When logging in winter time the yield of technical greens is reduced by 20%. Weight loss during 3-day storage of raw materials is for conifers 10%, hardwood - 30%.
Stump wood... The stumps and roots of some conifers are used to obtain pneumatic resin as a valuable raw material for rosin extraction. In some forested areas, they are used as fuel. The study of the taxation properties and features of pneumatic resin, the development of normative and reference data on the accounting and inventory of raw materials of this forest products for recent times conducted by A.A. Smolenkov (1986) and A.P. Seryakov (1987).
Harvested by the method of uprooting or by the explosive method of pneumatic osmol, they are piled into dense rectangular heaps. It is recorded in storage m3. Depending on the diameter of the core part of the stumps, the coefficient of full woodiness of the heaps increases in the interval of tree thickness steps of 16 ... 60 cm from 0.45 to 0.49. For production taxation of raw materials in felling areas, its value is assumed to be
A similar accounting method can also be applied when evaluating stocks of harvested stumps. To convert the volume to a dense measure, use the average coefficient of full wood content of 0.5.
More accurate data on the total wood content of the named types of forest products can be found by xylometric or weight methods.
3.5. Timber taxation
V As a result of longitudinal sawing of logs, lumber is obtained, divided in the shape of the cross-section into plates (sawing into two symmetrical parts), quarters (sawing into four symmetrical parts), beams, bars, boards, sleepers and slabs. When they are taxed on sawmills and woodworking enterprises are used by automated calculations on a computer.
The beams are sawn timber with a width and thickness of more than 10 cm. By the number of sawn sides, they are divided into two-, three- and four-edged. In turn, four-edged beams in their cross-sectional shape can be sharp and blunt (wane).
Bars are sawn timber, the thickness of which does not exceed 10 cm, and the width is no more than double their thickness.
Boards are also harvested with a thickness of no more than 10 cm, but their width exceeds the thickness by two or more times. The wide sides of the boards and bars are called the face, the narrow sides are the edges, and the corners are the ribs.
Lumber can be edged if both edges of them are cut at least half the length, and unedged - if there is no cut or it is less than half the length. In addition, a distinction is made between clean-cut sawn timber, which is obtained with a full cut of the edge. Unprocessed parts of the edge are called wane, and the corresponding boards and beams are called wane.
A tie is a section of a log of a certain cross-sectional profile with a length of 2.7 m for a regular track railroad and 2.5 m - for a narrow one. There are two categories of sleepers according to the cross-sectional profile: A - sawn from four sides; B - sawn off from both sides. Sleepers are divided into five types depending on the thickness and dimensions of the beds.
Transfer bars serve for laying under railroad track in places of turnouts. They come in five types for wide gauge and four for narrow gauge. Assortment length 2.75 ... 5.5 m with gradation
A slab is the outside of a log that has been cut off, leaving the other surface untreated.
Depending on the quality of wood, coniferous lumber is divided into four grades, and harvested from hardwood- into three varieties. Wide gauge sleepers are divided into two types. This differentiation is not provided for narrow gauge sleepers.
The volumes of the plates and quarters are determined according to special tables. If they are absent according to the tables of GOST 2708-75 in diameter in the upper cut and the length of the logs, the cubic capacity of the taxed assortments is found by a corresponding decrease in volumes.
The volumes of sharp-edged beams, bars and pure boards are calculated by multiplying their width a by thickness b and length l by the formula
where t is the length of the wane chord.
The cross-sectional area of the edged sleepers is
g a h |
||
and their volume |
||
V g l, |
||
where a is the width of the sleeper; h is the thickness of the sleeper; t is the length of the wane chord; l is the length of the sleeper.
The cross-sectional area of a timber sleeper is calculated using the formula for a trapezoid and segments:
c t; |
|||||
h is the thickness of the sleeper; c - the base of the segment; t is the height of the segment. The cross-sectional area γ of bar sleepers (and transition bars) is determined
They are placed in the middle of the length of the assortment or as a half-sum of the upper and lower sections.
To facilitate production calculations, special volume tables have been compiled for these types of sleepers. The sleepers are counted individually using templates that reproduce their cross-sectional profile.
where a is the width of the slab; b - slab thickness; l is the slab length.
In this case, the cross-sectional area is set at 0.4 lengths from the butt end. In some cases, the croaker is taken into account in the stock. m3. The coefficient of full wood content of their stacks ranges from 0.48 to 0.74 and is determined in accordance with GOST 5780-77.
