independent languages. The structure of these languages is closer to the structure of natural languages, such as the structure of the English language, than to the structure of machine-oriented languages. | |||
| 25124. | Classification of problems solved using a PC | 33.5 KB | |
| Depending on the type and amount of input data of the task. If, when solving problems, numerical quantities are used as initial data, then the problems are called calculation ones. These are problems that require calculations using mathematical formulas to solve. If the same type of processing is required to solve a problem large quantity numerical data, such tasks are called data processing or tabular tasks. | |||
| 25125. | Stages of solving problems using a computer | 46 KB | |
| Stages of solving a problem on a computer The development of any problem on a computer consists of several stages. Each of them solves its own specific issues that ultimately determine the overall result of the problem being solved. The first stage is a clear formulation of the problem, usually in professional language, highlighting the initial data for solving it and precise instructions regarding what results and in what form should be obtained. The second stage is the formal mathematical formulation of the problem, i.e. | |||
| 25126. | Concept of modeling | 34.5 KB | |
| When solving a problem, they usually examine not a real object, but its model, an artificially created object that has all essential features real object. A model is a material or mentally imagined object that, in the process of research, replaces the original object so that its direct study provides new knowledge about the original object. A mathematical model is a system of mathematical relationships of formulas, equations of inequalities, etc. The model must fully correspond to the real object or process. | |||
| 25127. | Algorithm concept | 40.5 KB | |
| Until then, mathematicians had been content with the intuitive concept of an algorithm. The concept of an algorithm was identified with the concept of a calculation method. Such proofs are impossible without a precise concept of an algorithm; to prove the non-existence of an algorithm for solving a particular class of problems, one must know exactly the non-existence of what needs to be proven. | |||
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus
EE "Mogilev State University named after. A.A. Kuleshova"
Psychology test
on the topic “Factors in the formation of abilities”
Performed:
student Khomenkova Olga Nikolaevna
Faculty of PPD OZO (3 years of study)
1st year group “B”
Address: st. Ilyushchenko, 39, apt. 12
g.p. Feed Gomel region
tel. 80233722493
Mogilev, 2011
Introduction 4
1 Origin of abilities 6
2 Factors in the formation of abilities 7
3 Levels of ability development 10
Conclusion 11
References 13
Introduction
The psychology of abilities is one of the branches of the psychology of individual differences (differential psychology). Abilities are associated with the productive implementation of any specific business, achieving high results in painting, sports, politics or other areas. Self-realization of a person, which presupposes the disclosure of his potential in life, is unthinkable without the development of abilities. Many scientists have turned to the study of the problem under consideration.
The famous Soviet psychologist S.L. Rubinstein described ability as a complex synthetic feature of a person, “which determines its suitability for activity.” Its basis, according to the scientist, is “specific qualities that are required for a certain activity and through it can be formed on the basis of certain inclinations.”
N.V. Kuzmina believed that abilities are “individually stable personality traits, consisting of specific sensitivity to the object, means, conditions of activity and finding (i.e. creating) the most productive ways to obtain the desired results in it.”
Abilities Researcher N.S. Leites defined abilities as “peculiarities of the psyche that distinguish people from each other in terms of the pace of progress, the significance and originality of the results achieved with a relatively equal supply of knowledge, skills and the same attitude to activity.”
A great contribution to understanding the psychological nature of abilities was made by B.M. Teplov. In his opinion, abilities are “individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another, related to the success of performing any activity or many types of activities, but not reducible to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed in a given person "
Any activity requires from a person not one ability, but a number of interrelated abilities. A deficiency or weak development of any one particular ability can be compensated (compensated for through the enhanced development of others, as well as through hard work, perseverance, and exertion of strength.
Abilities are formed, and therefore discovered, only in the process of relevant activity. Abilities, believed B.M. Teplov, cannot exist except in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person stops using in practice, is lost over time.
Despite the fact that abilities cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, this does not mean that they are in no way connected with them. The ease and speed of acquiring knowledge, the depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of relevant activities depend on abilities. The acquisition of all this contributes to the further development of abilities, while the lack of appropriate skills and knowledge is an obstacle to the development of abilities.
Abilities can be the properties of an individual (the development of cognitive, emotional and volitional activity) and the relationships of the individual (passion, consciousness of duty, interest, i.e. the orientation of the individual). Abilities are also characterized by the uniqueness of individual techniques or individual style of activity.
What determines the abilities? What is their nature? The answers to these questions have not only theoretical, but also practical significance, because if we admit that abilities are completely determined by the “divine gift”, then there is no need to try especially hard, creating conditions for children - who are destined to “make” their own way. The other extreme position, according to which all people have equal potential and if desired, any ability can be developed, is often refuted by life itself.
1 Origin of abilities
One of the most difficult questions in psychology is the question of the origin of abilities. In psychology, there are several points of view on this problem.
