spa methods. Method of psychological examination. Comparative analysis of the data of the psychological study of the criminal case, the data of the conversation, observation and the results of an experimental study

Mnemonic processes (memory: memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition, reproduction)

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Ufa State University of Economics and Service

Department of Pedagogy and Psychology

inclusive education

ESSAY

By discipline: Psychology

on the topic: "Mnemonic processes (memory: memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition, reproduction)"

Completed: student gr. BGOZK-1

Ibragimov E.R.

Code: 12.01.228

Checked:

Introduction

1.History of the development of the psychology of memory and experimental research

2.Organic Foundations of Memory

.Memory associations

.Remembering and forgetting

.Retention and forgetting

.The Phenomena of Preservation and Forgetting

.eidetism

.Recognition and reproduction

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Perceptions, in which a person cognizes the surrounding reality, usually do not disappear without a trace. They are fixed, stored and reproduced in the future in the form of recognition of the objects we have seen, recollection of what we have experienced, recollection of the past, etc.

In the course of his life and activity, solving the practical problems that confront us and more or less deeply experiencing what is happening, a person, without setting himself such a goal or task specifically, remembers a lot, a lot is involuntarily imprinted on him. However, the needs of action do not allow one to confine oneself to such involuntary memorization. As the complexity of human activity and the conditions in which it takes place, it is necessary not to rely on the random luck of involuntary memorization, but to set ourselves a special goal or task of memorization.

The reflection and reproduction of the past in memory is not passive; it includes the relation of the individual to what is being reproduced. This attitude may be more or less conscious. It becomes fully conscious when the reproduced image is recognized in its relation to past reality, that is, when the subject relates to the reproduced image as a reflection of the past.

If we talk about memory not only as a collective term for a certain set of processes, but as a single function, then we can only talk about some very general and elementary ability to imprint and - under appropriate conditions - restore sensitivity data, i.e. about what might be called a mnemonic function. Memorization, recall, reproduction, recognition, which are included in memory, are built on this basis, but are in no way reduced to it. These are specific processes in which thinking in a more or less complex and sometimes contradictory unity with speech and all aspects of the human psyche (attention, interests, emotions, etc.) are very significantly included.

1. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MEMORY AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Along with other cognitive processes, perceptual and intellectual, mnemonic processes are distinguished (from the Greek "mnema" - memory). Mnemic processes act as components of a person's cognitive activity and are inextricably linked with his intellectual activity and perceptual processes. Memory images are called views.

What is memory? Memory is the process of preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activities and return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects the past of the subject with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning. Renewing images of individual objects and processes perceived in the past, movements and actions learned early, feelings and desires experienced before, finally, thoughts that once arose make up a person’s past experience, the content of what is remembered.

The beginning of experimental studies of mnemonic processes dates back to the end of the 19th century. Among the first psychologists who addressed this problem was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus. He carried out studies of memory processes when referring to the memorization of meaningless phrases. The results obtained enabled him to derive whole line laws of memory, which in themselves were of some interest, but were applicable only to material that had no logical organization.

In the future, the necessary amendments to the regularities that were identified by Ebbinghaus were made by other researchers. So, in particular, at the beginning of the 20th century, representatives of Gestalt psychology paid attention to the organization of the material to be memorized, and received data that largely diverged from those contained in Ebbinghaus's studies.

In psychoanalytic teachings, the process of forgetting, as one of the most important components of a person's mnemonic activity, was explained by the desire to oust from the sphere of consciousness that which injures a person, evokes unpleasant memories in him, and ultimately has negative impact on the emotional state of the subject. This has given rise to a whole range of experimental data that are currently being discussed, although not entirely accepted by modern psychology.

The French psychologist Janet emphasized the role of sociocultural factors in characterizing the higher forms of development of mnemonic activity.

In Russian psychology, a traditional idea of the development of memory has developed, associated with an appeal to the theory of activity. Thus, the concept of memory was developed as an action in the proper sense of the word, which has a conscious goal and is based on the use of socially developed symbolic means. In the course of ontogenetic development, there is a change in the methods of memorization, the role of the processes of highlighting meaningful semantic connections in the material increases. Various types of memory: motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical - were sometimes considered as stages of such development.

New material for understanding the processes of memory was provided by studies of a number of mental functions for which certain areas of the cerebral hemispheres are responsible. was clearly due to the work of the right hemisphere of the brain.

2. ORGANIC BASES OF MEMORY

The well-known physiologist E. Hering spoke of "memory as a general function of organic matter." Subsequently, R. Semon developed the doctrine of organic memory, designated by him Greek word"mnema". Psychology, studying memory, must find out what is specific to memory as a psychological phenomenon. It cannot reduce the psychological concept, and especially human memory, to the general properties of organic matter. But at the same time, it must not separate memory from the general properties of organic matter, and especially from the specific properties of that organic matter which constitutes the physiological substratum of the psychic phenomena of memory. The positive significance of Hering's theory is that he was the first to raise the question, albeit in a too general, non-specific form, of the problem of the physiological foundations of memory. According to Gereng's theory, every stimulus leaves a physiological trace, or imprint, which underlies subsequent reproduction.

Memory is based on physiological processes that occur in humans in the hemispheres of the brain. Any damage to the cortex in one way or another disrupts the possibility of developing new skills. Amnesias (memory disorders) are usually caused by disturbances in the normal functioning of the cortex.

Memory is based on complex dynamic combinations of the consequences of excitation processes (or dynamic stereotypes, using the terminology of IP Pavlov). The presence of these effects creates favorable conditions for the further restoration of excitation processes, favoring the reproduction, under appropriate conditions, of processes that have already taken place.

3. MEMORY ASSOCIATIONS

Back in the II century BC. the greatest sage of antiquity, Aristotle, noticed a regularity in the processes of memory, later called the "law of association." The very word "association" means "attachment", "connection", "union". In this case, we mean the connection between mental phenomena, between representations, i.e. images of the past. Views can be linked based on three principles.

According to the first, perceptions or representations can evoke pictures that were once experienced simultaneously with them or immediately after them (contiguity associations). So, a man, remembering the street on which he lived, and the school building at its end, involuntarily returns in thought to his old teacher, who taught him in primary school and which is long gone.

