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Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

Leon Festinger formulated the theory of cognitive dissonance. He says that the occurrence of dissonance motivates the individual to reduce the degree of dissonance and, if possible, achieve consonance. In addition to this desire to reduce dissonance, the individual seeks to avoid situations and information that may lead to an increase in the degree of dissonance.

The author understands cognitive dissonance as a condition that leads to actions aimed at reducing it. Festinger says that dissonance can arise in situations where a person becomes an eyewitness to some unpredictable events or when he learns new information.

According to Festinger positive emotions arise only when there is no cognitive dissonance between the outcome of the situation and how this outcome was represented in the mind of the individual, and negative or negative emotions occur when there is cognitive dissonance...

1. Fundamentals of the theory of cognitive dissonance

The theory of cognitive dissonance, created in 1957, was for its author a continuation of the development of the idea of "social comparison", which Festinger had dealt with much earlier. In this area, Festinger acts as a student and follower of Levin. The initial concept for it is the concept of need, and it analyzes special kind needs, namely "the need for evaluating oneself" ("evaluative need"), i.e. the desire to evaluate one's opinions and abilities, first of all, (subsequently, a follower of Festinger, Schechter, extended the principle of comparison also to the assessment of emotions). Along the way, Festinger notes that the minimum dissimilarity of opinions leads to conformism - a person easily changes an opinion that is slightly different from others in order to bring his opinion closer to the opinion of the group.

At the same time, unlike other correspondence theories, Festinger's theory nowhere focuses specifically on social behavior and, moreover, its fate has been more dramatic than that of any other correspondence theory. The theory of cognitive dissonance has stimulated much more research, and in this sense its popularity is much higher than others, but at the same time, the opposition to it turned out to be much stronger. It is also important to note that the theory of cognitive dissonance has a very solid "literature": firstly, it is described in great detail by the author himself in his 1957 work "The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance" and, secondly, it received a huge response in the works of many representatives of the Western social psychology, so it is possible, perhaps, to record a special "literature on the theory of dissonance", which is a critical analysis of this theory, often footnote comments on it, and sometimes a very sharp polemic with it

Festinger himself begins the exposition of his theory with the following reasoning: it is noticed that people strive for some consistency as a desired internal state. If a contradiction arises between what a person knows and what he does, then this contradiction is sought to be somehow explained and, most likely, presented as a non-contradiction in order to again achieve a state of internal cognitive consistency. Further, Festinger proposes to replace the terms - "contradiction" with "dissonance", and "consistency" with "consonance", since this last pair of terms seems to him more "neutral", and now formulate the main provisions of the theory.

It can be summed up in three main points:

1) dissonance may occur between cognitive elements;

2) the existence of dissonance causes a desire to reduce it or prevent its growth;

3) the manifestation of this desire includes: either a change in behavior, or a change in knowledge, or a cautious attitude to new information.

As an example, the example of a smoker, which has already become a household name, is usually given: a person smokes, but at the same time he knows that smoking is harmful; he has a dissonance, out of which there are three ways:

1) change behavior, i.e. quit smoking;

2) to change knowledge, in this case - to convince oneself that all arguments, articles about the dangers of smoking are at least unreliable, exaggerate the danger;

3) be wary of new information about the harms of smoking, i.e. simply ignore her.

Before further expounding the content of Festinger's theory, it is necessary to more precisely define the terms introduced. Firstly, the main units in the theory of dissonance are "cognitive elements", which, we recall, were defined by the author of the theory as "any knowledge, opinion, belief about the environment, someone, someone's behavior or oneself."

Secondly, among all these cognitive elements, or "cognitions", two types must be distinguished: those related to behavior (it does not matter to whom) and those related to the environment. An example of the first is "I'm going on a picnic today", an example of the second is " it's raining". continue to coexist two various interpretations this question.