The elements of the described sawn timber are shown in Fig. 3.1. The values of the allowances when determining the volume of sawn timber in
settlement is not accepted.
To determine the volume unedged boards in accordance with OST 13-24-86, the following methods are used: piecewise, batch and sampling. When the moisture content of sawn timber is more than 20%, correction factors are introduced into the accounting results according to the first method according to the standards of GOST 5306-83: for conifers - 0.96; for deciduous - 0.95.
The following requirements are imposed on packages:
a) the boards are aligned on one side of the end; b) the boards in the horizontal rows of the package are stacked close to each other
friend; c) the package has the same width along its entire length and vertical
lateral sides.
The volume of the package in folding m3 is determined by multiplying its overall sides minus the dimensions of the gaskets and introducing corrections for the protruding ends in the loose part of the package.
Rice. 3.1. Cross-sections of some sawn timber: 1 - blunt timber; 2 - unedged sleeper; 3 - croaker
The volume of the package in a dense measure is found by introducing the packing density coefficient according to OST, equal to 0.59 ... 0.75.
When evaluating large lots of unedged boards, they are accounted for by sampling. Sample sizes for determining the average volume of the board are provided for: for lumber of the same length - at least 3% of the delivered batch, but not less than 60 boards; with an admixture of up to 15% of shorter ones - not less than 4%, but not less than 80 boards; for lumber not more than 4 adjacent lengths - not less than 7%, but not less than 120 boards.
The percentage of sawn timber output, according to TsNIIMOD, increases with an increase in the upper diameter of the logs from 53% at dw / o = 14 cm to
64% at d in / o = 44 cm.
From 1 m3 of a sleeper log, on average, 6 ... 7 sleepers come out, making up 52 ... 60% by volume. In addition, they receive boards (8 ... 15%) and slabs (7 ... 15%). The minimum diameters in the upper cut for the production of sleepers of category A are 23 cm, B - 24 cm.
Sawing logs produces a significant amount of waste. They are more and more widely used for the production of technological chips, in hydrolysis production, for heating, etc. This wood waste is taken into account in the warehouse. m3. The coefficient of full wood content is on average: sawdust - 0.35; trimming boards, beams - 0.58.
To account for woodworking wastes, the coefficients of full wood are used in accordance with TU 13-539-80.
3.6. Accounting for chipped, hewn, planed, shelled
and other timber
TO the considered group includes a fairly large number of timber harvested by primary mechanical processing wood.
TO small-sized wood raw materials include trunks with a thickness of 2 to 6 cm. They are harvested with a length of 1 ... 3 m with a gradation of 0.5 m. tab. 3.7.
Table 3.7 - Coefficients of wood content of fine wood raw materials
Coefficients of full wood content with the length of fine raw material, m |
|||||
Deciduous |
|||||
Cooper riveting different sizes, depending on the intended purpose, are taken into account by the piece, in thousands of pieces or in sets (side and bottom). Its volume is determined in pl. m3 in three dimensions using special tables.
The sled runner is taken into account in pairs, the wheel rim - in pairs (for front and rear wheels) or camps (for all four wheels). Their volumes are determined by the trapezoid formula:
h l. |
||||
Blanks are sections of trunks with a special shape of products given to them. Their accounting is carried out in weight units.
A special place in the described group is occupied by planed and peeled plywood. It is recorded in m2.
In addition, they make whole line products of local importance: bushings, knitting needles, shovels, rakes, etc., which are counted in pieces. Roofing and plaster shingles are also accepted in thousands of pieces.
Technological chips and shavings are taken into account in the warehouse. m3. The coefficient of full woodiness is taken to be 0.37 and 0.11, respectively. Special standards are provided for wood chips when transporting it by road and rail, for which the indicator under consideration varies from 0.36 to 0.43.
The useful output from the raw materials of certain assortments is: cooper cage - 30 ... 40%, wheel rim - 20 ... 25%, sled runner - 65%, plywood - 50%, roofing and plaster shingles - 50%, etc. Therefore, it seems possible to calculate the demand for raw materials for a particular production.
At present, it is technologically quite realistic to fully utilize the entire phytomass of trees. The organization of such a cycle should be based on the economic performance of production.
Control questions
1. Give the classification of forest products based on their size, shape, nature of production use and accounting methods.