According to the second, perceptions or representations evoke images that are somewhat similar to them (associations to similarity). So, in A.P. Chekhov's story "Boys", one of the heroes of Tchechevitsin evokes mainly gastronomic associations in little Masha. Masha at the sight of Lentils thought and said: "And we cooked lentils yesterday."

Finally, there are associations by contrast. Perceptions or ideas can evoke an image that is somewhat opposite, more or less contrasting with the existing one. In the same story of Chekhov, Chechevitsin's accomplice and friend Volodya, while sitting at tea, suddenly pointed his finger at the samovar and said: "But in California they drink gin instead of tea." This is a typical association for the opposite.

Associations play an important role in the process of memorization and reproduction. In general, to remember something means, in essence, to connect what is remembered with something, to include what is to be remembered, in the context of already existing connections, to form associations.

In order for an association to be fixed, it is necessary to coincide in time with the action of two mental processes, they must be experienced simultaneously and at the same time have a certain meaning for a person. It is precisely because of this that in the future the emergence of one of these processes, as it were, pulls along with it another process that in the past somewhat coincided with it (we say "by association").

Associations by contiguity, similarity and contrast do not exhaust the study of the mechanisms of mnemonic activity. Semantic connections play an important role.

Example: we will offer the subject a series of numbers: 256128643216842. If you ask him to read this number series once and try to reproduce it in memory, then failure is not ruled out. Meanwhile, there is no difficulty, since from the end to the beginning of the series there is a doubling of numbers: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256. Now, moving from the end to the beginning, without looking at the text, you can reproduce this series.

Once the meaning of what is to be remembered is grasped, it is easy to reproduce in memory what was to be remembered. Thus, semantic connections can be attached to other kinds of associations.

The system of semantic connections generally reflects the essential relationships, primarily between causes and effects, as well as between the whole and its parts, general position and private conclusions from it. Thus, in the study of history, an important event is associated not only with the facts reported in the lesson, but also with the economic and political conditions that caused it, set out much earlier.

The structural components of human memory are remembering, forgetting, reproducing and recognizing what constituted his past experience.

4. REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

Memorization is a generalized name for the processes that ensure the retention of material in memory. There are two types of memory: voluntary and involuntary.

Memorization is the most important condition for the subsequent restoration of acquired knowledge. The success of memorization is determined primarily by the possibility of including new material in a system of meaningful connections. It is depending on the place of the process of memorization in the structure of activity that the above types differ.

In the case of involuntary memorization, a person does not set himself the task of remembering this or that material. Memory-bound processes perform operations here that service other activities. As a result, memorization is relatively immediate and is carried out without special volitional efforts, preliminary selection of material and the conscious use of any mnemonic techniques. At the same time, the dependence of memorization on the purpose and motives of the activity remains in this case as well.

As studies by psychologists P.I. Zinchenko and A.A. Smirnov have shown, involuntary memorization is much more successful when the material to be remembered is included in the content and is determined by the goals of the action being performed. The specificity of the task being solved also plays an important role. Orientation to semantic connections leads to deeper processing of the material and longer involuntary memorization.

Arbitrary memorization is a special action, specific task which - to remember exactly for the longest possible time for the purpose of subsequent reproduction or simply recognition. It determines the choice of methods and means of perception and thus affects the results of memorization. An important condition for the success of arbitrary memorization is the setting for the duration of storage in memory of what must be learned and stored. So, it turned out experimentally that if we offer the subjects to remember the material in order to reproduce it the next day, and offer the other subjects the same material, but warn them that they will need to answer according to the content of what is to be mastered, in a month, the difference in the effectiveness of memorization will be very, very noticeable.

So, if we check what remained in the memory, not on the next day and not in a month, but in two weeks, then those subjects who were going to answer on the given material on the next day will reproduce it several times worse compared to those who was going to reproduce it in a month. Setting the duration of memorization was of decisive importance in these circumstances. Typical for this type of memorization is a complex mediated structure.

Commonly used methods of random memorization include:

drawing up a preliminary plan;

selection of semantic strong points;

spatial grouping of material;

presentation of material in the form of a visual visual image;

correlation with existing knowledge;

Other things being equal, voluntary memorization is more productive than involuntary. It provides greater awareness of the assimilation of new knowledge and controllability of this process.

Repetition plays an important role among the mechanisms of memorization. Extending the effective duration of the impact of information, it serves as a means of developing higher socialized forms of memory, primarily voluntary memorization. However, studies show that repetition is not the only condition necessary for long-term memorization. Vital important materials and information that carries a large semantic load for the individual is remembered "by itself".

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

The mental process opposite to forgetting is the preservation in memory of everything that was the property of a person's past experience.

Of course, not everything that a person remembers is stored in his memory. A lot of things disappear without a trace, and something, although it is preserved, does not appear in his mind in the form in which it was imprinted.

Preservation in memory and forgetting, for all their opposites, are equally important processes for the normal functioning of a person, for organizing his behavior and activities. In some respects, forgetting can even be regarded as a beneficial process. in the brain goes permanent selection of valuable and necessary - what is worth remembering, and what should be forgotten. Therefore, forgetting, like memorization, is a selective process that has its own patterns and characteristics.

Preservation in the memory of the past is closely related to feelings. Strong experiences contribute to the strength and accuracy of memorization and preservation. What worried, I remember a lot better than that, which left indifferent. However, this dependence is not absolute. It has been experimentally revealed that an excessively strong shock, violent emotions can not only ensure the preservation of what was present in perception, but hinder it. Indifference to what is happening leads to forgetting what happened.

Preservation cannot be taken literally, as a simple storage in the “pantry” of memory of what is remembered. The saved connections are rebuilt, generalized, enriched or depleted in some way. They change under the influence of subsequent human activity.

Not everything that is remembered is preserved in the future. That which has lost its vital significance, i.e. some relation to the natural and cultural needs of man, essential conditions of his activities, sometimes disappears without a trace, sometimes remains in a fragmentary, often distorted form. A huge part of the impressions, having fulfilled its role in orienting in environment, is forgotten.

