The purpose of a monologue speech is different. Allocate three main functional and semantic types.
Description - this is most often a characteristic. Such a text describes the place, circumstance, participants in the events, appearance, state of a person or environment in which events take place. The most typical example of a description is descriptions of nature in fiction... Description is impossible without information about the characteristics of the described object. Therefore, the descriptions are saturated with adjectives expressing the attributes of the object, participial phrases expressing the attribute of the object in action. They often use nominative and impersonal sentences. Descriptions are characterized by the use of epithets, comparisons, metaphors and other means of expression.
Narration - This is a message about the sequence of actions, about what happened at the beginning and what happened after, how the events developed. In many narratives, stages in the development of events are distinguished, including the beginning, development, culmination, and denouement. In such texts, there can be many adverbs that call the sign of action, adverbs and adverbs expressing additional actions, as well as verbs, especially SV verbs in the past tense. An example would be a short retelling of the plot of a film or book.
Reasoning Is a type of text representing reflection, explanation, proof of the speaker's point of view. The following components of content are characteristic of reasoning: thesis, argumentation, conclusion. Reasoning contains introductory words that convey a connection and a sequence of thoughts, such as: firstly, secondly, on the one hand, on the other hand, so, therefore, therefore and others like that. Reasoning is used to present and substantiate a point of view, especially when expressing a relationship to something. Imagine that you are faced with a problem. Thinking over the situation, analyzing all the pros and cons, making a decision and will be expressed in the form of reasoning.
In many texts, one can find not only examples of these types in pure form, but also their various combinations.
Since the topic turned out to be difficult for users, I want to supplement the given characteristics with examples.
Description:
The wide valley of Rybnaya turned blue and slightly fogged under the sun, the pass breeze flew in with frisky, not strong gusts. Nutcrackers shouted not far below. The weather was the most hunting. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
Description:
The captain was thirty-nine years old, he lived in a dorm on the second floor in the largest corner room where there used to be a common hall with a TV. A bunk, three chairs, a table and a pink Japanese refrigerator in Vaska's height. Sometimes there was rich music with many speakers, a plasma panel on a half-wall, or something equally exotic, wildly expensive and specially ordered in Japan. (V. Remizov. "Free Will")
Description:
Masha lived in her house. Typical for the village, long one-story house divided in half into two hosts. Inside, too, everyone had the same, artless unpretentious layout: doors in the center, windows in the middle. Masha had everything thought out, simple and convenient. There were few things in the apartment, and it seemed spacious. (V. Remizov, "Free Will")
Narration:
It took Ilya Zhebrovsky three days to get to the site. For several years no one had cleaned the follower forty kilometers to the winter quarters, and in some places the road was heavily littered with fallen trees. They sawed in two saws, pulled apart, laid out the logs. Some very healthy "Ural" tugged, drove for a short time and again sawed. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
Narration:
He went almost to the very top, took off his backpack, untied and put on the cloth. Karam fell behind. Stepan turned around, looked down, listened through the noise of the wind, whether he was shouting somewhere, but heard the roar of a helicopter. HE took on an untied backpack and hurried back down to the nearest rocks. The turntable walked from the side of his site, it was not visible, only the rumble was growing, knocked down by gusts of wind. Stepan was in a hurry, stones were crawling underfoot, he was beating his knees, cutting his hands. He was already a few meters from the rock when an orange car burst out over the snow-white deflection of the pass. Stepan sat down and froze. The turntable passed so close that it seemed to him that he hears the smell of exhaust. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
Narration:
Uncle Sasha swore and climbed out of the cab.
Uncle Sasha was waiting for this trouble, he had a spare bridge in the back ... He began to dial Mishka Milyutin on his phone. Then he called the Cook.
By lunchtime it became clear that there was no way to leave today, there was no end in sight. Together with the bridge, something else had to be changed. The cook phoned the homies in search of the necessary oil seals and levers. Zhebrovsky first tried to delve into, then just sat next to him on the box, bored and smoking. Uncle Sasha also did not climb too much, the work was silently managed by a tall and thin Mishka. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
Reasoning:
By his nature, he would have spat on this matter, hushed it up and left, but in the region they already knew, and the person had to be introduced. Alive, or better dead - for resisting. “It’s necessary to make a nosebleed, you don’t get it! ..” - shouted from the region the deputy for the operational, who, apparently, got a great deal of the airplane.