1. Theory about the genetic nature of abilities. From the point of view of this theory, abilities are innate individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are inherited from parents to the child. Proof of innate abilities is their early manifestation in a child. In this case, reference is made to well-known examples of famous people of art and science. For example, Mozart showed musical abilities at the age of three, Haydn at the age of four, Raphael showed himself as an artist at the age of eight, Gauss showed his extraordinary abilities in mathematics at the age of four, etc. Facts of their repetition are cited as proof of the innateness of abilities The descendants of outstanding people, for example, have gifted families or entire dynasties: the Bachs, the Darwins, etc.
2. The theory of acquired abilities. The social environment, the atmosphere in which a child grows and is brought up, can have a significant impact on the development of his abilities. Among the favorable environmental factors influencing the development of abilities, one should name the activities of experienced, outstanding teachers; features of a particular culture; features of education.
At the same time, an impoverished environment that creates a deficit of impressions has a negative impact on the development of abilities.
Based on the considered points of view, we can conclude that environmental factors and hereditary factors play an important role in the formation and development of abilities. Sometimes environmental factors can completely compensate or, conversely, neutralize the effect of hereditary factors.
2 Factors in the formation of abilities
The development of abilities is associated with hereditary and environmental factors. The influence of the heredity factor is manifested in the initial form of the emergence of abilities - in inclinations.
Inclinations are innate anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system that form the biological basis for the development of abilities. They are natural prerequisites.
The makings may be such properties of the nervous system as the degree of general activity, increased sensitivity of nervous structures or a special predisposition to the perception of sounds, colors, spatial forms, to the establishment of connections and relationships, to generalization, etc.
However, science has not yet established what specific abilities the inclinations will translate into. Inclinations are non-specific in relation to specific content and specific forms of activity. This means that on the basis of the same inclinations, different abilities can arise depending on the nature of the corresponding activity. For example, acute observation and good visual memory can be included in the structure of the abilities of an artist, investigator, geologist, etc. At the same time, one cannot assume that the inclinations are completely neutral in relation to future abilities. Thus, the features of the visual analyzer will affect the abilities that require this particular analyzer, and the features of the speech centers of the brain will manifest themselves in activities associated with the speech centers, etc.
Thus, individual inclinations are to some extent selective and different in relation to different types of activity. Inclinations create opportunities for the development of abilities.
The environmental factor manifests itself in specially organized, purposeful processes of training and education , as well as cultural characteristics.
Training and education play a special role in the development and formation of abilities. Abilities can develop spontaneously in the process of activity, but this requires more time and more effort. Training and education accelerate this process, as they eliminate the formation of unnecessary links in the mechanism of activity.
In the learning process, the child acquires two types of knowledge: about events in natural and social reality and about ways to solve theoretical and practical problems. Knowledge of the laws of reality and the historical experience of knowledge accumulated by humanity provides a person with preparedness for activity and the formation of abilities. For the formation of abilities, mastering rational ways of solving problems is of particular importance. These methods, being generalized and stereotyped, become links in abilities.
The influence of culture on the development of abilities is also important. The famous Soviet psychologist Ya. L. Kolomensky, considering the problem of developing abilities, cites the following imaginary situation: “Somewhere on a distant island in the Pacific Ocean, a boy with outstanding musical abilities was born. What can he become, considering that the people of his tribe do not know any music except unanimous singing, and no other musical instrument except the drum? At best, this boy will go down in the history of the island as the most wonderful drummer. In other words, he will reach a level of development of his musical talent that is possible in certain social conditions. His fate would have been completely different if he had ended up in a country with a highly developed musical culture and got to know good teachers.”
However, another factor plays an equally important role in the development of abilities - factor of personal activity. Hard work and interest in activities for which a person has only some inclinations can change the structure of his abilities. Insufficient interest in activities can, on the contrary, lead to underdevelopment of abilities.
Thus, personal activity in realizing inclinations is the most important factor in the formation and development of abilities.
Inclinations are the primary and earliest sign of an emerging ability after inclinations, which cannot always be determined unambiguously.
Addiction is an individual’s selective orientation towards a certain activity, encouraging him to engage in it.
The basis of the inclination is the deep, stable need of the individual for a particular activity, the desire to improve the skills and abilities associated with this activity. The emergence of inclinations is usually a prerequisite for the development of corresponding abilities.
The formation and development of abilities during human ontogenetic development occurs unevenly. To reflect this unevenness in psychology, the theory of sensitive periods has been developed.
According to this theory, each specific age period is characterized by optimal combination conditions for the development of certain mental properties and processes. From the point of view of this theory, every child in his development goes through periods of increased sensitivity to certain influences, mastering one or another type of activity. It is known that a child at 2-3 years of age develops oral speech intensively, and at 5-7 years of age he is most ready to master reading; in middle and senior preschool age he enthusiastically plays role-playing games and reveals an extraordinary ability to impersonate and get used to roles. From this we can assume that functional structures have their own sensitive periods or individual moments in which they receive or do not receive the greatest impetus in their development. And if you guess this moment and give an impetus, then the inclinations and inclinations for this type of activity can develop into good abilities.