Thirdly, in the theory of dissonance, any relationship between cognitive elements is not considered, because in principle there can be three of them:

1) the absolute lack of connection between them, their irrelevance to each other (for example, the knowledge that it never snows in Florida, and that some planes fly in excess of the speed of sound);

2) consonance relations;

3) relations of dissonance.

In theory, only the last two types of relations between cognitive elements are considered, and, naturally, the main attention is paid to dissonant relations. Here is Festinger's own formulation of what a dissonant relationship is: "Two elements X and Y are in a dissonant relationship if, considered in isolation, the negation of one follows from the other, namely non-X follows from Y." Example: a person is in debt (Y) but buys a new one, expensive car(X). A dissonant relationship arises here, since from Y (the fact that a person is a debtor) some appropriate action X would have to follow, and then consonance would be observed. In the above case, it follows from the action that is different from the "reasonable" option ("not-X"), i.e. the purchase of an expensive car that does not correspond to the circumstances, and therefore dissonance arises.

2. Causes and magnitude of dissonance

The category of "following" is the category of logic; v modern systems Mathematical logic has a special symbolic designation of following - there the expression "should" has a well-defined logical meaning. Festinger introduces a different interpretation of the consequence, which includes not only logical, but also psychological understanding this relationship.

Explaining what the expression "follows from" means in his formula, Festinger suggests four sources for the possible occurrence of dissonance:

1) from logical inconsistency, i.e. when "following 'not-X' from 'Y'" is proof of the purely logical inconsistency of two judgments as cognitive elements.

2) from the inconsistency of cognitive elements with cultural patterns, or, in other words, with norms.

3) from the inconsistency of a given cognitive element with some wider system of ideas.

4) out of inconsistency with past experience.

All three of the last cases of dissonance are based on a different nature of "non-following" than is customary in logic.

3. Ways to reduce dissonance

1) Changing the behavioral elements of the cognitive structure.

2) Changing the cognitive elements related to the environment.

3) Adding new elements to the cognitive structure, only those that contribute to the reduction of dissonance.

Festinger describes very carefully in his work a large number of experiments that explore various factors that contribute to the reduction of dissonance after a decision is made.

In particular, the study of Brem (1956) is known when he gave the subjects alternative solutions and offered to choose one of them. After some time, it was proposed to evaluate both the chosen and the rejected solution. In all cases, the chosen solutions were rated higher than those rejected. Aronson and Mills (1957) created a situation in which the subjects expended some effort to join a certain group, after which they were convinced that the group was "bad". The subjects reduced the resulting dissonance, trying to identify or simply "see" positive characteristics group, rate it higher. Aronson and Carlsmith (1963) experimented with children who had a toy taken away from them and even punished for using the toy. As a result, children began to especially love this toy. These and numerous other experiments are usually regarded as evidence of the productivity of the theory of dissonance. It was during these experiments that further development many of the theories.

Thus, Festinger supplements it with an analysis of such phenomena as forced consent, when dissonance is generated by the presence of a threat or the prospect of punishment, forced informational influence, which also contributes to the emergence or maintenance of dissonance. A special place is occupied by the study of the role social support created in a group where disagreements appear, and one of the positions contributes to either strengthening or weakening the dissonance. In this regard, Festinger proceeds to analyze a number of "macro-phenomena": the role of rumors in society, mass conversion, and other forms of social influence. All this testifies to the significance and importance of the theory of cognitive dissonance. the cognitive dissonance emotional experience

True, the experiments themselves, in which individual hypotheses are tested, are not rigorous enough and are vulnerable in many respects. Aronson owns a rather peculiar "justification" of them. He believes that many of the inaccuracies of the theory of dissonance grow out of the more general methodological difficulties of the socio-psychological experiment. “This weakness,” writes Aronson, “is hardly the fault of the theory. Methodological difficulties concern all theories that predict socio-psychological phenomena. They are associated with the theory of dissonance simply because it produces maximum amount These general difficulties do exist, and one can agree with Aronson in characterizing some of them (for example, the lack of standardized techniques for operationalizing concepts in social psychology, the fact that alternative explanations for empirical results are possible and quite often exist, etc.). But all this is really common problems social psychology, so bringing them as an argument in the analysis of one particular theory, although appropriate, is clearly not enough.