Alexander Mikhailovich, and so everything was clear his place because of the fugitive Kobyak fell in value and could only be given to someone local. Interestingly, they offered Semikhvatsky with Gnidyuk? Or maybe both for competition, thought Alexander Mikhalych ... (V. Remizov "Free Will")
Reasoning:
Zhebrovsky did not interfere. In Russia, power has always been a sacred cow. Even here, on its outskirts, where serfdom never existed and where completely independent peasants lived in a harsh nature, people were outraged not by the bad structure of the government itself, but only by the justice or injustice of its actions. This is inexplicably stupid, Ilya thought and kept quiet. There was no sense in these conversations. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
I heard that three years ago, in the spring, they killed Sasha's youngest uncle, Sasha. That day Sashka returned from the army. In the cafe it was business where he never went. One pimply, a head shorter than Sashka, smoking rubbish, stabbed him with a knife. The whole village was buried. Sashka was handsome, sober and never offended anyone in his life. He was stabbed, but he only frowned, smiled bewildered and guilty, clutching the throbbing wound with his hand. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
Narrative with descriptive elements:
Ilya set the pasta to cook, opened the stew out of nothing to do, but rather, from the hunting itch in his hands, brought a cover with a new fitting. I remembered how I followed him to Austria, how I tried there at the shooting range - the bullet went into the bullet. The work was piecemeal, he had to by September, and the Austrians did everything on time and never deviated from their quality. (V. Remizov "Free Will").
Description with elements of reasoning:
Genka got up, dusting himself off, took the carbine on his shoulder and walked away. It was a strange thing. Over the years, he loved this life in the taiga more and more, and lost his passion. Not that excitement, but what it used to be. He knew it for himself. He was never known to be greedy, but when he managed to get more than others, and this happened often, he went happy. Sometimes he bragged about being drunk. (V. Remizov "Free Will")
The functional-semantic type of speech is considered as a universal typological unit of the text, distinguished on the basis of various features (communicative-pragmatic, logical-semantic, structural-semantic). V scientific literature there are such semantic types as description, narration, definition of a concept, reasoning, proof, message (EI Motina); description, narration, reasoning, explanation (A. A. Weise);
description, narration, reasoning, proof and generalization - formulation (MN Kozhina); description, narration, reasoning (O. A. Nechaeva). In addition, in other works one can find a refutation, conclusion, comparison, explanation (see, for example, T. P. Malchevskaya, E. S. Troyanskaya). Such a variety of types is explained primarily by the fact that when identifying them, the authors operate with different stylistic and genre material and use different reasons for classification: communicative intention, the nature of the denotation, the nature of logical relations between sentences or larger parts of the text, types of predication. According to the just remark of R.S.Alikayev, the issue of universal text units should be resolved “depending on functional style, typological text paradigm a certain style; from the hierarchy of speech types in various stylistic systems ”.
RS Alikaev, following V.V. Odintsov, offers a multidimensional classification. At the first level, texts are divided into descriptive and argumentative, depending on the communicative goal, intention (or type of basic intention). Descriptive texts by the type of basic intention are informative, informative, they contain information about an object, its properties, features, character, structure and differ in being modality. Argumentative texts are, first of all, texts that convince, prove, explain. They are characterized by different types of objective modality. At the next level, descriptive and argumentative texts are divided according to functional and structural features.
Particular varieties of descriptive texts are definition, description-definition, description itself, explanation. The most common in the scientific style is definition, the purpose of which is to characterize a scientific concept by indicating its most essential features and properties. The syntax of definitions is characterized by constructions with the general syntactic meaning “subject (bearer of a feature, property) - property (feature)”. This structure often turns out to be complicated by participial, adverbial turns and phrases with a verbal noun. In the communicative-semantic relation, the text-definition is a theme-rhematic structure of the "cluster" type, when the theme (main subject) is preserved throughout the entire segment of the text and is characterized by various rhemes. For instance:
Basic principles of modern international law are fundamental, peremptory, universal norms of international law that meet the laws of development international relations ensuring the main interests of mankind, states, other subjects of international law and, therefore, protected by the most severe coercive measures. The basic principles are binding on all states without exception. They enjoy primacy over all other norms of the system of international law. The principles are retroactive.
Closest to definition definition. It differs from the definition in that the definition lists only the differential features of an object that distinguish it through identification with another genus-specific concept. The definition in the simplest case "can be reduced to a logical formula: A is B (which is characterized by signs X and Y)." In definitions, as a rule, there is no full-valued predicate; it establishes relations of identity. Typical for syntax are constructions that form the meanings "name of a specific concept - a sign of a relation - name of a generic concept". For instance:
Civil law- one of the main branches of law in the Russian Federation, it is a system of norms regulating on the basis of equality of participants in relations, inviolability of property, freedom to conclude contracts, a set of property, as well as personal non-property relations associated with them.
Actually description in the communicative-semantic relation it coincides with the definition and definition, differing at the structural-semantic level. If the definitions and definitions are based on rather rigid construction schemes, then the description itself is built according to free rules, while maintaining the main communicative goal - to characterize an object, concept, phenomenon with varying degrees of accuracy and detail. Definition and definition can be included in the description as its components. The communicative-semantic structure of the description itself, as a rule, is represented by a theme-rhematic progression with hyperthema or a linear progression with elements of the "cluster" type.