Abilities are a complex set of psychological properties of a person that ensure his success in a particular activity. However, the basis for the same or even similar achievements in performing any activity may be a combination of different abilities. Psychologists have found that in the absence of certain abilities, there is the possibility of their interchangeability and compensation based on the development of other personality traits. Compensating for one ability with the help of another opens up inexhaustible opportunities for each person, allowing him to master different professions and improve in them.
Thus, we can roughly name three main stages in the development of abilities: inclinations, inclinations, abilities .
3 Levels of ability development
The development of abilities is non-linear; there are three levels of their development: giftedness, talent, genius.
A person capable of various types activity and communication, has a general talent, that is, a unity of general abilities that determines a wide range of intellectual capabilities, a high level of mastery of activities and the originality of communication.
Giftedness is a high level of expression of abilities, providing the opportunity to successfully perform an activity.
Thus, giftedness constitutes the first level of development of abilities, which many children possess at the beginning of development due to their individual psychological characteristics and inclinations.
The next level of expression of abilities is characterized by the concept of “talent”.
Talent is a combination of abilities that gives a person the opportunity to successfully, independently and originally perform any complex activity.
Talent manifests itself in specific activities and, as a rule, arises and develops in that proportion of gifted children who begin to actively study and engage in activities that contribute to the development of their talent. If in talent the inclinations are combined with inclinations, then the child has an urge to continue to engage in activities in which he is successful. However, this may not happen, and then the talent turns out to be unclaimed by the social situation or the person himself; With the further development of talent, the highest level of manifestation of abilities arises - genius.
Genius is the highest level of development of abilities, creating the opportunity for an individual to achieve results that open a new era in the life of society, in the development of science and culture.
Talented people are often found in various fields of activity, they successfully realize themselves, but genius is an exceptional rarity, this is expressed in the saying “geniuses are born once every hundred years.”
Thus, in the process of developing and improving abilities, only a few people reach the highest point of their development, therefore one of the tasks of differential psychology is to identify gifted children as early as possible in order to continue their special training and upbringing in order to further develop their abilities.
Conclusion
From the material considered, we can conclude that abilities are individual psychological characteristics that are formed in activity on the basis of inclinations, distinguishing one person from another, on which the success of activity depends.
The conditions and prerequisites for the development of a person’s social abilities are the following circumstances of his life:
1. The presence of a society, a socio-cultural environment created by the work of many generations of people. This environment is artificial and includes many objects of material and spiritual culture that ensure the existence of man and the satisfaction of his strictly human needs.
2. Lack of natural abilities to use relevant objects and the need to learn this from childhood.
3. The need to participate in various complex and highly organized types of human activity.
4. The presence from birth around a person of educated and civilized people who already have the abilities he needs and are able to impart to him the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, while having the appropriate means of training and education.
5. The absence from birth of a person of rigid, programmed behavioral structures such as innate instincts, the immaturity of the corresponding brain structures that ensure the functioning of the psyche, and the possibility of their formation under the influence of training and upbringing.
The socio-cultural environment allows for the development of abilities that ensure the correct use of objects of material and spiritual culture and the development of the abilities necessary for this (they are formed and improved in the process of learning to use the relevant objects). The need to be included in specifically human activities from early childhood forces parents to take care of the development of their children’s necessary abilities, and subsequently, when the children themselves become adults, creates in them the need to independently acquire the appropriate abilities. The adults around the child, most of them already possessing the necessary abilities and means of learning (in the form of ready-made objects of material and spiritual culture that must be learned to use), ensure the continuous development of the necessary abilities in children. They, in turn, readily accept appropriate educational and educational influences, quickly assimilate them thanks to their plastic and flexible brain, adapted to learning. Those inclinations that are necessary for the development of human abilities, under the influence of all this, develop in the child quite early, by about three years, ensuring in the future not his natural, but his social development.
The realization of an individual's abilities is a decisive criterion for the level and development of society. The problem of human abilities is one of the main theoretical problems of psychology and the most important practical problem.
Each person is individual and abilities reflect his character, inclination towards something or passion for something. But abilities depend on desire, constant training and improvement in any area. And if a person does not have a desire or passion for something, then abilities in this case cannot be developed.
When developing his abilities, a person must strive to ensure that this development is not an end in itself. The main task is to be a worthy person, a useful member of society. Therefore, we must work on the formation of personality, on the formation of its positive and, above all, moral qualities. Abilities are only one side of a personality, one of its mental properties. If a talented person is morally unstable, then he cannot be considered a positive person. On the contrary, gifted people, distinguished by a high moral level, integrity, moral feelings and strong will, have brought and continue to bring great benefit to society.
List of used literature
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Nemov, R.S. Psychology of Education / R.S. Nemov. - M.: VLADOS, 2001. - 496 p.
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factors formation abilities are internal conditions formation age development. Individual...
