Natural Sciences deal with matter, energy, their interrelation and transformation, as well as objectively measurable phenomena.

In ancient times, philosophers studied this science. Later, the basis of this doctrine was developed by natural scientists of the past such as Pascal, Newton, Lomonosov, Pirogov. They developed natural science.

Natural sciences differ from the humanities in the presence of an experiment, which consists of active interaction with the object being studied.

Humanities study human activity in the field of spiritual, mental, cultural and social. There is an argument that the humanities study the student himself, in contrast to the natural sciences.

Basic natural knowledge

Basic natural knowledge includes:

Physical Sciences:

• physics,
• engineering,
• about materials,
• chemistry;

• biology,
• medicine;

• geography,
• ecology,
• climatology,
• soil science,
• anthropology.

There are two other types: formal, social and human sciences.

Chemistry, biology, geosciences, astronomy, physics are part of this knowledge. There are also cross-cutting disciplines such as biophysics, which takes into account different aspects of several subjects.

Until the 17th century, these disciplines were often referred to as "natural philosophy" due to the lack of experiments and procedures used today.

Chemistry

Much of what defines modern civilization comes from advances in knowledge and technology brought about by the natural sciences of chemistry. For example, modern production in sufficient quantities of food is impossible without the Haber-Bosch process, which was developed during the First World War. This chemical process allows the creation of ammonia fertilizer from atmospheric nitrogen, rather than relying on a biologically fixed source of nitrogen such as cow manure, significantly increasing soil fertility and consequently food supply.

Within these broad categories of chemistry there are countless fields of knowledge, many of which have important influence on daily life. Chemists improve many products, from the food we eat to the clothes we wear and the materials we use to build our homes. Chemistry helps protect our environment and seeks new sources of energy.

Biology and medicine

Thanks to advances in biology, especially in the 20th century, doctors were able to use a variety of drugs to treat many diseases that were previously highly fatal. Through research in biology and medicine, 19th century disasters such as plague and smallpox have been significantly brought under control. Infant and maternal mortality rates have fallen sharply in industrialized countries. Biological geneticists have even understood the individual code within each person.

Geoscience

The science that studies the acquisition and practical application of knowledge about the earth has allowed humanity to extract huge amounts of minerals and oil from earth's crust, for the operation of the engines of modern civilization and industry. Paleontology, the knowledge of the earth, provides a window into the distant past, even further back than humans existed. Through discoveries in geology and similar information in the natural sciences, scientists are able to better understand the history of the planet and predict changes that may occur in the future.

Astronomy and physics

In many ways, physics is the science that underlies both the natural sciences and offers some of the most surprising discoveries of the 20th century. Among the most notable of these was the discovery that matter and energy are constant and simply change from one state to another.

Physics is a natural science based on experiments, measurements and mathematical analysis with the goal of finding quantitative physical laws for everything from the nanoworld to solar systems and galaxies of the macrocosm.

Through observational and experimental research, the physical laws and theories that explain the functioning of natural forces such as gravity, electromagnetism, or nuclear forces are explored.The discovery of new laws of natural science of physics contributes to the existing base of theoretical knowledge and can also be used for practical applications such as equipment development, electronic devices, nuclear reactors etc.

Thanks to astronomy, scientists have discovered a huge amount of information about the Universe. In previous centuries it was believed that the entire universe was simply the Milky Way. A series of debates and observations in the 20th century revealed that the universe is literally millions of times larger than previously thought.

Various types of sciences

The work of philosophers and natural scientists of the past and the subsequent scientific revolution helped create the modern knowledge base.

The natural sciences are often called "hard science" due to their intensive use of objective data and quantitative methods, which rely on numbers and mathematics. In contrast to this social knowledge, like psychology, sociology, and anthropology, rely more on qualitative assessments or alphanumeric data and tend to have fewer concrete conclusions. Formal types of knowledge, including mathematics and statistics, are highly quantitative in nature and do not usually involve the study of natural phenomena or experiments.

Today, the current problems of the development of the humanities and natural sciences have many parameters for solving the problems of human existence and society in the world, they have given.

Science is a field of human activity that is aimed at the theoretical systematization of knowledge about reality that is objective in nature.

