One of the contradictions of scientific and technological progress is that, along with huge positive results, modern production, widely equipped with complex technical systems, makes increased demands on humans. They force a person to work at the limit of his psychological capabilities, in often - in extremely difficult working conditions. At the same time, a person is responsible for the effective functioning of large control systems, and a mistake made can lead to very serious consequences. I Basic physiological characteristics of LABOR activity

An important regularity of social development was the division of labor into two forms: mental labor and physical labor. From this point of view, the work takes into account either the specific gravity of the muscular load, or the specific gravity of one of the components of the nervous load - the mental one. Labor is classified as physical with the predominance of the muscle component, and mental - with the predominance of the mental component.

To characterize and assess the physiological cost of work, the terms "severity" and "intensity of labor" are used. Both terms are covered by a single concept of "functional tension of the body during work." Functional stress is determined by both the nature of the workload and the working environment. During work, the body is presented with two types of stress: muscular and nervous. Therefore, the functional tension of the body during work should, depending on the type of load, be characterized either as severity or as intensity of labor. Labor intensity is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of muscle load. The severity of labor is the involvement of the musculoskeletal system and energy supply functions in the labor process.

The assessment of the severity of labor is given on the basis of energy consumption during work. This is due to the fact that energy consumption well reflects the dynamic load on the musculoskeletal system and ensures the fulfillment of vegetative functions under this load - respiration, blood circulation. However, static work has relatively little effect on the level of energy consumption. Therefore, such indicators as the weight of the held load (the force of holding the load), the nature of the working posture, stationarity or nonstationarity of the workplace are also used. Labor intensity is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of nervous stress. Physiologically, a person's labor activity can be characterized in two ways: firstly, by the type of work and the functional stress caused by it (the qualitative aspect); secondly, according to the degree of this functional tension (quantitative aspect).

Classification and types of work I.

Forms of work that require significant muscle activity.

This group includes the professions of heavy and medium physical labor. Examples are excavator, loader, blacksmith, bricklayer, agricultural professions. All these works are characterized by increased energy costs of the order of 4000-7000 kcal / day. or in units of work - 200-300 thousand kgm per shift. An essential negative feature of physical labor is its social inefficiency. To achieve anything that justifies itself in productivity requires a high, suboptimal exertion of a person's physical strength. Another physiological disadvantage is that physical labor always unilaterally develops the muscular system, and often causes muscle hypertrophy.

P. Forms of mechanized labor.

The group includes numerous professions in all industries. Energy costs in these groups are 3000-4000 kcal / day, and mechanical work can be up to 100 thousand kgm per shift. A distinctive feature of mechanized labor, in addition to reducing the muscle component in work, is the development of speed and accuracy of movements. The program of actions becomes more complicated, which is associated with two circumstances: maintenance of mechanisms requires knowledge of their design; before the execution of the work, it is planned, calculated according to the drawings. Therefore, the professions of mechanized labor require the accumulation of special knowledge and motor skills. III.

Forms of labor associated with semi-automatic and automatic production.

These are forms of labor associated with the further mechanization of the production process. In semi-automatic production, a person is completely excluded from the processing process. Its task is to feed the material into the machine for processing, start up the mechanism, take out the finished product. The main feature of these works is monotony. No high qualifications required. Almost all work is addressed to the motor apparatus, which is required, above all, speed and accuracy of movements. Automation dramatically changes the role of a person in the labor process. It ceases to supplement the mechanism, which now performs not only basic but also auxiliary functions. The employee operates the mechanisms. Its task is to ensure uninterrupted operation * The main feature of action in all cases is the readiness for action and the urgency of reactions associated with it. IV.

Forms of group labor *

A typical type of group labor is conveyors. The basis of labor productivity on the assembly line is the automation of motor skills, leading to a minimum of time for their implementation. The group form of labor is inconceivable without the synchronization of the work of its participants, which determine the stroke of the conveyor, i.e. * the time interval given to the employee to perform the next operation. The smaller the interval, the more monotonous the work. The most significant feature characterizing the operation of a conveyor is monotony. V.

Forms of labor associated with remote control.

Remote production control arises on the basis of mechanization and automation. From a physiological point of view, there are two main forms of remote control of the production process. In some cases, control panels require frequent active human actions, while in others - rare. At the same time, workers have different functional states. In the first case, the employee's continuous attention receives relaxation in numerous movements or speech-motor acts. In the second case, the employee is mainly in a state of readiness for action, but his reactions are few. Vi.

Forms of intellectual labor.

There are two forms of intellectual (mental) labor: 1) Professions engaged in material production, but not directly related to the objects of labor * These are the professions of an engineer, designer, programmer. 2) Professions related to scientific work, professions of applied knowledge (teachers, doctors), professions in the field of literature, art (artists, painters, writers). The sphere of material production is more dependent on the application of forces in terms of technization and organization. Among the engineering professions, two types can be distinguished: one is associated with the design and forecasting of the production process (designers); the task of the second is to carry out operational functions (operators, technicians, dispatchers, accountants, statisticians). Intellectual work with insignificant muscular activity is energetically the most economical. Daily costs are 2400-2800 kcal / day. (i.e., they exceed the basal metabolic rate by only 600-1000 kcal.). This savings is due to decreased physical activity and is not positive. Brain activity is deprived of support from the muscles, which can lead to negative consequences (various cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the musculoskeletal system). The main features of intellectual work are the complexity and variability of the program of action. The more signals of different content and meaning come to the employee, the more difficult it is to choose the right action, the more intense the work.

Methods for assessing the severity and intensity of labor

Various indicators and criteria are used to assess the severity and intensity of labor. Usually there are four degrees of severity and intensity of labor. As criteria for assessing the severity of labor, both external indicators - characteristics of work, and internal cost for the body are used. For assessing the tension, such a gradation is not always acceptable.

Assessment of the severity of labor. The severity of physical labor is determined by the following indicators of dynamic and static work: the weight of the transported load and the power of the work; the value of the static load; the nature of the working posture.

The power of external work is determined by the amount of physical energy expended by a person. To calculate the power of external work, the amount of work performed per unit of time is calculated. Since physical work is associated with the movement of any cargo or materials over a distance, then the calculation takes into account: lifting of the load; moving it horizontally; lowering the load.

The calculation of the work performed is carried out according to the formula:

A = [P x H + (P x 1/9) + (P x b) / 2] x k,

where A is the amount of work in kgm; Р is the weight of the cargo in kg; H is the height of the lifting of the load from the initial state; 1 - distance of movement of the load horizontally; B is the distance of lowering the load; k - coefficient equal to b.

To calculate the power of work, the formula is used:

N = (HELL) x k,

where N is the power of work in W / s; A is the amount of work in kgm; 4 - the time during which the same work was completed in seconds; k - conversion factor kgm to W, equal to 10.

The maximum size of the transported load is the main indicator for determining the severity of labor.

In everyday life, static work manifests itself in two forms: maintaining a posture and holding a load. In most cases, when holding a load or maintaining a working posture, gravity is the opposing force. In some cases, the static contraction may be directed to overcome another external force, such as pressing the pedal. The static load associated with maintaining a person's effort without moving the body or its individual links is characterized by the value of the retained load or effort. The static load is determined by the product of the force and the holding time. The static load value is expressed in kg / s. The indicator of the static load is also the value of the angles of inclination and the duration of stay in one or another position in a full-fledged relation to the duration of the work shift. The posture is the maintenance of the human body in a certain position. The pose determines the psychological effect, which is expressed in the concept of comfort.