The subject of civil law, like any other branch, are public relations, i.e. connections between members of society. The specificity of civil law is that it regulates relations associated with any property.
Civil law regulates all the most important aspects and types of property relations, including: 1) the legal status of the participants in these relations; 2) the grounds for the emergence and procedure for the exercise of ownership and other property rights; 3) contractual and other obligations related to the alienation of the property by the owner and its transfer to another person: a citizen or a legal entity.
A special type of civil law relations is constituted by relations arising from the inheritance of the property of the deceased.
Explanation as a kind of descriptive text, it is distinguished by a functional feature. Its purpose is to supplement the characteristics of the object, to introduce minor details that clarify, illustrate information about the properties and characteristics of the object. The time plan of all the listed types of texts is the plan of the present irrelevant, the present permanent. For instance:
Civil law regulates all the most important parties and types of property relations, including:
1) the legal status of the participants in these relations.(Explanation) Here the concept of the legal capacity of citizens is revealed, the conditions for the emergence of legal capacity, the procedure for recognizing citizens as incompetent, establishing guardianship and trusteeship over them is established. Civil law gives the concept legal entity, different types economic organizations: partnerships and societies, business and consumer cooperatives, state and municipal enterprises, non-profit organizations;
Descriptive texts include message, which is considered by a number of authors as a transformed narrative. This is due to the fact that for a scientific text it is absolutely irrelevant to simply state a subject or object at certain intervals without indicating its features, the reasons for its occurrence and the consequences of its transition to another state. The purpose of the message is to inform about any objects, events, stages of their change and signs accompanying them. At the same time, “the goal is not to create a detailed detailed representation of some material object through its many distinctive features... how it is done in the description; the message does not convey the sequential movement (course) of the individual phases of the process ... which is characteristic of the narrative. " The message type is most often used when describing specific phenomena when it is required to convey information about any circumstantial characteristics of events, processes, objects (for example, about spatial or temporal). The texts of the message type are not characterized by rigid construction schemes; their syntax is also more diverse, although they are based on constructions of the characterizing type. For instance:
The end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century was marked by significant achievements in the field of international legal regulation. Important milestones in this direction were the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, convened at the initiative of Russia. The documents adopted at them codified the rules for the conduct of war and the peaceful resolution of disputes, were a significant milestone in the formation of international humanitarian law. This period ends with the end of the First World War and the creation of the League of Nations.
Argumentative texts include reasoning, proof, explanation, sometimes as separate types consider inference, refutation, confirmation, justification and some others. All texts of this type unites a single goal - transmission, demonstration of thinking processes, presentation of the process of logical inference, belief in the truth individual provisions theory, rationale scientific point vision.
The communicative-semantic structure of the text is subordinated to the logical one - between the sentences of the text there are various types of cause-and-effect, concessive, conditional-comparative relationships. Accordingly, the syntax of argumentative texts is characterized by complex subordinate clauses expressing various logical relations. At the same time, it should be noted that cause-and-effect relationships or another type of logical connection are not always explicitly indicated in the text. This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, there are predetermined, rigid text design schemes, for example, proofs in mathematics, when a verbal expression turns out to be redundant, or, on the other hand, the initial and subject to verification provisions are formulated so clearly and clearly that an unambiguous understanding the nature of the connection is straightforward.
Internal differentiation of argumentative texts is carried out on the basis of a particular communicative goal setting, analysis of the structure of the text and the nature of logical connections between the statements of the text. As already noted, argumentative texts are divided into at least two parts, between which relations of cause, effect, concession, condition, logical conclusion, generalization are established, which in some cases have different semantic shades. Basic structure proof as a separate functional-semantic type form the thesis and arguments. The thesis contains a basic proposition, the truth of which must be proven. Arguments contain information proving, verifying the provisions of the thesis. Since there is no single method of proof for all cases, the structure of proof texts can differ significantly from each other. Accordingly, the syntactic constructions used for these purposes will also be different. Proofs have the most rigid structure in natural and scientific and technical texts. Considering the structure of evidence in the texts of these sciences, EI Motina notes, in addition to the thesis and arguments, the presence of two more obligatory components: a method of proof and a conclusion.
In humanitarian texts, the method of proof, as a rule, manifests itself in the selection and sequence of arguments and is not formalized separately, the inferential, final judgment is also optional.