Science and scientific knowledge

The basis of any science is the collection of facts, their processing, systematization, as well as critical analysis, which allows us to build a cause-and-effect relationship.

Hypotheses and theories, which are confirmed by facts or experiments, are formulated in the form of laws of society or laws of nature.

Scientific knowledge is a system of knowledge about the laws of society, nature, and thinking. It is scientific knowledge that reflects the laws of the development of the world and constitutes its scientific picture.

Scientific knowledge arises from the understanding of human activity and surrounding reality. Scientific knowledge has various types reliability.

System of Sciences

In terms of its subject matter, science is not homogeneous; it forms many separate systems of sciences. During the period of antiquity, all scientific knowledge was united by philosophy - that is, there was a single scientific system.

Over time, mathematics, medicine and astrology separated from philosophy. During the Renaissance, separate systems of sciences became chemistry And physics.

At the end of the 19th century, sociology, psychology and biology acquired the status of independent scientific knowledge. Conventionally, all sciences, according to their subject of study, can be divided into three large systems:

Social sciences (sociology, history, religious studies, social studies);

Technical sciences (agronomy, mechanics, construction and architecture);

Natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics)

Natural Sciences

Natural sciences are a system of sciences that study the influence of external natural phenomena on human life. The basis of natural sciences is the relationship between the laws of nature and the laws that man has derived in the course of his activities.

The basis of all natural sciences is natural science - a science that directly studies natural phenomena. The most significant contributions to the development of natural sciences were made by such great scientists as Isaac Newton, Blaise Pascal and Mikhail Lomonosov.

Social Sciences

Social sciences are a system of sciences, the main subject of study of which is the study of the patterns of functioning of society, as well as its main components. Problems of society have interested humanity since ancient times.

It was then that questions began to be raised for the first time about what the role of the individual is in public life, what the state should be like, what is needed in order to create a society of general prosperity.

The founders of modern social sciences are Rousseau, Locke and Hobbes. It was they who first formulated the philosophical basis for the development of society.

Research methods

IN modern science There are two main research methods: theoretical and empirical. The empirical research method is the accumulation of facts, observation of a phenomenon and the search for a logical connection between fact and phenomenon.

Introduction

Nowadays, no person can be considered educated if he does not show interest in natural sciences. The usual objection is that interest in the study of electricity or stratigraphy contributes little to the knowledge of human affairs, but only betrays a complete lack of understanding of human affairs.

The fact is that science is not only a collection of facts about electricity, etc.; it is one of the most important spiritual movements of our day. “Whoever does not try to understand this movement pushes himself out of this most significant phenomenon in the history of human activity... And there cannot be a history of ideas that excludes the history of scientific ideas.”

Natural science is the science of the phenomena and laws of nature. Modern natural science includes many branches of natural science: physics, chemistry, biology, as well as numerous related branches, such as physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry and many others. Natural science touches on a wide range of issues about the numerous and multifaceted manifestations of the properties of natural objects, which can be considered as a single whole.

What is natural science

Natural science is a branch of science based on the reproducible empirical testing of hypotheses and the creation of theories or empirical generalizations that describe natural phenomena.

The subject of natural science is facts and phenomena that are perceived by our senses. The scientist's task is to summarize these facts and create a theoretical model that includes the laws governing natural phenomena. It is necessary to distinguish between facts of experience, empirical generalizations and theories that formulate the laws of science. Phenomena, such as gravity, are directly given in experience; laws of science, for example law universal gravity- options for explaining phenomena. The facts of science, once established, retain their permanent significance; laws can be changed during the development of science, just as, say, the law of universal gravitation was adjusted after the creation of the theory of relativity.

The importance of feelings and reason in the process of finding truth is a complex philosophical question. In science, a position that is confirmed by reproducible experience is recognized as truth.

Natural science as a science studies all processes and phenomena that have occurred and are occurring in the real objective world, the geographic envelope, and outer space. This is a branch of science based on reproducible empirical testing (testing in practice) of hypotheses and the creation of theories that describe natural phenomena and processes.