Example: a person does not need to remember all the people he has seen during his life, or all the details of the books he has read. Traces of memory in the same person can be preserved, on the one hand, for 50-60 years or more with almost no changes, and on the other hand, they are inhibited after a few days, hours, and sometimes minutes even when you want to save them. So, an old man who remembers the words and motive of a song he heard in his distant childhood sometimes forgets how his newborn granddaughter was called. This happens for the reason that the preservation and strengthening of memory traces depends on the functional activity of the cortex. hemispheres, i.e. on the degree of excitability and, so to speak, the performance of her nerve cells, which are significantly reduced in old age.

PHENOMENA OF PRESERVATION AND FORGETTING

Among the phenomena of forgetting and retaining materials in memory is the relationship between the material that is remembered and that which is brought to memorization shortly after it.

Example: so, sometimes after a math lesson, a physics lesson can go according to the schedule. In this case, physics with its mathematical formulations acts as a brake on the assimilation of mathematical material, which is also built on the basis of numerous formulas. This phenomenon is called interference.

Even Ebbinghaus discovered the phenomenon of memory, which was later designated as the edge effect. Subsequently, Ebbinghaus' data received experimental confirmation in the work of other psychologists.

Example: for example, it turned out that from the memorized material arranged in a row, the elements at the beginning and end are remembered faster than the elements in the middle. In fact, one of the options for the edge effect in psychology is the primacy effect. It has been established that the probability of storing the first few elements in the memory is higher compared to the middle elements.

One of the most famous phenomena of forgetting and retaining in memory is called the Zeigarnik effect or phenomenon, after the Russian psychologist B.V. Zeigarnik, who found out the accuracy of the assumption of her scientific supervisor, the famous German psychologist K. Levin.

Example: It was experimentally found that the number of interrupted tasks to be remembered was approximately twice the number of completed tasks to be remembered.

The Zeigarnik effect was first discovered and studied in the 1920s. However, further experimental verification, on the whole confirming its validity, introduced amendments that must be taken into account in the general characterization of this phenomenon of mnemonic activity. It turned out that with very strong interest, completed tasks are better remembered, while with low motivation, interrupted tasks are remembered better.

A brief conclusion can be drawn: that the identification of interference phenomena in memory processes, edge and primacy effects, as well as the Zeigarnik phenomenon, does not exhaust the study of the features of preserving the past in memory with the help of experiments that prevent it from being forgotten. However, in order for memorization to be sufficiently productive, special volitional efforts are needed, which can lead to the reproduction and recognition of everything that is important for a person in his practical activities.

EIDETISM

The existence of individual differences in human memory is a self-evident fact. But over the years, the attention of psychologists has been attracted by features of people's memory that are not found or are very rare in all others that the psychologist had to deal with in experimental research. This phenomenon of exceptional, phenomenal memory is called eidetism (from the Greek word "eidos" - image). Eidetism is the ability of some people to preserve and reproduce a detailed image of previously perceived objects and phenomena.

Example: the Russian psychologist A.R. Luria investigated the features of the memory of a certain S. Shereshevsky, whose ability to memorize and retain in memory a huge verbal material was really phenomenal. Shereshevsky could remember from the first presentation dozens of numbers, meaningless syllables, words foreign language which he did not know, and for many years to keep in memory the material that was first perceived by him and kept in memory without change. So, he was able to accurately reproduce a series consisting of only two words - red and blue, in a random combination: red, red, blue, blue, blue, red, red, blue, blue, blue, blue, red, red, red , blue, etc.

So far, there is no way to explain the mechanism of the phenomenal memory of individual people. In cases where eideticism is combined with computational abilities, the eidetic is able to work at speed, performing calculations that the computers of the latest generations are not capable of.

For example, a young engineer I. Shelushkov once participated in a "competition" with a computer of the "3rd generation" and performed very complex calculations, significantly overtaking the computer. However, phenomenal memory is not one of the absolute conditions for the success of human creative activity. Memory is only one of them, but not the only one for the implementation of productive human creativity. Of course, if a person, other things being equal, also has a rare memory, then this facilitates his path to mastery.

Example: according to contemporaries, A.S. Pushkin was especially distinguished by his extraordinary memory. As soon as he read a page of some text twice, he could already repeat it by heart. The famous French artist Gustav Dore had a remarkable visual memory, whose magnificent illustrations for the books of Rabelais, Cervantes, Dante are well known in all countries. Many writers, artists, composers, politicians were distinguished by amazing memory: Tolstoy, Levitan, Ge, Rachmaninov, Mozart, Balakirev, Suvorov and others. This list is easy to continue.

RECOGNIZATION AND REPRODUCTION

memory eidetism psychology

The main types characterizing mnemonic activity - memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition and reproduction, can only be conditionally singled out for consideration and in real life people are inseparable from each other. Ultimately, it is a single mnemonic process. It is impossible to talk about memorization without taking into account the preservation of what is remembered, the authority of the main thing, and at the same time forgetting what is secondary.

However, it is impossible to discuss issues related to recognition and reproduction, if we do not take into account that these processes are ensured by the preservation of what is remembered in the absence of forgetting. Thus, the division of the mnemonic process into its constituent parts makes sense only for the purpose of experiment, study and education.

As follows from the above, forgetting the past is a process that has not one, but many different causes. It cannot be likened to simply smoothing out footprints in the sand or erasing a chalk note on a blackboard. IN different ages, in different life circumstances, in various types activities various material forgotten, as well as remembered, in different ways. In order to understand the possibility of overcoming forgetting, it is necessary to turn to the forms of restoring in a person's memory what constituted his past experience, namely, the processes of recognition and reproduction.

In recognition, memory is supported by direct perception of familiar objects.

Recognition is the recognition of a perceived object that is already known from past experience. Unlike recognition, the reproduction process is a more complex form of mnemonic activity. It requires volitional efforts, and sometimes a rather long-term effort of a person's mental activity.

Reproduction is a type of memory that involves the restoration and reconstruction of past experience and the construction of representations corresponding to it.

Let's put the question to the subject: what happened to you a month ago? What have you read? Where were you? What events excited you that day? What did the newspapers write about that day? All these questions are not easy to answer. Almost everyone will say: "I forgot." But why did you forget? The answer is simple: a lot of time has passed. This is partly true. But it is not only and not always the case.