For a practical assessment of the severity of labor, we can recommend the indicators given in table. 1. ^ ajlitsa 1

Criteria for the severity of physical labor Signs Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor (indicators of external work) Physical work I - light P - medium W - heavy IV - very heavy Maximum value of the moved load, kg TO b from 6 to 10 from 11 to 30 more than 30 Power of external work , w * with the participation of the shoulder girdle, with the participation of the lower limbs and trunk UP TO 10 to 22 to 45 over 45 The value of the static load per shift, kg / s., when creating efforts: with two hands with the participation of the body and legs up to 20

up to 43 200 up to 61 200 up to 46

up to 97 200 up to 129 600 up to 90

up to 208 800 up to 266 400 over 90

over 208800 over 266 400 Working posture and movement in space Stationary workplace. Free pose. Stationary workplace. Tilts up to 30 ° Stationary workplace. Slopes up to 30a 100-300 times per shift or stay in a Stationary place. Slopes up to 30 * and more than 300 times per shift or stay

50-100 times per shift or being in an inclined position up to 30 * 10-25% of the working time. Walking up to 4 km per shift. tilted position up to 30 * 25-50% of the working time. Walking up to 7 km per shift. in an inclined position for more than 50% of the working time. Walking up to 15 km per shift. Physiological cost: Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor (internal indicators - the cost for the body) by energy costs (basic metabolism - 1D kcal / min.); 150 kcal / ^ mu * 172 dick / sec. "150-200 172- g% r 200-300, 232-293 over 300 over 293 in pulse rate (rest - 60-70 beats / min; safety limit - 140-150 beats / min.) 75-100 100-125 125-150 150-175 for oxygen consumption (rest - 0.2 l / min.) Up to 0.5 l / min. Up to 0.8 d / min.

L up to 1.5 l / min. over 1.5 l / min.

Labor intensity characterizes the side of labor activity that requires the mobilization of the higher mental functions of a person, such as perception, attention, sherative memory, analytical and synthetic activity of the CSN. gas exchange, energy consumption, blood circulation.If we restrict mental work to those activities that are widely used in production, and leave aside the higher forms of creative and performing labor (scientists, artists, public figures), we can distinguish the following indicators used to assess the intensity of labor: 1) the degree of tension of attention; 2) the density of the perceived signals; 3) the pace of work; 4) the density of the work shift; 5) the tension of the analyzer functions; 6) the degree of emotional stress; 7) intellectual tension; 8) monotony of work; 9) memory load; 10) shift of labor. Let's consider these indicators in more detail.

Attention. There is no single justified criterion for assessing the intensity of attention in a production environment (it depends on the activity). It is recommended that the assessment of labor intensity by the parameter of attention be carried out according to production criteria. With regard to operator activities, we can talk about the number of objects of simultaneous observation or control, i.e. how many of the total number of objects of observation are the most important and require simultaneous observation. (For example, out of 100 objects, 5 or 10 are the most important and require constant monitoring: machines, control panel signals, in essence, we are talking about the volume of the information field.) Another indicator that characterizes attention is the duration of concentrated observation. This indicator is calculated as a relative value as a percentage of the total time of the work shift. Since the operator is required to be able to quickly switch attention, the frequency (average, maximum) of these switchings can serve as an indicator of labor intensity.

Density of perceived signals. This indicator characterizes the degree of labor intensity depending on the amount of incoming information per unit of time. Assessment of the degree of labor intensity by this indicator should take into account the nature of the activity, the amount and nature of the transformation of information. Calculation of the signal density is calculated as the product of the number of information signs per unit of time. For example, the number of messages is 60, each message contains 4 signs. The total is 4 x 60 = 240 per unit of time (usually per hour). Thus, this indicator characterizes the amount of information per unit of time.

The pace and density of the work shift. These indicators characterize the degree and uniformity of the workload per shift. Depending on the nature of the activity, two types of activity can be distinguished: 1) motor, 2) control and observation. An integral indicator of the density of a work shift can be the “activity coefficient”. This is an indicator of the ratio of the total duration of active (regulatory, performing) actions to the total time of observation, control, but not the duration of the shift. The low weight of active actions, when it is necessary to maintain constant vigilance, creates conditions for a motivational conflict, which requires significant nervous tension (less than 0.2). At the same time, too high "activity coefficient" (more than 0.8) reflects the intensity of labor associated with increased motor activity.

The intensity of the analyzer functions is associated with the detection and extraction of signals of various modalities (vision, hearing, smell, tactile sensitivity). By physical strength, the signals are divided into: 1) weak below the operational threshold; 2) optimal in the intervals of the boundaries of the operational threshold; 3) annoying above the operational threshold. Another approach to assessing the degree of load on analyzers is that the degree of load is compared with the category of normative indicators. The degree of eye strain is determined according to SN 245-75 category ^ of visual work, where 6 categories of visual work are allocated, depending on the size of the object in the field of view. The degree of stress on the organ of hearing can be defined in two ways. First, by the audibility of speech from distance or by the intelligibility of speech as a percentage of the ratio with the noise level. Secondly, according to the norms of permissible sound pressure levels and sound levels at workplaces. Criteria Signs I - relaxed 1. Attention, the number of simultaneously observed objects; duration of concentrated observation (as a percentage of the duration of the work shift) up to 5 to 25 2. Voltage of the analyzer! functions:

Vision. Dimensions of the object, mm, when the distance of the object to the worker's eyes is up to 1 m more than 5 mm Hearing No interference 3. Density of signals (messages)

complex up to 60 to 15 4. The amount of RAM. It is necessary to keep in memory up to 2 elements less than 2 hours. Memory load (by the number of parameters of the production process) up to 50 5. Intelligent voltage No need to make independent decisions 6. Monotony: repeatability (per hour) number of elements in an operation | duration in sec.

I Time of active actions as a percentage of the duration of the shift (activity coefficient)

1 180 more than 10 more than 100

10-20% 0.5-0.3 7. Emotional stress Individual work "(" ab.chits "*" /!

labor intensity II - a little tense IV tiger;! / - "> * 6-10 Xu. i" IL 26-50 Syulgya 75 1-6 mm less than 0.3 mm 1.5 m 61-150 more than 400 16-40 more than 60 up to 2 elements more than 5 elements more than 2 hours more than 5 hours up to 100 more than 200 Simple work Heuristic instructions (creative) activity 181-300 more than 600 10-6 3 1 100 -45 19 1 20-50% more than 80 *. 0.2-0.3 less than 0.1! B "more than 0.8 Work on an individual basis.

Emotional stress. In real working conditions, the degree of emotional stress is an essential factor determining the success and reliability of the activity. The gradations of emotional tension are assessed according to production criteria that create the preconditions for the occurrence of unfavorable emotional states. These factors will be: 1.

Temporary factors (work according to an individual plan, work on a precise schedule, work in conditions of time pressure). 2. The motivational significance of violations in the course of activities (emergency situations, work associated with personal risk, with responsibility for the safety of others).

Intelligent tension. The magnitude of intellectual stress cannot be categorized accurately. The factors that determine it can be: work related to the need to develop algorithms for activities of varying complexity; work related to making decisions at different levels; work related to the need to participate in a non-standard, creative component of the activity.