Reasoning differs from proof in that, firstly, “through reasoning, the process of obtaining new knowledge about an object through the operation of logical inference is transmitted,” and the truth is not proved. Secondly, the basic structure includes premises (particular and / or general) and a conclusion, a conclusion. Parts of the reasoning are connected, as a rule, by cause-and-effect relationships and conditional relationships, and in terms of form, reasoning is one or more inferences, united formally and meaningfully. And, thirdly, the conclusion to which the author brings is not always strictly verifiable, since it depends on the initial premises, which can be both true and false. You can compare the two text passages of reasoning and proof.
Reasoning:
- (package) Values distort the perception of nature, society and man, and in order for a person not to be deceived in his perception, he must constantly be aware of the fact of the presence of values, must understand what impact they have on his perception, and, armed with this understanding, make the necessary adjustments ... ( explanation of the premise)(When I talk about "distortion," I mean the imposition of the personal aspect of perception on the real-life aspects of the human cognizable reality.)
- (consequence, conclusion) The study of values, needs, desires, prejudices, fears, interests and neuroses should precede any scientific research.
Proof:
(thesis) Normativeness, being a consequence of the natural-historical development of society, is not a specific property of law, (argument 1) It is possessed by religion, morality, aesthetics, and even literature, (argument 2) Some social norms simultaneously belong to several regulatory systems, (illustration for argument 2) For example, the evangelical prohibitions "Thou shalt not kill", "Thou shalt not steal" are both moral and legal rules. (conclusion) Therefore, in order to distinguish law from other social phenomena, some other signs are needed. One of them is universality. This is the second property of law after normativity.
In the text-reasoning from the premise "values distort the investigated phenomena" it is concluded that "in order to obtain true knowledge, it is necessary first to study the values." The initial premise of distortion must be taken on faith by the reader. The proof text is structured differently. The thesis that normativity is not a specific property of law is confirmed (proved) by an indication that normativity is a property of other spheres of human life. Based on this, a conclusion is made about the validity of the thesis.
As a separate independent type sometimes consider explanation. An explanation in its logical structure resembles a proof, but the arguments do not perform the function of a rigorous and logically consistent proof, but represent specific examples, empirical facts, Additional information that make it possible to understand and accept the thesis put forward.
Argumental texts, as well as descriptive ones, are distinguished by a great variety, which manifests itself in the number of arguments, the nature of their logical and semantic connection, in the type of relations between the main parts. The structural features are most clearly manifested in the proof texts presented in technical sciences and theoretical works. Great variability and vagueness is characteristic of the texts of humanitarian fields of knowledge.
Thus, the functional-semantic type is a typological unit of the text, and its structure is determined in small segments. Depending on the communicative purpose, descriptive and argumentative types of texts are distinguished, which, in turn, are subdivided into description, definition, definition, explanation, message (descriptive types) and reasoning, proof, explanation (argumentative types). In texts of a large volume of different genres, functional-semantic types are in different relationships, which determines the general communicative dominant of the text - argumentative or descriptive (see, for example, texts 2, 7, 9 of Appendices, which have an argumentative character, and other texts, in which description, information, definition dominate over reasoning, justification, proof). In this case, connections are established not only between individual sentences, but also between larger fragments of the text (paragraphs, superphrasal unities, etc.), which, accordingly, perform the functions of theses, arguments, premises, conclusions, etc.
Nechaeva OA Functional-semantic types of speech. Ulan-Ude, 1974. According to the book: Syrykh V. M. Fundamentals of jurisprudence. M., 1996.S. 110.
Chapter 2 examined the various meanings of the term “speech”, one of which is synonymous with the term “text”. Thus, the text is a product of speech activity, it is the space of the utterance, within which the speech strategy is formed. In the 70-80s of the XX century. linguistic studies of the text clearly revealed two directions: a functional typology, the basis of which was the social functions and purposes of using texts, and a structural typology, addressed to the internal organization of texts.
A functional approach to the typology of texts brings the types of speech closer to genres: narration, description, reasoning.
The type of speech is understood as a text (or a fragment of a text) with a certain generalized meaning (an object and its attribute; an object and its action; assessment of an event, phenomenon; cause-and-effect relations, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.
Functional speech type - the type of speech, depending on the goals and meaning of the monologue statement.
Forming the concept of functional types of speech, take into account a set of essential features: ( 1 ) function (hence - functional type of speech); (2) value (hence - semantic type of speech); ( 3) structure and language means.
By functions texts (types of speech) are divided into: (a) texts that reflect reality; (b) texts - a person's thoughts about reality.
By meaning texts (types of speech) are divided into description, narration, reasoning.
The first two types of speech presuppose a relationship with the world of objects (in the broad sense), the last - with the world of concepts, judgments.
Description - This is a functional-semantic type of speech, in which an image of a phenomenon is given by listing its characteristic features.