One more question: how did you spend your last new year's eve? This question is much easier to answer. And although many months have passed since that night, it has not been forgotten. Why? Because emotional impressions are connected with this night. Consequently, the matter is not only in the time that separates a person from the event or fact that he wants to remember, but also in the nature of this fact: in its significance for him, in its connection with the feelings that once agitated a person.

In recognition, memory is supported by direct perception of familiar objects. Its relative ease, in contrast to reproduction, is explained by the fact that the paths for resuming the image of the past have been beaten and the perception of the object is accompanied by a feeling of something familiar.

But far from everything that is preserved is immediately recognizable with a new perception or repetition of some actions. It happens, for example, that a student does not recognize the type of algebraic problem during an exam, although it is not difficult to find that this type is familiar to him, that associations from solving similar problems have been preserved in his brain. However, the necessary associations are not revived, and unnecessary ones lead thoughts aside and interfere with recognition. And not everything that is easily recognized, for example, the text of a recently read book or the details of a picture seen, is reproduced with due completeness and accuracy. Often a person not only cannot tell "as a keepsake" about the device, which he observed quite carefully a few days ago, but even clearly imagine its appearance. And it is not difficult to find this device.

If this process does not have a predetermined goal, reproduction takes on the character of freely flowing unintentional memories. Lively, vivid images, usually emotionally colored, quickly, due to the revival of associations, evoke and replace each other; in the brain there are pictures of the past, sometimes more clearly, sometimes vaguely.

In the main types of human activity (in particular, in labor and training sessions) more complex reproduction is constantly required. A person has to remember the requirements and tasks that life has set before him. He must imagine the goal of his actions and consistently remember the intended ways to achieve it, for example: disassemble, clean, lubricate and reassemble the motor; clearly and consistently describe the circumstances leading up to the attack Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union in 1941, about the reasons for the temporary successful actions of the Wehrmacht at the beginning of the war.

At the same time, some associations are fixed, being necessary or useful, as they help to navigate and act actively; others, on the contrary, can cause images and thoughts that distract a person, prevent him from working with a certain sequence and clarity or saying what he should, and therefore they are inhibited.

The organization and purposefulness of any serious activity in human society gives memory, and in particular the processes of reproduction, a selective and intentional character.

Usually people remember exactly what needs to be reproduced in a given life situation, which is important for the successful satisfaction of their needs. However, often what needs to be reproduced in the course of activity is not immediately renewed in the form of sensual images, words or movements. Inhibition caused by extraneous impressions and fatigue hinders playback. In this case, it turns out that a person is not ready to reproduce obviously familiar material. The latter is temporarily or permanently forgotten.

In many cases, however, he has to himself, intensely, persistently thinking about what is connected with forgotten impressions, facts, formulations, to achieve recall - i.e. intentional and active reproduction. During the processes of recalling a forgotten mathematical formula, spelling rules, dosages of individual constituent parts in a complex recipe or lyric poem, corresponding to the mood, it is easy to notice the unity of memory processes with active reflection, willpower, concentration of attention. This is found even in the facial expression of the reminiscent person.

There are cases when the temporarily forgotten is subsequently remembered without effort.

Example: so, a student who tried in vain to remember the capitals of states on an exam in geography Latin America, telling about the answer at home, to his surprise, he easily remembers and names them quite correctly.

A possible reason for his recent forgetfulness was the fatigue caused by late classes the day before. Meanwhile, when the tension subsided, there was a “floating up” of what needed to be reproduced. For this, there is no longer any need for any effort. Everything happens "by itself". This phenomenon is called reminiscence - the involuntary renewal of images of the past without realizing the tasks of recall.

CONCLUSION

What is common to all these diverse processes, which are usually combined under the term memory, is that they reflect or reproduce the past previously experienced by the individual. Thanks to this, the possibilities of reflecting reality are significantly expanded - from the present it extends to the past. Without memory, we would be creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it flows, would irrevocably disappear into the past. There would be no knowledge based on the past, no skills. Wouldn't be mental life, closing in the unity of personal consciousness, and the fact of an essentially continuous teaching, passing through our whole life and making us what we are, would be impossible.

Memory is present in all living beings, but it reaches the highest level of development in humans. No other creature in the world has such mnemonic possibilities as a human being. Animals have only two kinds of memory: genetic and mechanical.

The first is manifested in the transmission by genetic means from generation to generation of vital, biological and behavioral properties.

The second acts in the form of the ability to learn, i.e. to the acquisition of life experience, which cannot be preserved anywhere else but in the organism itself, and disappears along with the departure of the corresponding animal from life.

Comparative anthropological data show that the structure of the human body, including its brain, has practically changed over the past few hundred thousand years. At the same time, in the memory of people only in the last 50-60 thousand years, there have been radical, incomparable changes. It manifested itself in the fact that such indicators as the amount of memory of people, the speed of remembering or recalling information, the time of its storage and access to the necessary information stored almost anywhere have increased by orders of magnitude. the globe.

In addition, man has many types of memory that animals do not have. This is arbitrary, mediated, logical and other types of memory.

The processes of memorization, preservation and reproduction are the main processes of memory.

Memory is one of the mental functions and types of mental activity designed to store, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store information about the events of the external world and the reactions of the body for a long time and repeatedly use it in the sphere of consciousness to organize subsequent activities.

Memory processes

The founder of the scientific psychology of memory is the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who experimentally studied the processes of memory. The main processes of memory are memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.

memorization

The original form of memorization is the so-called unintentional or involuntary memorization, i.e. memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques. It is a mere imprint of what has acted, the preservation of some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. Each process that occurs in the cerebral cortex leaves traces behind itself, although the degree of their strength is different.

Much of what a person encounters in life is involuntarily remembered: surrounding objects, phenomena, events Everyday life, the actions of people, the content of films, books read without any learning goal, etc., although not all of them are remembered equally well. It is best to remember what is of vital importance for a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity. Even involuntary memorization is selective, determined by the attitude to the environment.