Monotony of labor. Monotonous types of labor include those that are characterized by the following features: 1) high frequency of repetition of labor actions; 2)

short time cycle for performing operations; 3) low-element quantitative composition of the operation;

4) structural uniformity of labor actions; 5) simplicity (labor actions. These criteria relate mainly to work where the energy factor plays a leading role, that is, work with a pronounced physical component. The same work where the information factor predominates, that is requires tension of sensory mechanisms and certain mental functions, they are considered monotonous, if they: 1) are associated with long-term passive observation; 2) have a lack of sensory input; 3)

have limited exposure to production signals

catches and irritants.

Memory. The memory load is conditioned, firstly, by the required amount of memorized information; secondly, with the duration of storing the necessary information in the

Yesse deeds.

Change of labor. According to the degree of tension in the work regime, four categories are distinguished: 1) Work in the morning

shift is the most optimal, 2) Evening shift. Household load is layered on work, activity is worse in the evening. 3) Alternation of shift work: morning, evening, night. 4)

Round-the-clock work. Working three shifts and around the clock is the most tedious and not physiological.

Labor intensity criteria are given in table. 2.

Literature

Grimak LL. Communication with yourself. - M., 1991.

Karpov AZ, Psychology of management. - M., 1999.

Kitaev-Smyk LA Psychology of stress. - M., 1983.

Leonova AZ., Medvedeva VL. Functional states of a person in labor activity. - M., 1981.

Mental states. Series "Reader in Psychology" / Ed. V. Usmanov. - SPb., 2000.

Rosenblat VZ. The problem of fatigue. - M., 1975.

Manual on the physiology of labor / Ed. Z.M. Zolina, N.F. Izmerov. - M., 1983.

The human factor / Ed. G. Salvendi. In 6 vols. T. 2. - M., 1992.

Self-Test Questions 1.

What is the classification of types of work? 2.

What is the physiological cost of work? 3.

What is the functional tension of the body during labor? 4.

What is the severity of labor? 5.

What is labor intensity?

Abstract topics 1.

Characteristics of the types of non-mechanized physical labor. 2.

Characteristics of the forms of conveyor labor. 3.

Characteristics of types of work with a predominance of sensory load. 4.

Methods for assessing the severity of labor. 6.

Methods for assessing labor intensity.

Sleep and dreams ... What is it? ..
The journey of the soul, leaving the body for sleep, or something purely biological? ..
Are dreams useful and do we need them, or are they just an annoying hindrance that prevents us from getting enough sleep and gaining strength? ..
In the video above, the doctor of biological sciences and the doctor of medical sciences told us quite interestingly about what sleep is from the point of view of modern science. Below - I am ready to present to your attention my own understanding of sleep and dreams, but not from a scientific, but from a deeper - esoteric - point of view ...

I. MECHANISM OF SLEEP

Starting to analyze the mechanism of sleep, it is necessary to break down this issue into several fundamental parts (aspects), through a sequential consideration of which we will come to an understanding of what the mechanism of sleep is.

1. The physiological aspect.

Physiologically, sleep is the state of rest of the body; its natural periodic rest, determined by the main daily biorhythm and accompanied by a decrease in the intensity of a number of physiological processes: a decrease in the excitability of the central nervous system, the shutdown of daytime consciousness, muscle relaxation, a slowdown in cardiac activity and respiration, a decrease in blood pressure, etc. The eyes are usually closed during sleep, the optic nerve stops transmitting stimulation signals to the brain. The ear muscle that controls the ossicles (hammer, incus and stirrup) is also in a relaxed state, so many not too loud sounds are not picked up by the ear. The physiological activity of all organs is thus reduced to a minimum.

2. Aspect of the neuro-cerebral.

In terms of neuro-cerebral activity, during sleep there is a rest and restoration of the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex. Here sleep is a process of protective inhibition, which captures cells-neurons of the cortex and gradually spreads to deeper parts of the brain. In this case, the neurons stop responding to the stimulation signals coming to them and are in a state of inhibition. In the mechanism of sleep, along with the cells of the cortex, the subcortical divisions are also involved. Sleep, therefore, is the result of a two-way connection between the cortex and the subcortical apparatus of the brain.

3. Chemical aspect.

The chemical aspect in the mechanism of sleep is of secondary importance. Its essence boils down to the following: during wakefulness, certain chemicals accumulate in the human brain and blood, which cause fatigue and from which the body is released during sleep. However, observations of Siamese twins, who have a common circulation but a separate nervous system, have shown that twins tend to fall asleep at different times - when one head is asleep, the other may be awake. If the chemical factor played one of the dominant roles in falling asleep, that is, if sleep occurred only due to an increase in certain chemicals in the blood, the twins would always and certainly fall asleep at the same time. However, nothing of the kind is observed. Thus, it becomes clear that the chemical factor in the mechanism of sleep is not the most important thing. It "helps" to fall asleep, but does not condition sleep.

4. Spiritual aspect.

Here we come to the most important thing in the definition of sleep, since it is the spiritual factor that plays the dominant role in the mechanism of sleep. In fact, it is he who is the cause of sleep, while the three previous factors are only consequences of its manifestation.
As you know, a person consists not only of one physical, but of several interpenetrating (existing "in one place", but as if "in different dimensions") bodies. At this stage of evolutionary development, the center of human perception is in the physical body. It is for this reason that we easily perceive it and everything with which it communicates through the five senses, but we absolutely do not perceive our "subtle" bodies and the worlds in which they function.
So, by their activity during the waking hours, the astral and mental bodies are constantly "destroying" the physical body. On the other hand, the etheric (or energetic, more "subtle", although belonging to the physical plane) body invariably strives to restore balance and strengthen what the more subtle bodies "destroy". When the physical body gets tired and exhausted (in a healthy person, under normal conditions, this is associated with a certain biorhythm), two "higher" bodies, the astral and the mental, leave it and rise to the corresponding Planes. Now the physical body remains permeated only by the etheric body and is in the state described in subsection 1 - “The physiological aspect”. It must be remembered that during sleep, although the astral and mental bodies are separated, they still remain connected with the physical bodies (dense and etheric). The complete separation of bodies occurs only at the time of death.
So, "subtle" bodies are restored during sleep at their respective levels (Planes), while the etheric body works to restore the physical body. It is thanks to him that poisons and other harmful chemical substances accumulated in the body during wakefulness are neutralized (subsection 3 - "Chemical aspect"), as well as tissue and nerve cells are restored (subsection 2 - "Aspect of the neuro-cerebral aspect").

Dream , thus, there is the result of the separation of dense and "thin" bodies in order to rest, restore and put them in order, the consequence of which is a decrease in the physiological and neuro-cerebral activity of the physical body and an indirect cause of which was the appearance in the blood of certain chemicals that cause fatigue and fatigue, and thus stimulating the physical body to sleep.

It should be noted that the amount of time required for a complete rash is individual. Usually it ranges from 6 to 9 hours, although some people may need 2 hours to get enough sleep, while others do not have enough 12. In addition, the time required for sleep increases or decreases in accordance with the health of the person, with his age and some other factors.