2. What methods of determining the volume of logs do you know?
3. Give the systematization of firewood according to its existing properties and characteristics.
4. What factors determine the coefficient of full wood content of firewood?
5. What methods of accounting for brushwood, twigs and tree bark are used in forestry?
6. Describe the main ways to tax lumber.
7. What are the features of accounting for chopped, hewn, planed and peeled timber?
8. What standards describe the methods of accounting for the main timber harvested?
Calculation for 1 tree
| No. pp | Name of works | Unit measurements | The discharge of work-what | Execution period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | ||||||||
| Labor costs | Means of mechanization | Materials (edit) | ||||||||||||
| Person - hour | Name, brand | Mash. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11V-1 add. ETKS 1997 TNV 1987 1.2.11V-2 add. ETKS 1997 TNV 1987 1.2.11V-3 add. ETKS 1997 TNV 1987 1.2.11V-4 add. ETKS 1997 | Removal of trees on a stump by hand with chopping of branches and crosscutting on a stump with a trunk diameter at chest height: up to 0.2 m 0.2-0.3 m 0.3-0.4 m 0.4-0.5 m | skl. m 3 sq. m 3 sq. m 3 sq. m 3 | 3.64 2.66 2.11 1.85 | 6-2 hours drives 6-2 hours drives 6-2 hours drives 6-2 hours drives | 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP | 0.758 1.60 3.66 6.63 | 2.75 4.25 7.723 12.26 | Chainsaw Gazelle Chainsaw Gazelle Chainsaw Gazelle Chainsaw Gazelle | 1.37 2.12 3.862 6.13 | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - |
| TNV 1987 1.2.11V-54 add. ETKS 1997 | Collection of branches and felling residues after felling trees - with a trunk diameter of up to 0.2 cm (20%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.2-0.3 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.3-0.4 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.4-0.5 cm (20%) | 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 | 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP | 0.758 1.60 3.66 6.63 | 0.11 0.24 0.549 0.99 | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | ||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11V-9-60 add. ETKS 1997 | Loading onto vehicles and unloading branches and felling residues (Нвр х 2) - with a trunk diameter of up to 0.2 cm (20%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.2-0.3 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.3-0.4 cm (30%) - with a barrel diameter of 0.4-0.5 cm (20%) | skl. .m 3 sq. m 3 sq. m 3 sq. m 3 | 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 | 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP | 0.758 1.60 3.66 6.63 | 0.88 1.72 3.9528 7.16 | ZIL-MMZ ZIL-MMZ ZIL-MMZ ZIL-MMZ | 0.88 1.72 3.9528 7.16 | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | |||
| Removal of branches and felling residues by road transport at a distance of up to 60 km | T | 0.96 | - | 1-HP | 7.5888 | - | ZIL-MMZ | 7.285248 | Garbage collection voucher | T | 7.5888 |
TOTAL: 42.5848
Note: calculation of the volume of the volume of cut trees must correspond to the tables of timber volumes 19. 22. 183. 187. 206, published in the "All-Union Standards for Forest Taxation". M. 1992
TECHNOLOGY MAP 4.7
STUMP STUMP MANUAL
Calculation for 1 stump
| No. pp | Basis of normative costs | Name of works | Unit measurements | Norm of time per unit. measurements, man-h | The discharge of work-what | Execution period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor costs | Means of mechanization | Materials (edit) | ||||||||||||
| Person - hour | Name, brand | Mash. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11b-3-48 add. ETKS 1997 | Manual removal of stumps up to 70 cm in diameter. Dig in the stump, chop down the roots and clear the ground. Root out, move to a distance of up to 5 m using scrap, stag and other devices. Cover the hole with earth | stump | 10.6 | 1-HP | 10.6 | - | - | - | - | - | ||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11b-7-56 add. ETKS 1997 | Manually uprooting free-standing shrubs. Dig in, chop down the roots and move up to 50 m in a heap. Cover the hole with earth | bush | 0.36 | 1-HP | 0.36 | - | - | - | - | - |
TECHNOLOGY CARD 4.8
IRRIGATION OF PLANTS FROM A HOSE
Calculation for 100 m 2
| No. pp | Basis of normative costs | Name of works | Unit measurements | Norm of time per unit. measurements, man-h | The discharge of work-what | Execution period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor costs | Means of mechanization | Materials (edit) | ||||||||||||