Conclusion

So, according to the theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger, positive emotional experiences arise in a person when his expectations are confirmed, and cognitive ideas are realized, i.e. when real results activities correspond to the intended ones, are consistent with them, or, what is the same, are in consonance. Negative emotions arise and intensify in those cases when there is a discrepancy, inconsistency, dissonance between the expected and actual results of the activity.

In modern psychology, the theory of cognitive dissonance is often used to explain the actions of a person, his actions in various social situations. Emotions are considered as the main motive for the corresponding actions and deeds. The dominant cognitivist orientation of modern psychological research led to the fact that conscious assessments that a person gives to a situation began to be considered as emotional factors as well. It is believed that such assessments directly affect the nature of emotional experience.

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The main hypotheses of the theory

due to logical inconsistency;
"because of cultural practices";
in the event that an individual opinion is part of a broader opinion;
due to the inconsistency of past experience with the present situation.

Therefore, people are ready to justify their delusions: a person who has committed a misconduct or mistake tends to justify himself in his thoughts, gradually shifting his beliefs about what happened in the direction that what happened was actually not so terrible. In this way the individual "regulates" his thinking in order to reduce conflict within himself.

Degree of dissonance

V different situations that occur in Everyday life, dissonance can increase or decrease - it all depends on the problem that confronts the person.

Thus, the degree of dissonance will be minimal if, for example, a person gives money to a beggar on the street, who (apparently) does not really need alms. On the contrary, the degree of dissonance will increase many times over if a person faces a serious exam, but he does not try to prepare for it.

Dissonance can (and does) arise in any situation where a person has to make a choice. Moreover, the degree of dissonance will grow depending on how important this choice is for the individual.

Reducing dissonance

Prevention and avoidance of dissonance

In some cases, an individual can prevent the appearance of dissonance and, as a result, internal discomfort by trying to avoid any negative information regarding his problem. If the dissonance has already arisen, then the individual can avoid reinforcing it by adding one or more cognitive elements "to the cognitive schema" instead of the existing negative element (which generates the dissonance). Thus, the individual will be interested in finding such information that would approve his choice (his decision) and, in the end, would weaken or completely eliminate dissonance, while avoiding sources that will increase it. However, often such behavior of an individual can lead to negative consequences: a person may have a fear of dissonance or prejudice, which is dangerous factor, influencing the outlook of the individual.

It is quite understandable that it is much easier for a person to agree with the existing state of affairs, correcting his internal installations according to the situation, instead of continuing to wonder if he did the right thing. Often dissonance arises as a consequence of making important decisions. The choice between two equally tempting alternatives is not easy for a person, however, having finally made this choice, a person often begins to feel "dissonant cognitions", that is, positive sides the option that he refused, and not very positive features with which he agreed. In order to suppress (weaken) dissonance, a person tries with all his might to exaggerate the significance of his decision, while at the same time downplaying the importance of the rejected one. As a consequence, the other alternative loses all appeal in his eyes.

Literature

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See what "Cognitive Dissonance Theory" is in other dictionaries:

cognitive dissonance theory- Etymology. Comes from the Greek. theory research, engl. cognition knowledge and dissonance inconsistency. Author. L. Festinger. Category. cognitive theory explaining the features of motivational processes. Specificity. It logically...