The compositional model of this type of speech: description object - its signs - general picture, image.From the point of view of the object of description, the following types are distinguished: portrait, interior, landscape, everyday, scientific and technical, description of the state of affairs. The description assumes a listing of features (constant or homogeneous), therefore it differsstatic.In description texts, the attributes of an object are thatnewinformation for the sake of which the statement is created. The starting point- the object itself or part of it. The development of thought occurs due to the fact that each next sentence adds new features to what has been said, therefore, the connection of sentences in descriptions is usually parallel. Verbs are used in the form imperfect... The description is based on subject vocabulary. The descriptions are stylistically heterogeneous. This difference is especially evident between artistic and scientific-business descriptions.
In some cases, they talk about dynamic description. It is usually small in volume, included in the event, and does not pause. For example, a landscape is given through the perception of the subject in the course of his movement ("The Steppe" by AP Chekhov).
Narration - This is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is an image of actions and events in time. Compositional model: tie - once twist of action - climax - denouement.
In the narrative, individual sentences are linked by a chain link. The sequence of actions and events is conveyed with the help of perfect verbs, which, replacing each other, show the development of the narrative. Predicate verbs are usually found after the subject. Narrative texts, like descriptive ones, are stylistically different, which is especially clearly manifested in the opposition of fictional narrative (story, story) and scientific-business (report, receipt, etc.).
Reasoning - This is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is a verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of any thought. Compositional model: thesis - proof - conclusion. It is advisable to draw up a conclusion briefly and clearly, in one sentence, which would be distantly connected with the thesis, confirming or refuting it, depending on the task at hand.
This type of speech is characterized by a large number of complex sentences, mainly - complex with subordinate clauses, goals, reasons, conditions, effects, etc. Predictive ones are usually expressed by verbs in the form of the present tense. Many introductory words. Abstract vocabulary is widely used. So, depending on the goals of a monologue statement, the presence of certain semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, there are three main communicative types of speech: description, narration, reasoning.
Federal Agency for Education
Department of Foreign Languages
Course work on the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"
on the topic of
"Functional types of speech".
Completed:
Checked:
Introduction ………………………………………………… .. ………… ..3
Working with terminology …………………………………. ………… ..4
Functional speech types:
Description …………………………………………………… ... ……… .5
Narration …………………………………………….… .. ……… 8
Reasoning ……………………………………………… .. ……… ..10
Memo ……………………………………………………. …… ....... 13
Conclusion …………………………………………………………….… ..14
Literature …………………………………………………….… ..15
Introduction
The problem of human knowledge of functional types of speech is very relevant. We communicate a lot with by different people: at home, at work, in various in public places, and the ability to competently build your speech has great value... It is also important to be able to understand other people. We need all this so that we are correctly understood, so that a person, reading any work, listening to someone, has the most complete and clear idea of what in question, was able to better understand the problem. Knowledge of the functional types of speech is necessary to create literate texts in accordance with the tasks of communication in various areas of human activity, for a competent speech to the public.
The process of communicative development of a personality is impossible without the formation of a theoretically clear idea of the functional-semantic typology of speech, without the development of the ability to analyze the text in terms of its belonging to a certain type, the ability to create texts in accordance with the communicative-functional, compositional-structural, lexical-grammatical characteristics of one or another functional type of speech.
This work will focus on functional types of speech: description, narration, reasoning. Will be considered characteristics each type of speech, definitions of these types are given, examples of use are given.
The tasks facing this work: to give a basic definition based on several sources, to characterize the types of speech, to clarify the relevance of this topic, to show the use of types of speech by examples.
A huge contribution to the development of the Russian language was made by scientists: Vinogradov Viktor Vladimirovich (1894-1969) - Soviet literary critic and linguist-Russianist, Anatoly Vlasovich Zhukov (philologist-Russianist) and others.
Working with terminology
In the Russian language textbook N.Yu. Strecker "Russian language and culture of speech" is given following definition type of speech: the type of speech is understood as a text (or a fragment of text) with a certain generalized meaning (object and its attribute; object and its action; assessment of an event, phenomenon; cause-and-effect relationship, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.
This definition allows us to understand that the type of speech carries a certain meaning and is expressed by certain linguistic means.
In a textbook for universities Graudina L.K., Shiryaeva E.N. “The culture of Russian speech” about functional and semantic types of speech is said: the type of speech is a monologue narration - information about developing actions, monologue description - information about the simultaneous features of an object, monologue reasoning - about cause-and-effect relationships. Semantic types are present in speech depending on its type, purpose and on the conceptual intention of the speaker, which determines the inclusion or non-inclusion of one or another semantic type in the general fabric oratorical speech; The change of these types is caused by the speaker's desire to more fully express his thought, reflect his position, help listeners to perceive the speech and most effectively influence the audience, as well as give the speech a dynamic character.
This definition emphasizes that functional types are present in speech, depending on its type, the author's intention.