From involuntary memorization it is necessary to distinguish arbitrary (deliberate) memorization, characterized by the fact that a person sets himself definite purpose- remember what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is an activity aimed at memorizing and reproducing retained material, called anemic activity. In such an activity, a person is faced with the task of selectively remembering the material offered to him. In all these cases, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions and, when reproducing, confine himself to it. Therefore, mnemonic activity is selective.

Preservation

What a person remembers, the brain stores more or less for a long time. Preservation as a process of memory has its own laws. It is established that saving can be dynamic and static. Dynamic saving manifests itself in random access memory, and static - in the long-term. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction, processing.

The reconstruction of the material stored by long-term memory occurs under the influence of the information that continuously comes in again. Reconstruction manifests itself in various forms: in the disappearance of certain details and their replacement by other details, in a change in the sequence of material, in its generalization.

Recognition and reproduction

Recognition of an object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of the object that a person has previously formed either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation) or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation).

Reproduction differs from perception in that it occurs after it. Reproducing the image of an object is more difficult than recognizing it. Thus, it is easier for a student to recognize the text of a book when reading it again (with repeated perception) than to reproduce, recall the content of the text when the book is closed. The physiological basis of reproduction is the renewal of the neural connections formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena.

Reproduction can take place in the form of sequential recall; this is an active volitional process. Recall in a person occurs according to the laws of association, in short, while the machine is forced to go through all the information until it “stumbles upon” the necessary fact.

Forgetting

Forgetting is expressed in the inability to remember or in erroneous recognition and reproduction. The physiological basis of forgetting is some types of cortical inhibition that interferes with the actualization (revival) of temporary nerve connections. Most often, this is an extinctive inhibition that develops in the absence of reinforcement.

One of the reasons for forgetting is the negative impact of the activity following memorization. This phenomenon is called retroactive (reverse acting) inhibition. It is more pronounced if the activity follows without interruption, if the subsequent activity is similar to the previous one, and if the subsequent activity is more difficult than the activity of memorization.

To combat forgetting, you need to know the patterns of its course.

memorization

Involuntarily remembered much of what a person encounters in life: surrounding objects, phenomena, events of everyday life, people's actions, the content of films, books read without any educational purpose, etc., although not all of them are remembered equally well. It is best to remember what is of vital importance for a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity. Even involuntary memorization is selective, determined by the attitude to the environment.

It is necessary to distinguish from involuntary memorization arbitrary (deliberate) memorization, characterized by the fact that a person sets himself a specific goal - to remember what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. Arbitrary memorization is an activity aimed at memorizing and reproducing retained material, called mnemonic activity. In such an activity, a person is faced with the task of selectively remembering the material offered to him. In all these cases, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions and, when reproducing, confine himself to it. Therefore, mnemonic activity is selective.

Preservation

What a person remembers, the brain stores more or less for a long time. Preservation as a process of memory has its own laws. It is established that saving can be dynamic and static. Dynamic storage manifests itself in working memory, while static storage manifests itself in long-term storage. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction, processing.

Recognition and reproduction

Reproduction differs from perception in that it occurs after it, outside of it. Reproducing the image of an object is more difficult than recognizing it. Thus, it is easier for a student to recognize the text of a book when reading it again (with repeated perception) than to reproduce, recall the content of the text when the book is closed. The physiological basis of reproduction is the renewal of the neural connections formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena.

Forgetting

To combat forgetting, you need to know the patterns of its course.

Neurophysiological foundations of memory

The physiological mechanisms of memory are the formation, fixation, excitation and inhibition of nerve connections. This physiological processes corresponding memory processes: capture, preservation, reproduction And forgetting.

The condition for the successful development of neural connections is the significance of the acting stimulus, its entry into the field of orienting activity, and its reflection in the focus of optimal excitation of the cerebral cortex.

As well as individual memory in the brain there are structures of genetic memory. This hereditary memory is localized in thalamohypothalamic complex. Here are the centers of instinctive programs of behavior - food, defensive, sexual - centers of pleasure and aggression. These are the centers of deep biological emotions: fear, longing, joy, anger and pleasure. Here are stored the standards of those images, the real sources of which are instantly assessed as harmful and dangerous or useful and favorable. The codes of emotional-impulsive reactions (postures, facial expressions, defensive and aggressive movements) are recorded in the motor zone.

The zone of the subconscious-subjective experience of the individual is limbic system- here they go and store life-long acquired behavioral automatisms: the emotional attitudes of a given individual, his stable assessments, habits and all kinds of complexes. Here the long-term behavioral memory of the individual is localized, everything that determines his natural intuition.

Everything related to conscious-voluntary activity is stored in neocortex, various zones of the cerebral cortex, projection zones of receptors. frontal lobes of the brain- the sphere of verbal-logical memory. Here sensory information is transformed into semantic information. From a huge array of long-term memory, the necessary information is retrieved in certain ways, they depend on the methods of storing this information, its systematization, and conceptual ordering.

According to modern concepts, the formation engram(nerve connections) goes through two phases. In the first phase, excitation is retained. On the second - its consolidation and preservation due to biochemical changes in the cells of the cerebral cortex and in synapses - intercellular formations.

Currently, the physiological foundations of memory on biochemical level. Traces of direct impressions are fixed not instantly, but during a certain time necessary for biochemical processes - the corresponding changes at the molecular level.

The number of specific changes in RNA (ribonucleic acid) contained in one cell is 10 15 . Therefore, at the level of one cell, a huge number of connections can be developed. Changes in RNA molecules are associated with working memory. Changes in DNA molecules (deoxyribonucleic acid) - with long-term memory (including species). The physiological basis of memory is a change in the activity of both individual neurons and neural ensembles.

In patients with surgically split cerebral hemispheres, memory is sharply weakened - sensory excitations reaching the right hemisphere are not closed at the verbal-logical level provided by the left hemisphere. Functional asymmetry in the activity of the hemispheres is a fundamental feature of the human brain, which is reflected in all of its mental processes, including memory processes. Each hemisphere and each area of the brain contributes to the system of mnemonic activity. It is assumed that at first, the isolation and ultra-short-term imprinting of individual features of the object (sensory memory) take place, then its complex, symbolic coding - the formation of engrams, their inclusion in the categorical system of a given individual. Therefore, each person has his own memorization strategy. The inclusion of the object of memorization in a certain activity determines the structure of its imprinting, the mosaic of the relationship between its sensory and semantic components.