II. DREAM

Dream - an intermediate state between wakefulness and sleep; the way the soul responds to stimuli acting in a dream (internal and external).
Dreams are just as necessary brain work as normal mental activity. The dream is not a sleep disturber, but, on the contrary, protects sleep, eliminating disturbing (mental) irritations by hallucinatory satisfaction. Dreams are necessary for a person in the same way as breathing or digestion. People who are deprived of the ability to see dreams develop neuroses, a feeling of fear, anxiety, and tension.
Sleep with dreams is a very special state of the body, in which the brain works as intensively as during wakefulness, but this work is differently organized and much more "secret". During sleep, the brain is not in a passive state - a good half of its neurons in a sleeping person work even more actively than during the day. This applies primarily to the deep parts of the brain.
Dreams, therefore, are a part of psychic life in sleep, which has certain analogs with psychic life in the waking state and at the same time reveals sharp differences from it. One of these differences is that the consciousness of the sleeper is usually devoid of critical ability, that is, the most incredible, fantastic events in a dream are perceived by the sleeper as something ordinary, natural, while the daytime consciousness has a critical ability always and without fail (if a person is healthy and mentally normal).
Usually, in a sleeping person's sleep, three of the five senses are involved: vision, touch and kinesthesia, hearing. However, sometimes sense of smell and hearing can also be added to them.

Returning to the mechanism of sleep, it should be noted that normal sleep is divided into fast and slow sleep. A person in the phase of slow sleep is calm and motionless, all his physiological functions are minimized (see p. I. 1.). In a person, in the phase of rapid sleep (also called "paradoxical"), breathing becomes more frequent, the heartbeat changes, arms and legs can move or twitch, and rapid movements of the eyes and facial muscles are observed. It is in the phase of REM sleep that a person sees dreams! For 6-8 hours of sleep, slow sleep (dreamless sleep), lasting about 60-90 minutes, several times is replaced by rapid sleep - for 10-20 minutes. Thus, a person has 4-5 "ten to twenty minutes" per night, when consciousness allows itself to walk around the land of dreams.

What causes dreams? Let us recall that in the state of sleep two "higher" human bodies (astral and mental) are separated from the physical body and rise to the higher, corresponding to them. There they are busy restoring their rhythm, while the etheric body works to restore the physical body. The center of consciousness (“soul”, Ego) can at this moment be either in one of the higher bodies, or it can rise even “higher”, to the Plans of Buddhi or Nirvana (the realm of the actual unconscious). In any case, since the higher conductors are separated from the etheric conductor, a person, as a rule, does not retain clear memories of what he saw and experienced on the “subtle” Planes upon awakening.
It is to this complete separation of bodies that the phase of slow wave sleep corresponds. The REM sleep phase, on the contrary, corresponds to the phenomenon when the higher conductors "descend" for 10-20 minutes and come into contact with the etheric body. It is at such moments that a person has the opportunity to see and keep in his memory certain fragments of his “other world” life - life in the “subtle” worlds.
Of course, most dreams are chaotic, since the "axis of perception" is strongly skewed due to the wrong relationship of bodies. The memory is also distorted by this incongruous position of the conductors, as a result of which most dreams are forgotten by a person either immediately upon awakening, or after a relatively short period of time.

By studying dreams, the following classification can be made:

1. Game when the mind "aimlessly" and "meaningless" wanders, sending bizarre pictures and images to the consciousness. In this case, the center of consciousness is most often located in the astral body. It is these dreams that carry out hallucinatory satisfaction of certain mental needs that interfere with normal sleep, and thereby serve to protect and preserve sleep.

2. Message , very often our subconscious mind tries to convey this or that message to consciousness, however, since this cannot be done in the waking state, the subconscious mind "decides" to use the dream and transmit its message to consciousness in the form of symbolic images. In this case, the center of consciousness is in the mental body.

3. Game-message , or compiling everything above. "Game" and "Message" seem to be combined, mixed in one dream, as a result of which the dream becomes more mysterious and unusual. The center of consciousness is constantly moving and can be located both in the astral and in the mental bodies.

It was on these three types of dreams that S. Freud based his work on the analysis and interpretation of dreams. When starting to interpret, Freud proceeded from the fact that the dreamer necessarily knows what his dream means, but does not suspect that he knows, and therefore believes that he does not know anything. What is usually called a dream, Freud called the text of the dream (or manifest dream), and what needs to be found, what is assumed behind the dream - the hidden thoughts of the dream. The purpose of the analysis: to turn a manifest dream into a latent one and to imagine how this last becomes the first.
At first, Freud demanded from the dreamer to free himself from the impression of an explicit dream, directing his attention from the whole, to individual fragments of the dream content and suggesting that he communicate in order everything that comes to his mind about each of these fragments, what associations he has if he will consider them separately. It should not be forgotten here that associations to a dream are not yet the latent thoughts of a dream. The latter are contained in associations, as in the mother liquor, but not entirely. In this case, the scheme is used: the reaction to an extraneous word-stimulus is an intermediary between this word and the complex affected by it, and the reaction to a dream (that is, a derivative of the complex) is a substitute for the unconscious, that is, from where this dream originated.

It is a very widespread belief that it is impossible to see in a dream something that would not have been previously perceived by the brain. (In confirmation of this, it is often cited the fact that people who are blind from birth do not see visual images in their dreams). This statement is true, however, only partially. The center of our consciousness (our Ego) is in the physical body. From the moment of birth to the moment of death, we can ("we are allowed") to operate only with the information that we receive directly, with the help of the five senses of this body.
It is for this reason that the world of etheric, astral or mental images is limited to objects, the physical images of which we perceive with our physical senses. Those images that are snatched by the consciousness on the higher planes in addition to the "permitted", upon the return of consciousness to the physical body, as a rule, are erased from memory - forgotten.
However, there are no rules without exceptions. (By the way, specific techniques and exercises have been developed to teach the "blind from birth" to see objects of reality. And this is achieved by awakening the ability of astral or etheric "vision" in him). There is a type of dream that makes it possible to see something that we could never see before. Moreover, not just to see, but also to "bring" what you saw with you and even - to keep it in the memory of the physical body. This unusual and less common type of dream is called "astral projection" or "astral activity."

4. Astral activity , the least common and most significant of the four types of dreaming. In a sleeper engaged in astral activity, the center of consciousness is located in one of the higher vehicles, most often in the astral vehicle. A person perceives and contemplates with the help of the corresponding astral "sense organs" the events taking place on this plane, and then, in full consciousness and retaining the memory of what he saw, "returns" to the physical body.
The ascent to the higher planes "Ego" begins with the lower guides. At the moment of REM sleep, when the most subtle conductors come into contact with the etheric body, consciousness passes into them, and then rises with them higher, leaving the etheric body during periods of slow sleep to work on the restoration of the physical body. It must be remembered that this transition is carried out consciously, and that the consciousness of the person making this transition is fundamentally different from the consciousness of an ordinary sleeping person. In a person engaged in astral activity, despite the fact that he is asleep, consciousness has a critical capacity, that is, like an ordinary, waking consciousness.
For some people, the ability to see this type of dream is given from birth, in a natural way, but the majority, in order to master the technique of astral activity, requires special preparation and long-term practice.

Refers to

Advance excitement or the essence of prediction

This is how the concept of "anticipatory excitement" developed, which is a mechanism for predicting the possible results of one's behavior (and any other fairly well-known living and inanimate object).
Quotes are brown, summary text is black.

Physiological mechanisms of mental processes

Survey course / Comp. F.S.Abdrashitov, E.N.Khisamov and others - Ufa: BSPU Publishing House, 2002. - 64p.