Nechaeva O.A. in the book "Functional-semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning)" indicates the definition of types of speech: functional types of speech - communicatively conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include description, narration and reasoning.
This definition shows us that types of speech are used to communicate people with each other.
So, we will give our definition of the type of speech based on the above definitions. Functional types of speech are communicatively conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which are expressed by certain linguistic means.
Functional speech types
Let's consider the main functional types of speech, characterizing each of them in detail.
Description
Description is functional type speech, the essence of which is reduced to the expression of the fact of the coexistence of objects, their signs at the same time. Description serves for a detailed transfer of the state of reality, images of nature, terrain, interior, exterior. For instance:
"Kochanovskaya manor stands on the river, opposite the village. The manor is not rich - the house is covered with wood chips, on both sides the gate connects it with the outbuildings, in the left wing there is a kitchen, in the right wing, a cowshed, a barn. One kitchen window overlooks the river, but the river cannot be seen , an old hard raspberry tree props up an outbuilding ... "(K. Fedin. Shepherd).
In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load is carried by nouns and adjectives. Nouns refer to specific vocabulary (river, village, house, gate, outhouse, window, etc.). Words with a spatial meaning are widely used - the circumstances of the place (on the river, against the village, etc.). Verb predicates in a semantic sense, either weakened, worn out (the estate is on the river; the window overlooks the river), or have a qualitative and pictorial meaning (a hard raspberry tree props up the wing). The verb form of the present tense is often used, expressing the long-term state of the object or the "timeless" state (stands, connects, props).
Verbs of the imperfect form of the past tense indicate the state of the described phenomena at the time of observing them (whitened, bloomed). Even perfect verbs in descriptive contexts convey a property, a characteristic of an object, and not an active action (a barely noticeable path branched off from it, twisted between the pines and died in a clearing).
The description is characterized by the uniformity of the predicate forms, which is an indicator of the static nature of the depicted. The most frequent descriptions are with a single plane of the present tense or with a single plane of the past tense. The degree of staticity in descriptions with a past tense plan is lower than in descriptions with a present tense plan.
The description can include a sequence of nominative and elliptical constructions, which creates a kind of nominative style, most vividly represented in the stage directions of dramatic works, film scripts, and diary entries. For instance:
"A large room, a corner of the house; Vassa lived here for ten years and spends most of the day. A large work table, in front of it is a light armchair with a hard seat, safe, on the wall there is an extensive, brightly colored map of the upper and middle reaches of the Volga - from Rybinsk to Kazan; under the map there is a wide ottoman covered with a carpet with a pile of pillows on it; in the middle of the room is a small oval table, chairs with high backs; double glass doors to the terrace to the garden, two windows - also to the garden. A large leather armchair, on the windowsills - geranium, in the partition between the windows on the floor in a tub - a laurel tree. A small shelf, on it is a silver jug, the same gilded ladles. Near the ottoman there is a door to the bedroom, in front of the table there is a door to other rooms "(M. Gorky. Vassa Zheleznova).
In such descriptions, objects seem to be captured by a video camera. The offers are equal in relation to each other. They can be grouped in another way, it all depends on the "starting point".
The enumerative meaning of descriptive text is often conveyed by the parallel linkage of sentences.
This is clearly demonstrated by the texts of the descriptive sciences (biology, geology, etc.), which include in the form of whole paragraphs logical unity, which consists of sentences expressing parallel related judgments with a single subject and different predicates.
For instance:
"The common one is already well distinguishable by its dark, almost black color ... Distributed in the European part of the country, in Siberia east to Transbaikalia and in some places in Central Asia... It prefers to swim along the banks of swamps, rivers, ponds. It feeds on frogs, lizards, rodents, less often insects. He rarely eats fish "(SP Naumov. Zoology of vertebrates).
A fictional text is characterized by the contamination of description with narrative. There are elements of descriptiveness in almost any narrative text.
Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they speak of "dynamic description" - a type of transitional speech, bordering on the narrative. Dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. The structural content of the description is reduced to the temporal relation of simple following. Due to the fact that all attention is focused on fixing the dynamics, on a number of moments of action, their "step" nature, such content determines the selection of proposals that have an independent character. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term for the naturalistic method of very detailed description actions with great precision of transfer of details - "second style").
Lecture No. 83 Functional and semantic types of speech
This lecture discusses issues related to the normative construction of sentences with detached members.
Functional and semantic types of speech
This lecture discusses issues related to the normative construction of sentences with detached members.
Lecture plan
83.1. Description.
83.2. Narration.
83.3. Reasoning.
83.1. Description
The text as a unit primarily informative and communicative needs the characteristics of its structure in terms of functional and semantic. Function and meaning, not syntactic structures, create characterological features of the text. Therefore, it becomes necessary to pay attention to the ways of presenting the material in the text, and necessarily in relation to the nature of the textual information. To designate speech methods of transmitting information, there are terms - functional-semantic types of speech, types of presentation, presentation methods.