Many achievements of modern natural science, which form the basis for high technology, are associated with comprehensive study objects and natural phenomena. With the involvement of modern technical means Experimentally, it was precisely this kind of study that made it possible not only to create ultra-strong, superconducting and many other materials with unusual properties, but also to take a fresh look at the biological processes occurring inside a cell and even inside a molecule. Most branches of modern natural science are, in one way or another, associated with the molecular study of certain objects, which unites many natural scientists dealing with highly specialized problems. The results of this kind of research are the development and production of new high-quality products, and above all, consumer goods. In order to know at what price such products are given - the most important component of the economy, what are the prospects for the development of modern high-tech technologies that are closely related to economic, social, political and other problems, we need fundamental natural science knowledge, including a general conceptual understanding of molecular processes, on which the most important achievements of modern natural science are based.

Modern means of natural science - sciences about fundamental laws, natural phenomena and various properties of natural objects - make it possible to study many very complex processes at the level of nuclei, atoms, molecules, cells. The fruits of comprehending true knowledge about nature at such a deep level are known to every educated person. Synthetic and composite materials, artificial enzymes, artificial crystals - all these are not only real objects of development by natural scientists, but also consumer products of various industries that produce a wide range of everyday goods. In this regard, the study of natural science problems at the molecular level within the framework of fundamental ideas - concepts - is without a doubt relevant, useful and necessary for future highly qualified specialists in the natural sciences and technology, as well as for those whose professional activities are not directly related to natural science, i.e. for future economists, management specialists, commodity experts, lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, journalists, managers, etc.

Natural science studies facts and phenomena from the fields of philosophy, astrophysics, geology, psychology, genetics, evolution and is divided into a complex of sciences, each of which has its own object of study.

Natural science is divided into:

1. basic sciences;

2. applied sciences;

3. natural sciences;

4. technical sciences;

5. social sciences;

6. humanities.

1. Basic sciences

Fundamental sciences include chemistry, physics, and astronomy. These sciences study the basic structure of the world.

Physics is the science of nature. Divided into mechanical, quantum, optical physics, physics of conductors, electricity.

Chemistry studies the structure of things and their structure. It is divided into 2 large sections: organic and inorganic. Physical chemistry, physical colloid chemistry, and biochemistry are also distinguished.

Astronomy studies the structure and structure of outer space and is subdivided into astrophysics. Astrology, cosmology, astronautics and space exploration.

2. Applied sciences

Applied sciences study basic sciences with practical application, implementation of theoretical discoveries in life. Applied sciences include metallurgy and semiconductor physics.

3. Natural Sciences

Natural sciences study the processes and phenomena of virgin nature. They are divided into geology, geography, biology.

Geology, in turn, is divided into dynamic geology, history, and paleography.

Geography consists of 2 large sections: physical and economical geography.

Physical geography is divided into general agriculture, climatology, geomorphology, soil science, hydrology, cartography, topography, landscape science, geographic zoning, and monitoring.

Economic geography includes regional studies, population geography, geography of the world economy, geography of transport, geography of the service sector, world economy, statistics, international economic relations.

Biology is the science of living organisms. It is divided into botany, zoology, physiology of humans and animals, anatomy, histology (the science of tissues), cytology (the science of cells), ecology (the science of the relationship between man and the environment), ethology (the study of behavior), and evolutionary studies.

4. Technical sciences

Technical sciences include sciences that study man-made instruments and objects. These include computer science, cybernetics, and synergetics.

5. Social Sciences

These are sciences that study the rules and structure of society, and objects living according to its laws. These include sociology, anthropology, archeology, sociometry, and social science. Science "Man and Society".

6. Humanities

The humanities include sciences that study the essence, structure and spiritual state of man. These include philosophy, history, ethics, aesthetics, and cultural studies.

There are sciences that are at the intersection of entire blocks and sections of science. For example, economic geography is at the intersection of natural and social sciences, and bionics is at the intersection of natural and technical sciences. Social ecology is an interdisciplinary science that includes social, natural and technical sciences.

Like other areas of human activity, natural science has specific features.

Universality—communicates knowledge that is true for the entire universe under the conditions under which it was acquired by man.

Fragmentation - studies not existence as a whole, but various fragments of reality or its parameters; itself is divided into separate disciplines. In general, the concept of being as a philosophical one is not applicable to science, which is private knowledge. Each science as such is a certain projection onto the world, like a spotlight highlighting areas of interest

General validity - in the sense that the knowledge it receives is suitable for all people, and its language is unambiguous, since science strives to fix its terms as clearly as possible, which helps to unite people living in different parts of the planet.