Physiologically, I.P. Pavlov described the concept of anticipatory arousal as a state of "preventive activity", i.e. the constant striving of highly specialized organisms to develop their future adaptive acts. This means that the body must prepare itself on a signal for upcoming, consistently developing events in order to be able to effectively implement them.
PK Anokhin developed this point of view and presented it in the form of the theory of "anticipatory excitation".
No organism could withstand the effects of the environment if it did not have the ability to react according to the principle of anticipatory excitation, i.e. to create for himself such adaptive reactions that would be necessary for him to maintain a relationship with the environment at each next moment of establishing such a relationship. The student would not have been able to show his knowledge if he had not possessed anticipatory excitement, had not “run through” in his mind what he is about to tell. The teacher would never be able to explain to the students the essence of the question being studied in a consistent and accessible manner, if he did not use the anticipatory process of excitation each time.

It is clear that even the simplest insect responses of the stimulus-response type already contain an element of the life experience of the species, an element of the recording of foresight, which has been polished by natural selection. With the complication of the nervous system, when intermediate stages of formation are included between the stimulus and the response, the forecasting mechanism becomes more complex, although in principle it remains the same. Here are excerpts from several more works. Before making a simple generalization. see also the section on attika axioms

V. N. Dumbai, K. E. Bugaev
"Physiological foundations of valeology of labor and sports

Special studies have shown that immediately after the start of work, when pulmonary ventilation has already increased, and humoral substances have not yet reached the respiratory center, numerous neural mechanisms of influence, including cortical ones, act as the leading regulatory factor.
The first phase of the conditioned reflex increase in pulmonary ventilation is most pronounced in the case of performing the usual work, already familiar by the severity, i.e. in the conditions of a formed working dynamic stereotype. This is achieved, as you know, as a result of training, the formation of functional systems using anticipatory excitation based on past experience. This is confirmed by observations of people at the beginning of work that is unusual for them.
V. A. Makarov

Petr Kuzmich Anokhin: Life and Scientific Activity

(http://admin.novsu.ac.ru/uni/vestnik.nsf/All/2D6CB989BDC41203C3256727002E7B83)

However, P.K. Anokhin was persistently looking for an answer to the question, by what signs the body determines the end of compensation or the adaptive value of any behavioral act. How does the body correct behavioral errors? The answer was given by experiments carried out according to an original technique, the essence of which was that a sudden substitution of unconditioned reinforcement was made in an animal with a steadily developed conditioned reflex. A sudden change caused a violent orientational reaction in the animal and even a temporary refusal to eat. The resulting "mismatch" reaction could only be explained by the fact that long before the animal receives reinforcement, all "qualities of the reinforcing factor with all its characteristic parameters were predicted by the brain before the reinforcement itself appears." This is how a very important regularity in the work of the brain was discovered: the ability to predict the main afferent features of the future result of an action, i.e. reinforcements. Initially, this apparatus was called "prepared excitation" (1933), then "anticipatory excitation", later "action acceptor" and, finally, "action result acceptor" (1955).

THEORY OF FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS

origins, stages of development, experimental evidence, general postulates
Moscow - 1996 Editor - Academician of the International Academy of Sciences, Professor Nuvakhov B. Sh.

Characterizing emotions, PK Anokhin writes: “... in an adult animal and a person, in response to a corresponding external stimulus, two sets of excitations arise at once: an integrative complex, which is resolved on the periphery through working devices in the form of an external expression of emotions, and its additional component This additional component has all the features of a true emotional state and, therefore, is ahead of the return flow of impulses from the organs of action by a fraction of a second (Anokhin P.K., 1975, p. 180).
...
In the formation of PK Anokhin's ideas about anticipatory excitation, an essential place undoubtedly belongs to the ideas of Herrick (1993) about the constant "running ahead" in the embryonic development of structure before function.
The origins of P.K.Anokhin's ideas about anticipatory excitation in the central nervous system should also be sought in the works of Coghill (EE Coghill, 1930), in which he was very interested.
It was Cogill who wrote that the process of early embryonic growth always outstrips the existing function; it, as it were, “prepares” those structures that will be necessary only in the future behavior of animals. From this arose Cogill's views on "growth" as a creative function of the nervous system.
In 1940, P.K. K., 1940, p. 101).
The notions of anticipatory excitation were prepared by P.K.Anokhin's research on compensation of disturbed functions. P.K.Anokhin persistently raised the question of what signs the organism determines the end of compensation or the adaptive value of any behavioral act? How does the body correct behavioral errors?
Developing the thoughts of I.P. Pavlov about the creative role of the afferent part of the nervous system and the importance of reinforcement in conditioned reflex activity. PK Anokhin already in 1955 came to the idea of ​​advanced excitations in the structure of the conditioned-reflex act.
“Reverse afferentation must correspond to some prepared complex of excitations that arose before the reflex act itself took shape,” writes P.K. the complex of excitations preceding the reflex action should represent something like an afferent "control" apparatus, which determines to what extent the given reverse afferentation that has come to the central nervous system corresponds to it "(Anokhin P.K., 1979, p. 323) ...
In other words, with any test of a conditioned stimulus, a group or system of cortical cells, reproducing the taste qualities of an unconditioned stimulus under the influence of a conditioned stimulus, turns out to be excited a few seconds earlier than a new unconditioned excitation ("reinforcement") will come to it (Anokhin P. K., 1979, p. 325).
... "The reverse afferentation arising from the action of an unconditioned stimulus must exactly correspond to the additional complex of afferent excitations that is part of the conditioned excitement. satisfied "that fully corresponds to the previously developed signal relationships between the conditioned stimulus and reinforcement. From this point of view, the additional afferent apparatus of the conditioned reflex should be considered as an apparatus that makes the final assessment of the sufficiency or insufficiency of the reinforcement or adaptive effect that followed the signal stimulus" (Anokhin P.K., 1979, p. 327).
...
Needs and their satisfaction have become critical points in the evolution of living beings. The satisfaction of the needs of the evolution of living beings manifested itself as a useful adaptive result that determines their survival, as well as the extension of the species and genus. To achieve useful adaptive results that satisfy the leading biological needs, already in unicellular creatures in the process of evolution, functional systems of the molecular level of organization have developed. Multiple satisfaction of needs on the basis of memory mechanisms and the inclusion of fast enzymatic reactions led to the appearance in living beings of the properties of anticipatory reflection of reality (Anokhin P.K., 1968), when, under the action of real events of the space-time continuum of the surrounding world, living beings, due to rapid enzymatic reactions , form a state that is ahead of reflecting the action of subsequent events. Due to the property of anticipatory reflection of reality, living beings have acquired the ability to actively resist the influences of the external world and prepare for them.

Kozlov V.V. Sivitsky V.G.

INFORMATION AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ENVIRONMENTAL REALITY

(http://www.psychosfera.ru/book/book7/book7_16.html)

Psychophysiological studies of living organisms have revealed a specific property of the nervous system, which academician P.K. Anokhin called "anticipatory excitement", and later - "anticipatory reflection of reality." However, reflection presupposes copying, but not transformation of information, therefore, if at the sensory stage it is permissible to speak of mental activity as a reflection, then in relation to perception, and even more so to consciousness, we are actually talking about modeling, as highlighting the most essential properties for constructing information and conceptual models: "the ability of the brain to fix repeating sequences of external events, developed on the basis of primitive forms of reflection, determines that amazing socially mediated ability of the human brain, which is expressed in foreseeing the future in the formulation of hypotheses and, in general, in various prognostic assessments of events" (Anokhin P K. Theory of reflection and modern science of the brain.- Moscow: Knowledge, 1970.)