Functional-semantic types of speech (FSTR) are communicatively conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include:
- description,
- narration,
- reasoning.
Description is FSTR, the essence of which boils down to the expression of the fact of coexistence of objects, their signs at the same time. Description serves for a detailed transfer of the state of reality, images of nature, terrain, interior, exterior.
For instance:
“Kochanovskaya manor stands on the river, opposite the village. The manor house is not rich - the house is covered with wood chips, on both sides the gates connect it with the outbuildings, in the left wing there is a kitchen, in the right wing, a cowshed, a barn. One kitchen window overlooks the river, but you cannot see the river, an old hard raspberry tree props up the outbuilding ... "(K. Fedin. Shepherd)
Depending on the subject of speech, descriptive texts are divided into 1) landscape and 2) portrait .
For instance:
1) It was a clear, blue lake with an extraordinary water expression. An entirely large cloud was reflected in the middle. On the other side, on a hill densely covered with green trees (which is more poetic, the darker), an old black tower rose straight from dactyl to dactyl.
2) He was a man of average height, at first glance rather ugly and even awkward, thin, with a sunken chest and a downcast head. He had a small, pale reddish face, an irregular nose, as it were, flattened, his mouth slightly curved, especially when it opened, small, frequent teeth; thick blond hair fell in a clump over a beautiful white, though low forehead.
In landscape descriptions, specific words are often used, for example, a river, a village, a house, a gate, an outhouse, a window, etc., and words of spatial meaning, for example, on a river, against a village, in the distance, near.
In portrait descriptions, words that characterize a person are most often used (his height, age, appearance in general, condition, etc.).
In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load is carried by nouns and adjectives. Often used are verbs of the present tense, expressing a long-term state of an object or a "timeless" state (stands, connects, props), verbs of the imperfect form of the past tense, indicating the state of the described phenomena at the time of observing them (whitened, bloomed).
Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they speak of "dynamic description" - a type of transitional speech, bordering on the narrative. Dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term for the naturalistic method of a very detailed description of an action with great accuracy in conveying details - "second style"). In addition, dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the inner state of the hero.
Dynamic description is widely represented in scientific texts(along with static description and reasoning), where it is used for a detailed, accurate depiction of actions performed during the experiment, experiment. In this case, the author's task is not to tell about the events unfolding at a certain time (which is typical for narration), but to describe the process, the stages of this process, usually regardless of the specific time.
For instance:
« They take a prism of Icelandic spar ... The prism is cut perpendicular to the plane ... Then both halves are glued together with Canadian balsam ..."(AG Stoletov. Introduction to acoustics and optics).
Elements of description are present in almost any text, while the description of an object, phenomenon, person depends on the functional style of speech, and on the type of text. In scientific-technical, official-business speech, the description is factual, in fiction - figurative.
83.2. Narration
Narration - FSTR, designed to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another.
For instance:
“And Doctor Startsev, Dmitry Ionych, when he had just been appointed zemstvo doctor and settled in Dyalizh, nine miles from S., was also told that he, as an intelligent person, needed to get to know the Turkins. One winter in the street he was introduced to Ivan Petrovich; talked about the weather, about the theater, about cholera, an invitation followed. In the spring, on a holiday - this was the Ascension - after receiving the sick, Startsev went to the city to have a little fun and buy himself something by the way. He walked unhurriedly (he didn't have his own horses yet), and sang all the time ... He dined in the city, took a walk in the garden, then somehow Ivan Petrovich's invitation came to his mind, and he decided to go to the Turkins , see what kind of people they are ... "(A.P. Chekhov. Ionych).
In the foreground in the content of the narrative fragments of the text - the order of the course of action. Each sentence usually expresses a stage, a stage in the development of the action, in the movement of the plot. In this case, events can be transmitted both in a direct, chronological sequence, and in reverse - the reader can first learn about the denouement, and then about the action itself.
In the narrative, the main semantic load is usually performed by perfective verbs, prefixed and non-prefixed (settled, introduced, talked, went, dined, walked, decided, etc.), which denote limiting, alternating actions. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary (doctor, patients, horses, city, garden). The course of events is accentuated by the circumstances of the time (just now, somehow in winter, in spring, on a holiday, after receiving patients).
According to the use of syntactic constructions and types of communication of sentences, the narrative is opposed to the description, which manifests itself, in particular, in the following:
1) in the difference between the temporal forms of verbs - the description is based mainly on the use of forms of the imperfect form, the narration is perfect;
2) in the predominance of the chain connection of sentences in the narrative - parallel communication is more characteristic for the description;
3) in the use of one-piece sentences - nominative sentences, impersonal sentences, widely presented in descriptive contexts, are atypical for narration.