| Person - hour | Name, brand | Mash. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.1- 6a-16.17 add. ETKS 1997 | Watering plants from a hose up to 40 m long at a rate of 5 l / m 2. Bring the hose, unwind and connect to the water supply. Water the plants evenly. Roll up the hose and take it to the storage location | 100 m 2 | 0.2 | U-1X | 0.2 | - | - | Water | l | |||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.1- 6b-18.19 add. ETKS 1997 | Watering plants from a hose over 40 m long at a rate of 5 l / m 2. Bring the hose, unwind and connect to the water supply. Water the plants evenly. Roll up the hose and take it to storage | 100 m 2 | 0.8 | U-1X | 0.8 | - | - | Water | l |
TECHNOLOGY CARD 4.9
LOADING SNOW ON TRANSPORT
Calculation for 1 car
| No. pp | Basis of normative costs | Name of works | Unit measurements | Norm of time per unit. measurements, man-h | The discharge of work-what | Execution period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor costs | Means of mechanization | Materials (edit) | ||||||||||||
| Person - hour | Name, brand | Mash. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenhoz rate | Loading snow on vehicles with movement within the site up to 1 km with a body capacity of up to 6 m 3 | mash. | 1.0 | Water. car Loader water 4 digits Worker 3 digits | X1-Sh | 50.0 | ZIL-MMZ Loader | 50.0 | - | - | - | |||
| State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenhoz rate | Snow removal by road transport at a distance of up to 35 km | mash. | 2.4 | - | X1-Sh | - | ZIL-MMZ | 120.0 | Snow voucher | T |
TOTAL: 50.0
TECHNOLOGY CARD 4.10
DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE, GARAGE RESIDUES,
WASTE LAND, LEAF, GRASS, SNOW, etc.
AT A DISTANCE OF 1 KM
Calculation for 1 t
| No. pp | Basis of normative costs | Name of works | Unit measurements | Norm of time per unit. measurements, man-h | The discharge of work-what | Execution period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor costs | Means of mechanization | Materials (edit) | ||||||||||||
| Person - hour | Name, brand | Mash. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenhoz rate | Removal of garbage, felling residues, waste soil, foliage, grass, snow, etc. by road at a distance of 1 km | T | 0.016 | - | 1-HP | - | ZIL-MMZ | 0.016 | - | - | - |
TECHNOLOGY CARD 4.11
REMOVAL OF SELF SEEDING OF WOOD AND SHRUBS
Calculation for 1 hectare
| No. pp | Basis of normative costs | Name of works | Unit measurements | Norm of time per unit. measurements, man-h | The discharge of work-what | Execution period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor costs | Means of mechanization | Materials (edit) | ||||||||||||
| Person - hour | Name, brand | Mash. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenhoz rate | Self-seeding removal | 100 pieces. | 5-1h water 1 | 1-HP | 0.5 | 26.5 | Chainsaw | - | - | - | ||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.7-9-54 add. ETC | Collection of felling residues (0.3 m3 / piece) | 100 m 2 cleaning area | 0.31 | 1-HP | 0.31 | - | - | - | - | |||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11V-9-60 add. ETC | Loading and unloading of felling residues (H time. X 2) | sqm 3 | 1.08 | 1-HP | 30.0 | 32.4 | ZIL-MMZ 45085 | 32.4 | - | - | - | |||
| Removal of felling residues by road transport at a distance of up to 60 km | T | 0.96 | 1-HP | 7.5 | - | ZIL-MMZ 45085 | 7.2 | Garbage collection voucher | T | 7.5 |
This question sounds from every third person who wants to know the prices for firewood or buy firewood for the fireplaces of baths, saunas or barbecues.
Stock meter can be represented as a cube (1 meter - height, 1 meter - depth, 1 meter - width) of densely packed firewood. 1 sq. / M. - this is about 0.75 cubic meters of solid wood (just imagine such a solid wooden cube).
Determine how many logs / m or cubic / m of firewood in the car, if they are not stacked there, but lie exactly in bulk along the entire length of the body without a slide, by measuring the length, width and height of the body and, then, multiplying them.
From the embankment to st. / M. conversion factor - from 0.73 to 0.82, depending on the length of the firewood.
0.80 for firewood with a length of 25cm
0.78 for firewood 33cm long
0.75 for firewood 50cm long
0.73 for firewood 75cm long
The error of such a miscalculation is 5-8%.
Question: How many firewood storage meters are there in the back of a car (for example, shown in the photo below)? To get an answer, we turn on logic and remember the schools. While the car was driving along our roads to you, the firewood was somewhat settled on bumps and gullies. This is good, because as a result of tamping, a more homogeneous "pile" of firewood is obtained, and the value that will be obtained after recalculating "bulk" firewood into storage meters will be more accurate.