The basic prerequisite for the functioning of memory processes is the optimal tone of the cortex, provided by the subcortical formations of the brain. Modulation of the tone of the cortex is carried out by the reticular formation and the limbic part of the brain. Subcortical formations, forming an orienting reflex, attention, thereby create a prerequisite for memorization.

The final, synthesizing function of memory is carried out by the frontal lobes of the brain and, to a large extent, by the frontal lobes of the left hemisphere. Damage to these brain structures disrupts the entire structure of mnemic and verbal activity.

The problem of remembering borders on the problem of forgetting. Forgetting is mainly due to interference - the opposition of stimuli.

So, the process of capturing and preserving material is due to its significance, the optimal state of the brain, the increased functioning of the orienting reflex, the systemic inclusion of the material in the structure of purposeful activity, the minimization of side interfering (opposing) influences, the inclusion of the material in the semantic, conceptual field of consciousness of a given individual.

Reproduction, actualization of the necessary material requires the establishment of those systems of connections against which the material to be reproduced was memorized.

The process of forgetting is also not limited to the spontaneous extinction of engrams. Mostly, secondary, insignificant material that is not included in the constant activity of the subject is forgotten. But the inability to recall the material does not mean the complete obliteration of its traces. Actualization of engrams depends on the current functional state of the brain. So, in a hypnotic state, a person can remember what seemed completely forgotten.

The main characteristics of the memory are:

● Volume - this is the most important integral characteristic memory, which characterizes the possibility of storing and storing information;

● Imprinting speed─ characterizes the ability of a person to use the information he has in practical activities. As a rule, when faced with the need to solve a problem or problem, a person turns to the information that is stored in memory;

● Reproducibility─reflects the ability of a person to accurately store, and most importantly, accurately reproduce the information imprinted in memory;

● Save duration─ reflects the ability of a person to retain the necessary information for a certain time;

● Ready to use stored information(for example: a person remembered but forgot at the right time, and after a certain amount of time notes that he remembers everything).

Memory processes :

memorization - it is the process of capturing and then storing the perceived information. According to the degree of activity of this process, it is customary to distinguish two types of memorization:

● Unintentional (or unintentional) f) - this is memorization without a pre-set goal, without the use of any techniques and manifestation of volitional efforts. What is best remembered is what is of vital importance for a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity;

● Intentional (or arbitrary)- memorization is characterized by the fact that a person sets himself a specific goal: to remember some information (this is its main feature) - and uses special memorization techniques. Arbitrary memorization is a special and complex mental activity, subordinate to the task of remembering. In addition, voluntary memorization includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve the goal. Such actions, or ways of memorizing material, include memorization. The activity aimed at memorizing and reproducing the retained material is called mnemonic activity. Mnemic activity is always selective. Another characteristic of the memorization process is the degree of comprehension of the memorized material.

It is customary to single out:

● Meaningful memorization (mechanism of memory)─based on an understanding of the internal logical connections between separate parts material. Meaningful memorization requires much less effort and time from a person, but is more effective. Comprehension of the material is achieved by different methods., and above all highlighting the main ideas in the studied material and grouping them in the form of a plan. When using this technique, we, remembering the text, divide it into more or less independent sections, or thought groups. Each group includes something that has one common semantic core, a single theme. The second way to make it easier to remember: selection of semantic strongholds. The essence of this method lies in the fact that we replace each semantic part with some word or concept that reflects the main idea of the memorized material. Then, in both the first and second cases, we combine what we have learned, mentally making a plan. The most important method meaningful memorization material and achieve high strength of its preservation is repetition method. Repetition (mechanism of memory)- the most important condition for mastering knowledge, skills, abilities;

● Mechanical memory (Mechanism of memory) - this is memorization without awareness of the logical connection between the various parts of the perceived material. An example of such a memorization is the memorization of statistical data, historical dates, etc. The basis of rote memorization is associations by adjacency. One piece of material relates to another only because it follows it in time. In order to establish such a connection, repeated repetition of the material is necessary. Mechanical memorization is uneconomical, requiring many repetitions.

Preservation ─the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of the material, mastering it . All the information that was perceived, we not only remember, but also save a certain time. Preservation as a process of memory has its own laws. Saving can be:

● dynamic- preservation manifests itself in RAM;

● static- in the long term. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, while with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction and certain processing.

Reproduction, recognition. The extraction of material from memory is carried out using two processes - reproduction and recognition.

Playback - this is the process of recreating the image of an object that we perceived earlier, but not perceived in this moment. Reproduction differs from perception in that it occurs after and outside of it. The physiological basis of reproduction is the renewal of the neural connections formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena. Like memorization, recall can be unintentional (involuntary, memory mechanism) and intentional (arbitrary, memory mechanism). In the first case, reproduction occurs unexpectedly for ourselves. With arbitrary reproduction, unlike involuntary, we remember, having a consciously set goal. Such a goal is the desire to remember something from our past experience. There are cases when reproduction proceeds in the form of a more or less prolonged remembrance. In these cases, the achievement of the goal - to remember something - is carried out through the achievement of intermediate goals that allow solving the main task.

Recognition of any object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of an object, the idea of which has been formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation) or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation). It should be noted that recognition processes differ from each other in the degree of certainty. Recognition is least certain in those cases when we experience only the feeling of familiarity of the object, but cannot identify it with anything from past experience. Such cases are characterized recognition uncertainty. In other cases, recognition, on the contrary, is characterized by complete certainty: we immediately recognize a person as a specific person. Therefore, these cases are full recognition.

Forgetting ─ expressed in the inability to restore previously perceived information. The physiological basis of forgetting is some types of cortical inhibition that interferes with the actualization of temporary neural connections. Forgetting comes in two main forms: a) the inability to remember or learn; b) incorrect recall or recognition. It should be noted that forgetting proceeds unevenly over time. The greatest loss of material occurs immediately after its perception, and in the future, forgetting goes more slowly. There are currently known factors affecting speed of forgetting processes.So, forgetting proceeds faster if the material is not sufficiently understood by the person. In addition, forgetting occurs faster if the material is not interesting to a person, is not directly related to his practical needs. The rate of forgetting also depends on the amount of material and the degree of difficulty of its assimilation: the larger the amount of material or the more difficult it is to perceive. the faster it is forgotten. The reason for forgetting may also be the action of extraneous stimuli that prevent us from concentrating on the necessary material, for example, annoying sounds or objects in our field of vision.