Narration is a type of speech that functions primarily in literary texts and forming a story about events, the system of which makes up the plot of the work.
Pure narrative texts are very rare. In artistic and visual speech (works of art, texts of some genres of journalism - reportage, essay, informative-expressive notes, texts-stories in a conversational style), elements of descriptiveness and narrative are organically combined. The description is included in the narration for a visual-figurative presentation of the heroes, the scene.
83.3. Reasoning
Reasoning - FSTR, the main purpose of which is the presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought. In other words, reasoning is used when it is necessary to give speech a reasoned character (to come to a logical way to a new judgment or to argue what was said earlier).
Reasoning as a textual phenomenon was formed in scientific speech, because logical speech is inherent in scientific speech, rational type thinking. It is thanks to the scientific style that Russian literary language in the course of his development he was enriched with reasoning in its most "pure" form.
For instance:
"Under the influence electromagnetic wave an atom with equal probability can pass to both a higher and a lower energy state ... In the first case, the wave will weaken, in the second, it will intensify. If the paramagnet is in thermal equilibrium, the atoms are distributed among sublevels in accordance with Boltzmann's law ... Consequently, the number of atoms in a state with a lower energy exceeds the number of atoms in a state with a higher energy. Therefore, the transitions that occur with an increase in the energy of atoms will prevail over the transitions that occur with a decrease in energy. As a result, the intensity of the wave will decrease - the paramagnet absorbs electromagnetic radiation, as a result of which it heats up. From what has been said it follows that electron paramagnetic resonance is the selective absorption of the energy of the radio frequency field in paramagnetic substances in a constant magnetic field ".
A special place in the scientific style is occupied by subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character:
- proof - a communicative and cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis,
- refutation - a kind of proof that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis,
- confirmation - or empirical evidence, the function is to establish the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts,
- justification - establishing the expediency of an action, motivation.
Explanation should be attributed to a special subtype of reasoning. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, explanation serves primarily not to confirm the validity of the thesis (or to establish its falsity), but to reveal the causes of real phenomena.
For instance:
“It is interesting to note that the sharp edges of the shaped profiles of the holes become smoothed in the fiber, and if the size of the parts of the profiled hole is not very large, then the fiber is circular, that is, the same as when round hole... This is because surface tension forces act on the liquid jet ... "(SP Papkov. Polymer fibrous materials).
In the texts of other styles, the adaptation of reasoning to the specifics of the style is found.
For literary, journalistic, official-business texts, strictly logical expanded reasoning is not typical.
In literary texts, reasoning appears in the form of its emotional version - free thinking. Proof is not used in fiction. The laxity of the form of speech, the ease of reflection help to create an atmosphere of intimate communication between the author and the reader, which is characteristic of the artistic sphere. In addition, in a work of fiction, reasoning performs a purely communicative function - it makes the depicted more visual, psychologically more reliable, helps the reader to feel internal state hero.
For instance:
« He stood with his hands on the back of the seat, and was obviously very worried: his face was red, and a muscle on his cheek was trembling.... "(Leo Tolstoy. Kreutzer Sonata).
In journalistic texts, reasoning performs the function of preparing, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, however, here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, is not a chain of judgments that logically follow from one another, but information followed by conclusion. For journalism focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not by means of proof itself, i.e. not by strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, confirmation of their facts is used.
For instance:
Where did the "masters of thoughts" and "engineers go? human souls”? No matter how anyone relates to the Soviet past, no one can dispute the fact that then literature was really a tribune of public consciousness, public opinion. And in those days, already quite distant from us, the appearance of any significant work, both in aesthetic and socio-political terms, immediately caused a certain resonance.
Other works, finding themselves under an unspoken or vowel prohibition, were passed from hand to hand, read at night.
But we all wanted freedom. We got it - and suddenly literature disappeared somewhere in the sense I’m talking about now. That is, there is literature, I know that. There are talented writers, and there are works for different tastes. But literature has ceased to be a phenomenon of social life in the deep and serious sense of the word. The mass reader is now fascinated by Marinina, Akunin, Dashkova, and so on ... But where are our event books? What happened to literature?
In official business texts, in general, the frequency of the use of reasoning is insignificant. Due to the specifics of this style, its extralinguistic basis - the purpose in society, the regulating function, reasoning cannot be a systemic feature of official business speech. In some genres, one or another kind of reasoning is presented (for example, justification is characteristic of statements and claims), but there is not a single subtype of reasoning that would be used in business texts of all genres (at least genres within one sub-style). In addition, the subtypes of reasoning function here specifically, reflecting the peculiarities of the style.
| Date: 2010-05-22 10:56:04 | Views: 5992 |