Mentally we divide the body into 2 parts (in Figure 1 and 2). One part (1) is presented in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped and so-called. "slides".
Determine the volume of the parallelepiped (1) by multiplying the lengths. As a result, we get the volume of firewood in a "bulk" parallelepiped:
V (1) = 3.6m * 2.2m * 0.6m = 4.752m3
Multiplying the obtained value by the conversion factor (for firewood with a length of 0.33 m, it is equal to 0.78), we obtain the number of storage meters for firewood in the indicated parallelepiped, namely:
Vfl (1) = 4.752m3 * 0.78 = 3.707fl.m
Determining the amount of firewood in the "slide" (2) is somewhat more difficult. To do this, you need to simulate the formulas of the curves shown in the photo, and then using mathematical methods of integral calculus and transformations, output the volume occupied by the "slide" (2) in the body. :)
However, we will not do this, since there is no time, and we do not want to detain the car (do we need to quickly and approximately?), But we will act as follows:
Let us mentally imagine instead of a "slide" (2) a parallelepiped, in which the "slide" (2) itself occupies at least 70% in area in each of the body projections (side and rear views) (See photo). If the "slide" is too steep, then do not hesitate, climb on the body and make it more gentle. We descend from "heaven" to earth and measure the height.
In this case, the height is: 0.28m + 0.35m = 0.63m.
Determine the volume of the parallelepiped (2) by multiplying the length, width and height. As a result, we get the volume of firewood in a "bulk" parallelepiped:
Vpp = 3.6m * 2.2m * 0.63m = 4.987m3
To obtain the volume of firewood in bulk occupied by the "slide" (2), we multiply the resulting value by 0.7:
V (2) = 4.987m3 * 0.7 = 3.49m3
Multiplying the obtained value by the conversion factor, we obtain the number of firewood storage meters in the "slide" (2):
Vfl (2) = 3.49m3 * 0.78 = 2.72fl meters
In total, we get that, according to our approximate calculations, the specified body contains:
Vcl = Vcl (1) + Vcl (2) = 3.707 + 2.72 = 6.43 sq. Meters,
which corresponds to reality within the margin of error (0.5-0.6 sq. meters) for the proposed method, since in the body of the car shown in the photo there is at least 6.3 storage meters of oak firewood.
The error of the given calculation method is 10-12%, however, it makes it possible to roughly determine the volume of the machine loaded with firewood with an accuracy of 0.5-0.7 square meters.
Attention: the given approach to determining the volume of firewood in a car body can be used only as an approximate or approximate one for evaluative perception.
Another popular method of delivering firewood is in nets or stacked in rows. In this case, it is quite easy to determine the amount of imported cubic meters. We do not have to convert the bulk volume to the fold one, the only thing that needs to be done is to measure the woodpile, calculate the volume, and then use the coefficient already known to you to make calculations.
As you can see, there is nothing complicated in the calculations. To accurately determine the number of cubic meters, it is enough just to find out the volume of brought firewood, translate it into fold meters, and then, using the coefficient, find out the number of cubes.
Pneumatic osmol- This is a naturally tarred core of the stumps and roots of conifers. Osmol serves as a raw material for turpentine and rosin production. In our country, the harvesting and processing of pneumatic resin from Scotch pine and Cedar pine is being carried out.
Pneumatic osmol resources are determined based on the number and diameter of stumps, using regional reference tables.
Using the initial data in Appendix 1 and the taxation characteristics of the allotments presented in table. 2.17, as well as the values of the average diameter and the number of stumps of resin per 1 hectare (Table 2.18), the stock of pneumatic resin per 1 hectare and the total area of the allotment are determined (Table 2.19).