Everything that a person once perceived does not disappear without a trace - traces of the process of excitation remain in the cerebral cortex of the brain, which create the possibility of re-emergence of excitation in the absence of the stimulus that caused it. Thanks to this, a person can remember and save, and subsequently reproduce the image of a missing object or reproduce previously learned knowledge. Like perception, memory is a process of reflection, but in this case it reflects not only that which acts directly, but also that which took place in the past.

Memory- this is a special form of reflection, one of the main mental processes aimed at fixing mental phenomena in a physiological code, preserving them in this form and reproducing in the form of subjective representations.

In the cognitive sphere, memory occupies a special place; without it, knowledge of the world around us is impossible. The activity of memory is necessary in solving any cognitive problem, since memory underlies any mental phenomenon and connects a person's past with his present and future. Without the inclusion of memory in the act of cognition, all sensations and perceptions will be perceived as having arisen for the first time and comprehension of the surrounding world will become impossible.

Physiological bases of memory.

Memory is based on the property nervous tissue change under the influence of the action of the stimulus, retain traces nervous excitement. The strength of the traces depends on which traces took place. At the first stage, immediately after exposure to the stimulus, short-term electrochemical reactions occur in the brain, causing reversible physiological changes in cells. This stage lasts from a few seconds to several minutes and is the physiological mechanism of short-term memory - there are traces, but they have not yet been consolidated. At the second stage, a biochemical reaction occurs associated with the formation of new protein substances, which leads to irreversible chemical changes in cells. This is the mechanism of long-term memory - the traces have become stronger, they can exist for a long time.

In order for information to be deposited in memory, it takes some time, the so-called time of consolidation, the strengthening of traces. A person experiences this process as an echo of an event that has just happened: for some time, he seems to continue to see, hear, feel something that he no longer perceives directly (“it stands before his eyes”, “sounds in his ears”, etc.). Consolidation time - 15 min.

A temporary loss of consciousness in people leads to forgetting what happened in the period immediately preceding this event - anterograde amnesia occurs - a temporary inability of the brain to capture traces. Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. To memorize something means to connect memorization with what is already known, to form an association. Consequently, the physiological basis of memory is also the formation and functioning of a temporary nervous connection (association) between the individual links of what was previously perceived. There are two types of associations: simple and complex.

There are three types of simple associations:

1) by adjacency - two phenomena connected in time or space are combined (Chuk and Gek, Prince and Beggar, alphabet, multiplication table, arrangement of pieces on a chessboard);

2) by similarity - phenomena that have similar features are connected (willow - a woman in grief, "cherry blizzard", poplar fluff - snow;

3) in contrast - they connect two opposite phenomena (winter - summer, black - white, heat - cold, health - illness, sociability - isolation, etc.).

Complex (semantic) associations are the basis of our knowledge, since they connect phenomena that are in fact constantly connected:

1) part - whole (tree - branch, hand - finger);

2) genus - species (animal - mammal - cow);

3) cause - effect (smoking in bed leads to a fire);

4) functional connections (fish - water, bird - sky, air).

For the formation of a temporary connection, a repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required, i.e., repetition is required for the formation of associations. Another important condition for the formation of associations is business reinforcement, that is, the inclusion of what needs to be remembered in the activity.

memory processes.

Memory includes several interrelated processes: memorization, preservation, forgetting and reproduction.

memorization is a process aimed at storing in memory the impressions received by linking them with existing experience. From a physiological point of view, memorization is the formation and fixation in the brain of traces of excitation from the influence of the surrounding world (things, drawings, thoughts, words, etc.). The nature of memorization, its strength, brightness, and clarity depend on the characteristics of the stimulus, the nature of the activity, and the mental state of the person. The process of memorization can proceed in three forms: imprinting, involuntary and voluntary memorization.

imprinting(imprinting) is a durable and accurate preservation of events as a result of a single presentation of material for several seconds. The state of imprinting - instant imprinting - occurs in a person at the moment of the highest emotional tension(eidetic images).

Involuntary memorization arises in the absence of a conscious attitude to memorization with repeated repetition of the same stimulus, is selective in nature and depends on the actions of a person, that is, it is determined by motives, goals, emotional attitude to activity. Something unusual, interesting, emotionally exciting, unexpected, bright is unintentionally remembered.

Arbitrary memorization in humans is the leading form. It arose in the process of labor activity and is caused by the need to preserve knowledge, skills and abilities, without which work is impossible. It's over high level memorization with a predetermined goal and the application of volitional efforts.

For greater efficiency of arbitrary memorization, the following conditions must be met:

The presence of a psychological setting for memorization;

Understanding the meaning of acquired knowledge;

Self-control, a combination of memorization with reproduction;

Reliance on rational methods of memorization.

Rational memorization techniques (mnemic techniques) include the selection of strong points, the semantic grouping of material, the allocation of the main, main, drawing up a plan, etc.

A kind of voluntary memorization is memorization - a systematic, systematic, specially organized memorization using mnemonic techniques.

According to the result, memorization can be verbatim, close to the text, semantic, requiring mental processing of the material, according to the method - as a whole, in parts, combined. According to the nature of the connections, memorization is divided into mechanical and logical (semantic), the effectiveness of which is 20 times higher than mechanical. Logical memorization involves a certain organization of the material, an understanding of the meaning, connections between parts of the material, an understanding of the meaning of each word and the use of figurative memorization techniques (diagrams, graphs, pictures).

The main conditions for strong memorization are:

Awareness of the goal, task;

The presence of a setting for memorization;

Rational repetition is active and distributed because it is more efficient than passive and continuous.

Preservation is a process of more or less prolonged retention in memory of information obtained in experience. From a physiological point of view, preservation is the existence of traces in a latent form. This is not a passive process of retaining information, but a process of active processing, systematization, generalization of the material, mastering it.