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL-NEEDED SPHERE

(http://www.ido.edu.ru/psychology/psychophysiology/4.html)

The most complete psychophysiological description of behavior is given by the theory of functional systems by P.K. Anokhin (see topic 1, clause 1.4). According to FS theory, unmotivated behavior does not exist.
Motivation activates the work of the FS, primarily afferent synthesis and an acceptor of the results of action. Accordingly, afferent systems are activated (sensory thresholds are reduced, orienting reactions are enhanced) and memory is activated (images-engrams of memory necessary for search activity are updated).
Motivation creates a special state of FS - "prestarting integration", which ensures the readiness of the organism to perform the corresponding activity. This state is characterized by a number of changes.
First, the motor system is activated (although different forms of motivation are realized in different variants of behavioral reactions, with any types of motivational stress, the level of motor activity increases).
Secondly, the tone of the sympathetic nervous system increases, autonomic reactions increase (heart rate, blood pressure, vascular reactions increase, skin conductivity changes). As a result, the search activity itself, which has a purposeful character, increases.
In addition, subjective emotional experiences arise (these experiences have a predominantly negative connotation, at least until the corresponding need is satisfied). All of the above creates conditions for optimal performance of the forthcoming behavioral act.
Motivation persists throughout the entire behavioral act, determining not only the initial stage of behavior (afferent synthesis), but also all subsequent ones: anticipation of future results, decision-making, its correction based on the acceptor of the results of action and changed situational afferentation. It is the dominant motivation that “pulls out” in the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of action all the accumulated and innate behavioral experience, thereby creating a definite program of behavior. From this point of view, the acceptor of the result of an action represents the dominant need of the organism, transformed by motivation into the form of anticipatory excitation of the brain. Thus, motivation turns out to be an essential component of the functional system of behavior. It is a special state of the body, which, persisting throughout the entire time - from the beginning of a behavioral act to obtaining useful results - determines the purposeful behavioral activity of the body and the nature of its response to external stimuli.

Under the concept of motivation, in fact, an emotional context is hidden, caused by the current conditions on the one hand and their assessment on the other, as well as the assessment of possible results of behavior in the course of "viewing" their options with the help of predictive mechanisms. Those. in fact, there is no center in the brain that manages motivation, determines personality tendencies. Needs are determined by the current physiological state of the body and its predictions about its state in the future.

Simply put, anticipatory arousal is based on the memory of past experiences of similar behavior under similar conditions.

The most obvious evolutionary advantages of having a prognostic mechanism are 1) direct foresight of how an option of action may end under given conditions, 2) choosing the most desirable presumed option from several possible ones, 3) choosing the most desirable option of action in the foreseeable time scale (preference to refrain from less for the later achievement of more).
It can be noted that any predictive action requires conscious attention to it. If many very different behavioral chains of unconscious automatisms and reflexes can be performed simultaneously, then the forecast is considered only in one focus of conscious attention. This is a purely conscious activity. And this puts a lot into one overall whole picture: any forecast begins with an "indicative reflex" (fornit.ru/5400), with the attraction of conscious attention (fornit.ru/5214).

The principle of forecasting is that the reaction control chains developed by previous experience can be carried out without performing the actions for which they are intended, and immediately, without intermediate actions, lead to that final link, which turns out to be the image of habitual consequences with an assessment of their positivity or negativity.
Earlier it was mentioned that in a dream, the chains of control of reactions in the associative zones of the brain can proceed without performing the actions associated with them. Let's take a closer look at how this is done, because these views will prove useful in many cases.
During the execution of the program of action for such chains, the triggering of the next link occurs when the triggering of the previous one is completed and the triggering stimulus of the relevance of the fulfillment of the next one comes. Without such a stimulus, the activity of the chain of the program of sequential actions is not sufficient to activate the link. But if, instead of triggering stimuli, an additional activating potential is applied to the chain links, they will work quickly one after the other, instantly activating the last result and receiving its context of significance, which determines the meaning of what happened. And so that many actions along the entire chain do not work at the same time, they slow down - also along the entire chain.
This is why dreams are so fast: all actions are done so fast. The same happens when thinking and.
Such an accelerated view becomes possible if the inputs of neurons capable of activating this link are connected to each link, and the outputs of the neurons that inhibit them are connected to the action subroutines that are triggered by the links of the main program.
Schematically, in order to get a prediction of how the reaction can end, a neuron is needed that recognizes such a need, to the axon of which dendrites go from the links of the main chain, connecting them with excitatory synapses, and from the links of action subroutines, dendrites with inhibitory synapse ami. Such a neuron, which provides an idle run of the circuit, is called an intercalary, but this name is not important. This is an easy-to-understand circuit for those with circuit design skills.
Braking blocking of movements in a dream is an ancient formation. This is necessary so that the sleeping animal does not make movements upon accidental activation of associative neurons, which inevitably arise from the remaining self-sustaining activities. This blocking is also used in a defensive style of behavior that simulates death, when the numb animal does not irritate the predator with its movements.
It also touches on why sleep is needed at all, and this will be discussed briefly for now, but discussed in detail in the chapter on sleep. In a dream, it is important to get rid of the self-sustaining images accumulated during the day, which begin to interfere with the choice of the desired reaction in their background. General inhibition both blocks actions and gradually extinguishes daytime activities, while causing their contrasting bursts (the effect mentioned earlier that appears during mutual inhibition in the layers of recognizers, making it possible to more clearly distinguish the most accurately triggered ones). And then there is an activation of some actions, but with the cutting off of direct muscle reactions, which manifests itself in the form of a dream that passes very quickly because it is devoid of waiting for triggering stimuli that synchronize actions with the reality of what is happening.
The mechanism of activating the chain of the action program in the quick view mode, unlike what happens in a dream, may have arisen as a random mutation that turned out to be useful, this has not yet been investigated, but it is not essential for understanding the mechanism, it is important that such a phenomenon exists, it itself by itself is reliably installed and it is necessary to proceed from this.
It becomes possible to see what result is expected if this reaction is applied. Moreover, to spy not even in the conditions for which it was formed, but for any other conditions, i.e. excluding the context in which this reaction unambiguously took place and without which it was not performed. A reaction intended for a narrow specificity can now be tried on for its possible application in new conditions.
This allows you to choose those reactions that promise a positive result and not commit those that in the forecast lead to negative consequences.
Forecasting directly leads to the phenomenon of will or arbitrariness.
A 3-year-old child is not capable of voluntarily attaching significance, but is already capable of transferring authoritarianly imposed meanings by parents to the objects of his attention. It is extremely difficult for him not to succumb to pain or, conversely, not to strive for sweets (until he overeats them and homeostasis protests). We can say that his reactions are, in fact, reflex, involuntary.
First, authoritarian coercion, then one's own experience of understanding what is happening and the results of one's actions - gradually forms what is capable of withstanding the primary, "homeostasis significance" (fornit.ru/324), with an obvious forecast (fornit.ru/5194) that it is overcoming is more beneficial.
The child can be persuaded to clean his room, although he is not interested at all, on the one hand, by applying punishment in case of littering, say, by “losing” important toys, and, on the other, by rewarding for “helping mom”. He begins to realize that he receives and wins more, having managed to overcome the uninteresting. And this uninteresting is overgrown with the already realized significance of the awn, promising the desired after a minor uninteresting work. Such a perceived evidence is impossible without the development of mechanisms for predicting possible consequences.
In older children, with whom the "marshmallow test" (fornit.ru/5434) was carried out, many realized the great benefit of waiting to get more and they had enough volitional effort to overcome the immediate desire to eat now, but less than to wait for more to appear.
When the automatism has already been developed to do something necessary in certain situations, then there are no longer problems with negative motivation, this is simply done without hesitation, a volitional effort is no longer needed.
The ability to attach motivating significance while understanding the need to perform uninteresting work arbitrarily so that everyone can apply it, provided that they are sufficiently developed. But if a person does not see why this is necessary, then such a meaningless work is difficult to be positive.
Why clean the apartment? "Why" is the work of predictive modeling based on the experience gained: without removing the month, we get an uninhabited look and shame in front of the guests. Obviously representing the benefit, the positive from the volitional overcoming of the habitual motivates to act contrary to the immediate desire, and such an obviously realized significance, which differs from the more immediate one, is localized already in the higher-level structures of the brain (fornit.ru/7146). This can be called an arbitrarily assigned significance - a deliberate decision, or it can be called positivization - convincingly, clearly predicting the benefits and benefits of cleaning.