Depersonalization - in the sense that neither individual characteristics the scientist, nor his nationality or place of residence are in any way represented in the final results of scientific knowledge.

Systematic in the sense that it has a certain structure, and is not an incoherent collection of parts.

Incompleteness - in the sense that although scientific knowledge grows limitlessly, it still cannot reach absolute truth, after which there will be nothing left to explore.

Continuity - in the sense that new knowledge in a certain way and according to certain rules correlates with old knowledge.

Criticality - in the sense that it is always ready to question and reconsider even its most fundamental results.

Reliability - in the sense that its conclusions require, allow and are tested according to certain rules formulated in it.

Non-morality - in the sense that scientific truths are neutral in moral and ethical terms, and moral assessments can relate either to the activity of obtaining knowledge (the ethics of a scientist requires him to have intellectual honesty and courage in the process of searching for truth), or to the activity of applying it.

Rationality - in the sense that it obtains knowledge on the basis of rational procedures and laws of logic and comes to the formulation of theories and their provisions that go beyond the empirical level.

Sensibility - in the sense that its results require empirical verification using perception, and only after that are recognized as reliable.

Research methods used in natural science

The methods of natural science are based on the unity of empirical and theoretical aspects. They are interconnected and condition each other. Their rupture, or at least the preferential development of one at the expense of the other, closes the path to correct knowledge of nature: theory becomes pointless, experience becomes blind.

Natural science methods can be divided into groups:

A) general methods concern all natural science, any subject of nature, any science. This -- various shapes dialectical method, which makes it possible to connect together all aspects of the process of cognition, all its stages. For example, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc. Those systems of branches of natural science, the structure of which corresponds to the actual historical process their developments (eg biology and chemistry) actually follow this method.

b) Special methods are also used in natural science, but do not relate to its subject as a whole, but only to one of its aspects (phenomena, essence, quantitative side, structural connections) or a certain method of research: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. Special methods are: observation, experiment, comparison and how special case measurement. Mathematical techniques and methods are extremely important as special ways of studying and expressing quantitative and structural aspects and relationships of objects and processes of nature, as well as methods of statistics and probability theory. Role mathematical methods in natural sciences is steadily increasing as more and more wide application calculating machines. In general, there is a rapid mathematization of modern natural science. It is associated with methods of analogy, formalization, modeling, and industrial experiment.

c) Private methods are special methods, operating either only within a separate branch of natural science, or outside the branch of natural science where they arose. Thus, the methods of physics used in other branches of natural science led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, and biophysics. Spreading chemical methods led to the creation of crystal chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry and biogeochemistry. Often a set of interrelated private methods is used to study one subject. For example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, and cybernetics in their interrelation.

In the course of the progress of natural science, methods can move from a lower category to a higher one: specific ones can turn into special ones, and special ones into general ones.

The most important role in the development of natural science belongs to hypotheses, which are “a form of development of natural science, insofar as it thinks...”

The place of natural science in society

The place of natural science in the life and development of society follows from its connections with other social phenomena and institutions, primarily with technology, and through it with production, productive forces in general and with philosophy, and through it with the struggle of classes in the field of ideology. With all the internal integrity arising from the unity of both nature itself and the theoretical view of it, natural science is a very complex phenomenon with by various parties and connections, often contradictory. Natural science is neither the basis nor the ideological superstructure of society, although in its most general part (where the picture of the world is formed), it is connected with this superstructure. The connection of natural science through technology with production, and through philosophy with ideology quite fully expresses the most essential social connections natural sciences. The connection between natural science and technology is due to the fact that “technology... serves the purposes of man because its character (essence) consists in determining it by external conditions (laws of nature).”