Preservation primarily depends on:

From personality settings;

Forces of influence of the memorized material;

Interest in reflected impacts;

The human condition. With fatigue, weakness nervous system, a serious illness, forgetting manifests itself very sharply. So, it is known that Walter Scott wrote "Ivanhoe" during a serious illness. Reading the work after his recovery, he could not remember when and how he wrote it.

The process of preservation has two sides - the actual preservation and forgetting.

Forgetting- this is a natural process of extinction, elimination, erasure of traces, inhibition of connections. It is selective: what is forgotten is not important for a person, does not meet his needs. Forgetting is expedient, natural and required process, which gives the brain the opportunity to free itself from an excess of unnecessary information.

Forgetting can be complete - the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized; partial - a person recognizes the material, but cannot reproduce it or reproduces it with errors; temporary - with inhibition of nerve connections, complete - with their extinction.

The process of forgetting proceeds unevenly: at first it is fast, then it slows down. The greatest percentage of forgetting falls on the first 48 hours after memorization, and this continues for another three days. Over the next five days, forgetting is slower.

From this follows the conclusion:

It is necessary to repeat the material after a short time after memorization (the first repetition is after 40 minutes), since after an hour only 50% of the mechanically memorized information remains in memory;

It is necessary to distribute repetitions in time - it is better to repeat the material in small portions once every 10 days than three days before the exam;

It is necessary to understand, comprehend information;

To reduce forgetting, it is necessary to include knowledge in activities.

The reasons for forgetting can be both non-repetition of the material (fading of connections), and multiple repetition, in which transcendental inhibition occurs in the cerebral cortex.

Forgetting depends on the nature of the activity preceding memorization and occurring after it. The negative impact of the activity preceding memorization is called proactive inhibition, and the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition, which occurs when, after memorization, an activity similar to it or requiring significant effort is performed.

The material stored in the memory is qualitatively changed, reconstructed, the traces become paler, bright colors fade, but not always: sometimes later, delayed reproduction is more complete and accurate than earlier. This improved delayed recall, which is predominantly characteristic of children, is called reminiscence.

Playback- the most active, creative process, which consists in recreating the material stored in memory in activity and communication. The following forms are distinguished: recognition, involuntary reproduction, arbitrary reproduction, recall and recollection.

Recognition- this is the perception of an object in the conditions of its repeated perception, which occurs due to the presence of a weak trace in the cerebral cortex. It is easier to learn than to reproduce. Out of 50 objects, a person recognizes 35.

Spontaneous playback- this is reproduction, which is carried out as if "by itself". There are also obsessive forms of reproduction any representation of memory, movement, speech, which are called perseveration(from Latin I persist). Physiological mechanism perseveration is the inertia of the process of excitation in the cerebral cortex, the so-called "stagnant focus of excitation". Perseveration can occur in a completely healthy person, but is more often observed with fatigue, oxygen starvation. Sometimes an obsession, thought (idefix) becomes a symptom of a neuropsychiatric disorder - neurosis.

Random Play- this is reproduction with a pre-set goal, awareness of the task, application of efforts.

Remembrance- an active form of reproduction associated with tension, requiring willpower and special techniques - association, reliance on recognition. Recall depends on the clarity of the tasks set, the logical ordering of the material.

Memory- reproduction of images in the absence of perception of the object, "the historical memory of the individual."

Types of memory.

There are several types of memory according to various criteria.

1. By the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, memory is figurative, emotional and verbal-logical.

figurative memory includes visual, auditory, eidetic memory (a rare type of memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of the perceived, which is a consequence of the inertia of excitation of the cortical end of the visual or auditory analyzers); olfactory, tactile, gustatory and motor, or motor (a special subspecies of figurative memory, which consists in memorizing, preserving and reproducing various movements and their systems). Motor memory is the basis for the formation of practical, labor and sports skills. Figurative memory is inherent in both animals and people.

emotional memory is a memory of feelings and emotional states, which, being experienced and stored in the mind, act as signals either inciting to activity or deterring from actions that caused negative experiences in the past. The ability to sympathize, empathize is based on emotional memory, as it regulates human behavior depending on previously experienced feelings. Lack of emotional memory leads to emotional dullness. In animals, what caused pain, anger, fear, rage is remembered faster and allows them to avoid similar situations in the future.

Verbal-logical(semantic, sign) memory is based on the establishment and memorization of semantic concepts, formulations, ideas, sayings. This is a specifically human kind of memory.

2. According to the degree of volitional regulation, the presence or absence of a goal and special mnemonic actions are distinguished involuntary memory when information is remembered by itself - without setting a goal, without effort, and arbitrary memory in which memorization is carried out purposefully with the help of special techniques.

3. Duration of mother's conservation ala distinguish short-term, long-term and working memory.

Long-term memory is the main type of memory that ensures long-term preservation of the imprinted (sometimes for a lifetime). Long-term memory is of two types: open access, when a person can extract the necessary information at will, and closed, access to which is possible only under hypnosis. With short-term memory, the material is stored for up to 15 minutes. Working memory involves retention in memory intermediate materials as long as one is dealing with them.

Properties (qualities) of memory.

These include :

Memorization speed - the number of repetitions required to retain material in memory;

Forgetting rate - the time during which the material is stored in memory;

The amount of memory for completely new material and material that makes no sense is equal to the "magic Miller number" (7 ± 2), indicating the number of pieces of information held in memory;

Accuracy - the ability to reproduce information without distortion;

Mobilization readiness - the ability to recall desired material at the right moment.

Memory develops through exercise and hard work on memorization, long-term preservation, complete and accurate reproduction. The more a person knows, the easier it is for him to remember the new, linking, associating new material with the already known. With a general decrease in memory with age, the level of professional memory does not decrease, and sometimes it can even increase. All this allows us to draw the following conclusion: memory as a mental phenomenon is not only a gift of nature, but also the result of purposeful education.

Mnemonic processes (memory: memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition, reproduction)

Memory processes

memorization

Preservation

Recognition and reproduction

Forgetting

memorization

Preservation

Recognition and reproduction

Forgetting

Neurophysiological foundations of memory

Physiological bases of memory.

memory processes.

Types of memory.

Properties (qualities) of memory.

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