Table 2.17
Taxation characteristics of pine stands allocated for felling
| No. of apt. | No. | S, ha | Composition | D, cm | Bonitet | Completeness | Year of felling | |
| 5,2 | 6S2E2B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 3,4 | 7S3B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 1,2 | 6S2B1E1OS | 0,6 | ||||||
| 6,8 | 6S3B1Os | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,2 | 7S2B1Os | 0,5 | ||||||
| 4,1 | 6S4B | 0,4 | ||||||
| 5,0 | 6S1E3B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 3,8 | 7S1E2B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,9 | 8S2B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 4,2 | 8S1E1B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,4 | 7S3B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 6,3 | 6S2E2B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,2 | 8S2B | 0,4 | ||||||
| 6,4 | 7С1Е1Б1Ос | 0,6 | ||||||
| 3,3 | 7S3B | 0,5 |
When determining the number of stumps of resin, it is necessary to take into account the proportion of pine in the stand formula by multiplying by the participation factor. Also, the number of resin stumps depends on the age of felling and is expressed by the following ratio:
Table 2.18
Determination of the average diameter and the number of stumps of resin per 1 ha, depending on the quality class and the completeness of pine plantations
| Bonitet class | Wed D tree, cm | Number of trunks (stumps) at fullness | Wed D stump, cm | ||||||
| 1,0 | 0,9 | 0,8 | 0,7 | 0,6 | 0,5 | 0,4 | |||
| II | |||||||||
| III | |||||||||
| IV | |||||||||
| V | |||||||||
Example. Determine the stock of pneumatic resin with an average diameter of 28 cm stumps and their number per hectare - 325 pcs.
The stock of pneumatic resin according to the categories of numbers and the corresponding diameter will be: for three hundred - 17 sc. m 3 (intersection of number 3 in the quantity column and the column "hundreds"); for two dozen - 1 sq. m 3; for 5 units - 0. Accordingly, the stock of 325 stumps will be: 17 + 1 + 0 = 18 stock. m 3.
Table 2.19
Determination of the stock of pneumatic osmol
| Wed D stump, cm | Quantity | Wed D stump, cm | Quantity | Stock of pneumatic resin, sq.m 3 by number digits | |||||||
| thous. | hundreds | dec. | units | thous. | hundreds | dec. | units | ||||
| - | - | - | |||||||||
| - | - | - | |||||||||
| - | - | - | |||||||||
| - | - | ||||||||||
| - | - | ||||||||||
| - | - | ||||||||||
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| - |
According to the table. 2.20 is the mass of pneumatic resin harvested from the area of the allotment at a given moisture content, per 1 ha.
Table 2.20
Conversion of the folded volume of pneumatic osmol into weight indicators
Based on the indicator of the age of felling, the ripeness classes of pneumatic osmol are determined for all sections, the characteristics of which are given in Table. 2.21 and the content of resinous substances is calculated per 1 hectare of allotment in total mass raw materials according to the table. 2.22 taking into account Appendix 19.
Table 2.21
Ripeness classes of pneumatic osmol
Table 2.22
| Ripeness class | TUM | |||||||
| Bora | Subora | |||||||
| dry | fresh | wet | raw | dry | fresh | wet | raw | |
| I | 9,8 | 10,5 | 7,1 | 6,5 | 10,2 | 11,2 | 7,6 | 5,8 |
| II | 16,4 | 16,9 | 11,9 | 10,8 | 16,2 | 15,5 | 11,5 | 10,2 |
| III | 20,5 | 19,4 | 16,5 | 14,2 | 19,8 | 18,5 | 16,7 | 15,8 |
| IV | 23,8 | 24,5 | 22,2 | 20,1 | 23,5 | 22,9 | 21,0 | 19,5 |
Knowing the area of the allotment, the stock of pneumatic osmol (sc. M 3 and kg) and the amount of resinous substances (kg) for all compartments are determined.
Based on the results of all calculations, table is filled. 2.23.
Table 2.23
A summary sheet for determining the stock of pneumatic osmol and the amount of resinous substances
| No. of apt. | No. | S, ha | Ripeness class | Stock of pneumatic resin, stock. m 3 | Pneumatic resin mass, kg | The amount of resinous substances, kg |
| 5,2 | ||||||
| 3,4 | ||||||
| 1,2 | ||||||
| 6,8 | ||||||
| 2,2 | ||||||
| 4,1 | ||||||
| 5,0 |
Tasks to complete practical work 2.10
1) Determine the average diameter of stumps and their number for each section.
2) Determine the stock of pneumatic osmol (skl. M 3 per 1 ha) for each allotment.
3) Find the mass of pneumatic osmol harvested from 1 hectare of the area of each section.
4) Determine the content of resinous substances in pneumatic resin (kg / ha) for each section.
5) Find general stock pneumatic osmol, its mass, the amount of resinous substances for all secretions.