There are two types of forecast.
The first is based on a quick scan of the chains of available reactions (“anticipatory excitation”). If we find ourselves in a situation and mentally ask what will happen if we act like this, then this is the first type.
With such a question (usually it is not formulated in words, it is completely redundant at this level of consciousness, which is an additional confirmation that the consciousness does not care about words that are intended for external communication), the answer arises depending on the situation, i.e. the chain of past experience is run, which is context but depends on this situation. For example, we see a man torturing a woman on the street. Punch him in the face? For those who have had such an attempt, the consequences immediately surface and it is very difficult not to believe it and not follow it rationally. Direct experience is most convincing because the assumption has been tried and the result has been obtained.
If such an experience has happened more than once, and the consequences have always turned out to be the same, then confidence in the forecast turns out to be axiomatic.
Those who have not been in such a situation, but have heard a lot, have looked at someone else's experience, and it is very diverse in consequences (there are squabbles and uppers, smart and fools, lucky or not, etc.), then a mental question gives several possible answers at once, which can be compared and figured out which one is most suitable for the current situation. There is little confidence, but if it seemed that a suitable option was found and everything should go well, then confidence already allows you to try to act.
Confidence is an arbitrary assessment of possible success, comes with experience in a given situation.
Another type of forecast is not based on chains of behavioral reactions (established automatisms), but on understanding the essence and meaning of a situation, i.e. based on a subjective model of understanding the phenomenon (fornit.ru/7305). If we know the phenomenon well, have identified all the dependencies of its processes, we have formed a model of properties (essence) and what these properties can mean for us in different situations (meaning), then we easily apply this logic in order to know that will be under such and such initial conditions and acting factors. Those. we apply the logic of cause and effect, which we have learned to correctly understand in relation to us. We know that the ball, falling on a solid at such and such an angle with such and such force, will continue to behave like this. And if the blow is strong and the ball is dirty, we will try not to get it in the head.
Confidence here also increases with the number of observations and participation in them.
At the level of awareness of the situation, it can be difficult to separate the first type of forecast from the second, although they each have their own characteristic features, but this is already a long conversation. At the level of unconscious reactions, the first type is not involved, and the second forms a context for automatisms, especially mental ones.

Professional activity, and especially the activity of all operators, takes place in closed, isolated rooms (driver's cabin, pilot's cabin, power plant control station), which sharply reduces the usual flow of external stimuli (light, people talking, temperature fluctuations). The small volume of the cabins of the operators of the driving profession and the fixed posture for a long time lead to limited mobility, which is also a factor of monotony. In addition, operator rooms and cabins are usually filled with hum and uniform noise from operating instruments. The adverse effect of a monotonous environment is intensified by the monotonous stimulation of the vestibular apparatus by swaying (pilots, drivers, machinists), which contributes to the development of a sleepy state.

Labor psychology and physiologists distinguish two types of monotony:

· Monotony that develops as a result of repeated repetition of the same movements... In this case, a large number of identical signals are sent to the same nerve centers (work on a conveyor belt).

· Monotony, which is caused by a limited number and uniformity of signals coming from outside, when a human operator has to act in the same little changing environment. In this case, a state of sensory hunger occurs (control of a locomotive, a car in a monotonous area).

For the first time, I.P. Pavlov. Pavlov interpreted monotony as a reaction of the nerve centers to constant "chiselling", i.e. constant receipt of weak and identical signals. This reaction is expressed in the development of inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex. The monotonous situation, according to Pavlov, does not require any activity and is the causative agent of the inhibitory process.

The very structure of the operator's activity contains the requirement to maintain the intensity of attention and readiness for action at a high level, and in specific working conditions there are factors that affect the decrease in this function. The monotony of the situation leads to a loss of management efficiency, and sometimes to accidents.

Monotony affects all spheres of human life:

· Physiologically - monotony causes a state of fatigue;

· In psychological terms - monotony contributes to the scattering of attention, the difficulty of the thinking process;

· In behavioral terms - monotony reduces the accuracy and speed of execution of control actions.

Monotony has a wave character: with a change in activity, the emergence of new conditions or tasks, the state of monotony quickly passes. Although monotony causes a state of fatigue, these are not equivalent concepts: the state of fatigue disappears after rest, and the state of monotony after a change in the nature of activity.

For operators of the driving profession, the main problem is monotony of the second kind - the so-called "road hypnosis". It is known that a person in a state of wakefulness constantly needs an influx of external information, and its absence in itself causes some psychological discomfort in a person. Monotony contributes to the development of drowsiness. For example, a train driver on long journeys experiences visual and auditory monotony, experiences constant vibration, which creates motion sickness, in addition, an even temperature in the driver's cabin - all this leads to the development of braking processes in the cerebral cortex and to drowsiness.

Sleepiness leads to loss of Vigilance, i.e. loss of readiness to act in extreme situations. Soviet psychologists, who at one time studied the problem of labor safety in railway transport a lot, came to the conclusion that about 60% of accidents on the railway are associated with a loss of vigilance. Scientists conducted experimental studies of the readiness of drivers for emergency action in monotony conditions. During the 3-hour experiment, the subjects were given 30 stimuli to which they had to react. Studies have shown that the readiness for action during the experiment does not reach 100%, but fluctuates in the range of 45-65%. In addition, there were moments of sharp drop in vigilance relative to the average level. These were 60 and 160 minutes of the experiment (vigilance dropped to 5-10%). Such critical points were found in about 80% of the subjects, i.e. they are typical for all operators to work in monotonic conditions.

The state of drowsiness often leads to sleep while driving, and such a dream is in the nature of temporary gaps, the person is "biting his nose." Sleep lasts a very short period of time and is not recognized by the driver (30-50 seconds). But, no matter how short-term the failures are, they are fraught with a huge danger - it is likely that it is during such a failure that an emergency situation may arise. In addition, with the development of sleep inhibition during work, dreams arise, which in some cases are perceived by a person as reality. In accordance with the plot of dreams, he begins to take certain actions.

From the practice of driving a vehicle, the so-called hypnotic sleep with open eyes is also well known. In this state, there is a splitting of connections between sensory perception of external signals and their logical comprehension, between decision-making and action. A hypnotic state, when a person understands and sees everything, but cannot actively act, often becomes the cause of serious road accidents.