- (from the English cognition, knowledge, dissonance, inconsistency) a socio-psychological theory created by the American psychologist L. Festinger, in which logically contradictory knowledge about the same subject is assigned the status of motivation, ... ... Psychological Dictionary

Theory of cognitive dissonance- - L. Festinger's theory of change and formation of attitudes. * * * A socio-psychological theory (L. Festinger), which explains the illogical behavior of a person in situations where there is conflicting information about one object, subject, or person. From… … encyclopedic Dictionary in psychology and pedagogy

THE THEORY OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE- a psychological theory that connects the well-being of a person and his behavior with the state of the system of knowledge he has. T.c.d. claims that contradictions in a person's knowledge give rise to a feeling of discomfort and a desire at all costs ... Glossary of terms for psychological counseling

See the theory of cognitive dissonance Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

Cognitive dissonance theory- (lat. cognitio cognition and dissonans out of tune sounding) one of the "correspondence theories" app. social psychology, put forward by a student of K. Levin L. Festinger (1957), to the edge explains the influence on human O. and the behavior of the cognitive system ... ... Psychology of communication. encyclopedic Dictionary

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY- Leon Festinger's theory of attitude change, based on the notion that we strive to bring our attitudes into line with each other in order to eliminate cognitive dissonance. Also called dissonance theory... Dictionary in psychology

Cognitive dissonance theory- (lat. cognitio - knowledge). A theory widespread in Western social psychology that considers interpersonal conflicts as an inevitability, an integral part of social life, the interaction of individuals and groups. It is believed that the conflict ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms

Cognitive dissonance theory- [lat. cognitio cognition and lat. dissonans dissonant sounding] one of the concepts of Western social psychology, put forward by the American psychologist L. Festinger (1957) and explaining the impact on human behavior of the system of cognitive ... ... Psychological lexicon

The self-concept at the time of youth becomes an increasingly complex and persistent neoplasm. This is due to the fact that there are intellectual, physiological and psychological changes as inner world young man, as well as in its appearance. This developing process of the self-concept of a young man or girl is influenced by a variety of factors that are associated with a change in social roles, the need to accept independent decisions, reproaches of adults regarding independent self-sufficiency, the choice of value orientations, friends, profession, self-determination and puberty. Therefore, the behavior of such a person is mostly contradictory.

The time of youth is a period of physical maturity and at the same time social immaturity. Relations with others and introspection of one's inner world become important for this age.

Adolescents learn to see themselves as if from the side, i.e. a mirror self is actively formed in them. Such a change in the individual world of adolescents is associated with the development of their mental abilities and the ability to see environment through the eyes of others. Middle school students school age are already beginning to understand the significance of social roles, attitudes, motives and their capabilities.

Boys and girls aged 16 to 19 are constantly striving to stand out among their peers through their own meaningful achievements, as well as to demonstrate adult behavior. The main event of adulthood here is getting a level generativity

As an attempt to perpetuate oneself by bringing something lasting and meaningful to the world. Therefore, young persons often strive to achieve generativity with the help of early creation family, productive work, buying a car, rash acts, etc.

Accordingly, allocate psychoanalytic

and socio-psychological factors that make it possible to explain the problematic transitional period of the subject's life during adolescence. The first direction explains the consequences of such behavior through psychosexual maturation, which gives rise to emotionally unbalanced relationships with the family, and the second - with the social life of a teenager, i.e. his role, status in it.

The time of adolescence is the cause of changes in the self-perception of each person of his self-image, self-esteem and behavioral actions. In general, researchers substantiate this age with the concept of "puberty", which means puberty. With the help of this term characterize the totality of biological changes that appear in the body of a teenager. They influence the process of his perception of himself, the environment.

The main danger on the path to full development is the avoidance of adolescence sensations of a “blurred” self. The body of young personalities grows rapidly and changes appearance, their life is filled with new conflicting experiences, as a result, confusion, pessimism, and apathy often appear.

Adequate identification with loved ones is an important mechanism for the development of His identity. And, even in spite of various teenage disagreements, if parents interacted warmly with their children in their early age, then at the stage of the contradictory development of their descendant, they will be able to help him. Although there is one exception to this: adolescence change in body image sometimes still serves as a cause of internal disagreement in the personality, despite a good relationship in family. This causes certain difficulties on the way of personal adaptation of a young man or girl to the world, in which imbalance, anxiety, low self-esteem, etc. appear.