In the modern era, natural science is ahead of technology in its development, since its objects are increasingly becoming completely new, previously unknown substances and forces of nature (for example, atomic Energy), and therefore, before the question of their technical application, a “frontal” study of them from the side of natural science is required. However, technology with its needs remains driving force development of natural science.

sciences that study the properties of nature and natural formations. Use of terms natural, technical, fundamental, etc. to areas of human activity is quite conditional, since each of them has a fundamental component (studying problems on the border of our knowledge and ignorance), an applied component (studying the problems of applying acquired knowledge in practical activities), natural science component (studying problems that arise or exist independently of our desire). These terms are, so to speak, diatropic, i.e. describe only the core - most characteristic feature or component of an object.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

NATURAL SCIENCES

received citizenship rights from the 18th century. name for the totality of all sciences involved in the study of nature. The first researchers of nature (natural philosophers) included, each in their own way, all of nature in the circle of their mental activity. The progressive development of the natural sciences and their deepening into research led to the division, which has not yet ended, of the unified science of nature into its separate branches - depending on the subject of research or according to the principle of division of labor. The natural sciences owe their authority, on the one hand, to scientific accuracy and consistency, and on the other, to their practical significance as a means of conquering nature. The main spheres of natural sciences - matter, life, man, Earth, Universe - allow us to group them as follows: 1) physics, chemistry, physical chemistry; 2) biology, botany, zoology; 3) anatomy, physiology, the doctrine of origin and development, the doctrine of heredity; 4) geology, mineralogy, paleontology, meteorology, geography (physical); 5) astronomy together with astrophysics and astrochemistry. Mathematics, according to a number of natural philosophers, does not belong to the natural sciences, but is a decisive tool for their thinking. Moreover, among the natural sciences, depending on the method, there is the following difference: descriptive sciences are content with the study of factual data and their connections, which they generalize into rules and laws; exact natural sciences put facts and connections into mathematical form; however, this distinction is not made consistently. Pure science of nature is limited to scientific research; applied science (medicine, agriculture, forestry, and technology in general) uses it to master and transform nature. Next to the sciences of nature stand the sciences of the spirit, and philosophy unites both of them into a single science; they act as private sciences; Wed Physical picture of the world.

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What are natural sciences? Methods of natural sciences

IN modern world There are thousands of different sciences, educational disciplines, sections and other structural links. However, a special place among all is occupied by those that directly concern a person and everything that surrounds him. This is a system of natural sciences. Of course, all other disciplines are important too. But it is this group that has the most ancient origin, and therefore has special significance in people’s lives.

The answer to this question is simple. These are disciplines that study man, his health, as well as the entire environment: soil, atmosphere, Earth as a whole, space, nature, substances that make up all living and nonliving bodies, their transformations.

The study of natural sciences has been interesting to people since ancient times. How to get rid of a disease, what the body is made of from the inside, why the stars shine and what they are, as well as millions of similar questions - this is what has interested humanity since the very beginnings of its emergence. The disciplines in question provide answers to them.

Therefore, to the question of what natural sciences are, the answer is clear. These are disciplines that study nature and all living things.

There are several main groups that belong to the natural sciences:

1. Chemical (analytical, organic, inorganic, quantum, physical colloid chemistry, chemistry of organoelement compounds).
2. Biological (anatomy, physiology, botany, zoology, genetics).
3. Physical (physics, physical chemistry, physical and mathematical sciences).
4. Earth sciences (astronomy, astrophysics, cosmology, astrochemistry, space biology).
5. Sciences about the earth's shells (hydrology, meteorology, mineralogy, paleontology, physical geography, geology).

Only the basic natural sciences are presented here. However, it should be understood that each of them has its own subsections, branches, side and subsidiary disciplines. And if you combine all of them into a single whole, you can get a whole natural complex of sciences, numbering in hundreds of units.

Moreover, it can be divided into three large groups of disciplines:

Interaction between disciplines

Of course, no discipline can exist in isolation from others. All of them are in close harmonious interaction with each other, forming a single complex. For example, knowledge of biology would be impossible without the use of technical means designed on the basis of physics.

At the same time, it is impossible to study transformations inside living beings without knowledge of chemistry, because each organism is a whole factory of reactions occurring at colossal speed.

The interconnection of the natural sciences has always been traced. Historically, the development of one of them entailed intensive growth and accumulation of knowledge in the other. As soon as new lands began to be developed, islands and land areas were discovered, zoology and botany immediately developed. After all, the new habitats were inhabited (albeit not all) by previously unknown representatives of the human race. Thus, geography and biology are closely linked together.

If we talk about astronomy and related disciplines, it is impossible not to note the fact that they developed thanks to scientific discoveries in the field of physics, chemistry. The design of the telescope largely determined the successes in this area.