A human operator in monotony has to maintain the required level of wakefulness due to volitional efforts, internal mobilization, and this, in turn, leads to a large waste of energy and to fatigue. According to statistics, 78% of road accidents occur in the last third of monotonous sections of the road.

The fight against monotony is especially important for train drivers, which is why more and more technical means are being developed for them that counteract drowsiness and drowsiness.

For example, at one time it was proposed to put drivers on a bicycle saddle: when falling asleep, he would fall from an uncomfortable seat (of course, this method has not become widespread).

Today, on some sections of the railroad, a “vigilance signal” has become widespread. This device produces a high-pitched sound every 1.5 minutes. When such a signal is given, the driver must release the lever located on the cab ceiling. If after a few seconds the lever is not released, the train will stop automatically. Such a device is not very effective, because the driver is able to press the necessary buttons even in a drowsy state (motor automatism), in addition, the need to get up and squeeze the lever every 1.5 minutes is a serious hindrance to work.

Another way to combat drowsiness during work - a galvanic skin sensor was installed on the driver's hand, which recorded reflexes. When falling asleep, this sensor gave a signal and the driver woke up. The device was also not recognized as effective, because it was large and interfered with the work of the machinists.

To combat the development of fatigue in conditions of monotony, music is used in a number of industries. When a person listens to music, the rhythm of his muscles at the ideomotor level (unconscious, involuntary) adjusts to its rhythm. This, in turn, can affect the rhythm of the heart and respiration. However, it is not possible to introduce music on a large scale. For example, in many industries, noise gets in the way, and in the driving profession, music itself is a distraction.

The problem of combating monotony remains open today, but one thing is clear: the wakefulness signal should be turned on only at the moment when changes in the physiological state of the human operator begin, i.e. only when you really need it. An example of such a device is a helmet designed for military pilots. This helmet contains a built-in encephalograph, which continuously records impulses from the brain. As soon as it detects the slow waves that are typical for falling asleep, the autopilot is activated.

In physiological terms, the boundaries of adolescence roughly coincide with the education of children in grades 5-8 of secondary school and covers the age from 11-12 to 14-16 years. The special position of the adolescent period in the development cycle is reflected in its other names: "transitional", "difficult", "critical" - they record the complexity and importance of the developmental processes occurring at this age associated with the transition from one era of life to another.

The transition from childhood to adulthood is the main content and specific difference between all aspects of development during this period of physical, mental, moral, social.

The importance of adolescence is also determined by the fact that it lays the foundations and outlines general directions for the formation of moral and social attitudes of the individual. ...

The psychological characteristics of adolescence have been called the "adolescent complex". The adolescent complex includes: sensitivity to outsiders' assessment of their appearance, ability, ability to combine with extreme arrogance and peremptory judgments about others; Attentiveness sometimes coexists with amazing callousness, painful shyness with swagger, a desire to be recognized and appreciated by others - with ostentatious independence, a struggle with authorities, generally accepted rules and common ideals - with the deification of random idols, and sensual fantasizing with dry philosophizing. ... One of the main reasons for the psychological difficulties of this age is puberty, which predetermines the unevenness of development in various directions. A characteristic feature of this age is the inquisitiveness of the mind, the desire for knowledge, the teenager eagerly strives to master as much knowledge as possible, while not paying due attention to their systematic nature.

Adolescents direct their mental activity to the area that fascinates them the most. This age is characterized by emotional instability and sharp mood swings (from exaltation to depression). The most affective violent reactions occur when trying to infringe on self-esteem. Emotional instability peaks at ages

11-13 years old, girls - 13-15 years old. The polarity of the psyche is characteristic of adolescents: - Purposefulness, persistence and impulsiveness, instability); - Increased self-confidence, categorical judgments are quickly replaced by vulnerability and self-doubt; - The need for communication + the desire to retire; - Swagger in behavior + shyness; - Romanticism + cynicism, prudence

Tenderness, affection + cruelty.

An important stage in maturation is the process of forming self-awareness. It is based on the ability of a person to distinguish himself from his life activity, a conscious attitude to his needs and abilities, drives, experiences and thoughts.

In adolescents, the subjective image of "I" is formed to a greater extent from the opinions of others. Self-esteem is a mandatory component of self-awareness. Often in adolescents, self-esteem is inadequate: it either tends to increase, or self-esteem is significantly reduced. Personality formation in boys and girls is different intellectually and emotionally. Boys have a more pronounced ability to abstract, a much wider range of interests, but at the same time, they are more helpless in real life situations. Girls have more highly developed verbal and speech activity, the ability to compassion and experience. They are more sensitive to criticism of their appearance than to critical assessments of their intellectual abilities. A teenager strives for independence, but in problematic life situations he tries not to take responsibility for the decisions made, and waits for help from adults.

The leading activity at this age is communicative, communicating primarily with his peers, a teenager receives the necessary knowledge about life.

The opinion of the group to which he belongs is very important for a teenager. The very fact of belonging to a certain group gives him additional self-confidence.

The teenager's position in the group, the qualities that he acquires in the team, significantly affect his behavioral motives. The adolescent's isolation from the group can cause frustration and be a factor of increased anxiety.

In modern Western literature, Eric Erickson's concept of an identity crisis as the main feature of adolescence has become widespread (identity is understood as defining oneself as a person, as an individual). Erickson calls this crisis "Role Identification or Confusion." The teenager actively "tries on" various social roles, defines the requirements, opportunities and rights inherent in each new image. Of course, negative objects will also be present in the role-playing fan, the very existence of which can provoke conflict situations.

The essence of the "adolescent complex" consists of their own, characteristic of this age and certain psychological characteristics - behavioral models, specific adolescent behavioral reactions to environmental influences.

The adolescent phase of primary socialization - all adolescents of this age are schoolchildren who are dependent on their parents or the state. The social status of a teenager is not much different from that of a child. Psychologically, this age is very contradictory, it is characterized by disproportions in the levels and rates of development. The adolescent "sense of maturity" is mainly a new level of aspiration that anticipates a position that the adolescent has not actually achieved. It is very important for a teenager that his adulthood is noticed by others, so that the form of his behavior is not childish. The value of work for a teenager is determined by its adulthood, and the emerging ideas about the norms of behavior provoke discussion of the behavior of adults, which is usually very unpleasant, hence the typical age conflicts. the moment of self-determination has come; the problem of further choice has not yet arisen sharply - either to receive secondary education at school and to be guided in the distant future by a higher educational institution, or to combine education with obtaining a profession in secondary specialized institutions, such as colleges, technical schools, etc. would be in a state of "social rest": adults in relation to a teenager behave as with a child, the requirements of responsibility for actions and decisions made are still weak. With an already sufficiently formed character, social stratifications are still weakly expressed. The projection of family relationships and attitudes serve as a guideline for a teenager in everyday life and interpersonal contacts. It can be assumed that in families where a teenager is deprived of the attention of adults, where there is no trusting relationship, a feeling of hostility to the whole world around is formed. Considering the difficult socio-economic situation in society, its instability and uncertainty about the future in the vast majority of the adult population, an increased background of anxiety, unfortunately, is becoming the norm. Children, who are more sensitive to the atmosphere of their surroundings, cannot but accept this as a natural state.

At present, aggressive behavior in adolescents is a problem that worries both parents and teachers.

The psychological atmosphere in a children's team often depends on children who are more aggressive towards others.