There are a lot of similar examples that can be given. All of them illustrate the close relationship between all natural disciplines that make up one huge group. Below we will consider the methods of natural sciences.

Before dwelling on the research methods used by the sciences under consideration, it is necessary to identify the objects of their study. They are:

Each of these objects has its own characteristics, and to study them it is necessary to select one or another method. Among these, as a rule, the following are distinguished:

1. Observation is one of the simplest, most effective and ancient ways to understand the world.
2. Experimentation is the basis of chemical sciences and most biological and physical disciplines. Allows you to obtain the result and from it draw a conclusion about the theoretical basis.
3. Comparison - this method is based on the use of historically accumulated knowledge on a particular issue and comparing it with the results obtained. Based on the analysis, a conclusion is drawn about the innovation, quality and other characteristics of the object.
4. Analysis. This method may include mathematical modeling, systematics, generalization, and effectiveness. Most often it is the final result after a number of other studies.
5. Measurement - used to assess the parameters of specific objects of living and inanimate nature.

There are also the latest modern methods research that is used in physics, chemistry, medicine, biochemistry and genetic engineering, genetics and others important sciences. This:

Of course, this is far from full list. There are many different devices for working in each area scientific knowledge. An individual approach is required to everything, which means that your own set of methods is formed, equipment and equipment are selected.

Modern problems of natural science

The main problems of natural sciences in modern stage development is a search for new information, accumulation theoretical basis knowledge in a more in-depth, rich format. Until the beginning of the 20th century main problem The disciplines in question were in opposition to the humanities.

However, today this obstacle is no longer relevant, since humanity has realized the importance of interdisciplinary integration in mastering knowledge about man, nature, space and other things.

Now the disciplines of the natural science cycle are faced with a different task: how to preserve nature and protect it from the influence of man himself and his economic activity? And the problems here are the most pressing:

• acid rain;
• Greenhouse effect;
• ozone layer destruction;
• extinction of plant and animal species;
• air pollution and others.

In most cases, in response to the question “What are natural sciences?” One word immediately comes to mind - biology. This is the opinion of most people not associated with science. And it's perfect correct opinion. After all, what, if not biology, directly and very closely connects nature and man?

All disciplines that make up this science are aimed at studying living systems, their interactions with each other and with environment. Therefore, it is quite normal that biology is considered the founder of the natural sciences.

In addition, it is also one of the most ancient. After all, people’s interest in themselves, their bodies, the surrounding plants and animals arose along with man. Genetics, medicine, botany, zoology, and anatomy are closely related to this discipline. All these branches make up biology as a whole. They give us a complete picture of nature, of man, and of all living systems and organisms.

These fundamental sciences in the development of knowledge about bodies, substances and natural phenomena are no less ancient than biology. They also developed along with the development of man, his formation in the social environment. The main objectives of these sciences are the study of all bodies of inanimate and living nature from the point of view of the processes occurring in them, their connection with the environment.

Thus, physics examines natural phenomena, mechanisms and causes of their occurrence. Chemistry is based on the knowledge of substances and their mutual transformations into each other.

This is what natural sciences are.

And finally, we list the disciplines that allow us to learn more about our home, whose name is Earth. These include:

There are about 35 different disciplines in total. Together they study our planet, its structure, properties and features, which is so necessary for human life and economic development.

Natural Sciences. What sciences are called natural?

Natural sciences are the sciences about nature, that is, about nature. Inanimate nature and its development is studied by astronomy, geology, physics, chemistry, meteorology, volcanology, seismology, oceanology, geophysics, astrophysics, geochemistry, and a number of others. Live nature is studied by biological sciences (paleontology studies extinct organisms, taxonomy studies species and their classification, arachnology studies spiders, ornithology studies birds, entomology studies insects).

The natural sciences include those that study nature and all its manifestations, that is, physics, biology, chemistry, geography, ecology, astronomy.

Opposite to the natural sciences will be the humanities, which study man, his activities, consciousness and manifestation in various fields. These include history, psychology and others.

Natural is a word that, by itself and by its presence, tells us that something should happen in nature. Well, science, of course, is the field of activity that, this whole thing, thoroughly and scrupulously studies and reveals general, but at the same time fundamental, patterns.