2.11. Calculation of the resources of felling waste and the dynamics of their formation throughout the year
An important direction at the present time is a more complete use of the felling fund, reducing the loss of timber during harvesting and transportation. For various reasons, the logging fund allocated for felling is developed and used extremely irrationally. The amount of losses and waste of wood at all stages of production ranges from 1/3 to 1/2 of the total logging fund allocated for felling.
With the technology and equipment of timber harvesting currently used at the enterprises of the forestry complex, waste is generated at the cutting area, the loading point (upper warehouse) and the timber industry warehouse.
The accounted waste of logging includes branches, branches and tops, fragments of trunks, waste from handling the dimensions of the carriage, as well as residues from the bucking of logs into assortments (otklevki, canopies).
V general view the volume of any wood waste V 0 T, can be determined by the formula:
where V c- the volume of raw materials, relative to which the waste is determined, m 3; N- standard of waste generation,%.
The volume of waste in the form of twigs, branches and tops at the cutting area, and at the loading point is determined in relation to the volume of timber removal. At a timber warehouse - the volume of timber removed, in particular the volume of crosscutting waste, is determined in relation to the volume of timber to be crosscut. The consolidated standard for the formation of felling waste, established by region, taking into account the natural mortality used as fertilizer and for strengthening the skidding trails, is given in table. 2.24.
Table 2.24
Consolidated standard for the formation of felling waste
| Region | The rate of formation of felling waste,% of timber haulage | |||
| Twigs, branches, tops on a growing tree | Litter of branches, branches, during felling, skidding | Consolidated standard of felling waste suitable for use | ||
| Used to strengthen skidding trails and further as fertilizer | Including used to strengthen the drags | |||
| Northwest region | 13,3 | 8,1 | 2,8 | 5,2 |
| central District | 12,2 | 7,7 | 3,4 | 4,5 |
| Volga region | 12,2 | 4,4 | - | 7,8 |
| North Caucasian region | 16,6 | 5,7 | - | 10,9 |
| Uralsky district | 14,4 | 10,2 | 5,0 | 4,2 |
| West Siberian region | 12,2 | 10,9 | 5,8 | 1,3 |
| East Siberian region | 13,3 | 10,1 | 5,3 | 3,2 |
| Far East region | 15,5 | 11,8 | 6,2 | 3,7 |
The free averaged standard for logging waste suitable for use may vary depending on a number of factors. V summer period its value increases slightly (1.2 times), and in winter it decreases (up to 0.9 times). Its value is also being corrected, depending on the degree of swampiness of the forest fund allotted to felling. When bogging of cutting areas is up to 20, up to 40, and up to 60%, respectively, correction factors equal to 0.8 are applied; 0.6 and 0.4.
The applied equipment and work technology have a significant impact on the amount of felling waste formation. For example, the loss of stem wood harvested by machine approximately 1.6-1.8 times higher than in the development of cutting areas with systems of machines using gasoline-powered saws. Wood waste in the felling area in the form of damaged logs and their fragments are accounted for in the volume of actual use. According to research by TsNIIME , the average standard for the use of stem wood relative to the volume of haulage can be taken as an average of 6.4% (in winter - 6.65%, in summer - 6.16%). The standards for the use of waste from bringing the dimensions of the truck to the requirements for the carriage of goods on public roads can be taken as 4% - when transporting wood in logs, 9% - when transporting wood by trees (in summer - 10%, in winter - 8%). The standard of crosscutting waste generation in the forest can be taken as for forest warehouses (Table 2.26), increased by 30% due to worse working conditions.
For a reasonable selection and operation of systems of machines producing technological chips in a cutting area, it is important not only to know the total volume of waste, but also to take into account the dynamics of the generation of this waste during the year (by months, per shift).
Then, in general terms, the real annual volume of logging waste generated at the enterprise can be determined by the formula
(2.67)
where V i- the real volume of logging waste in i-th month, m 3. In general terms, the quantity V i can be calculated by the formula
where is the annual volume of logging operations of the enterprise, m 3; K i T and K i B- coefficients of unevenness, respectively, skidding and hauling of wood in i-th month (Table 2.25), showing how the volume of a certain type of work in a particular month differs in comparison with the average monthly for the year; N ij - standard of use j-th type of logging waste in i-th month,%.
For specific production conditions and the types of waste accounted for, formula (2.68) will take the form
where N i 1 , N i 2 , N i 3 , N i 4 - standards, respectively, for the use of waste in the form of: twigs, branches, tops; wreckage of trunks; wood formed during the processing of the dimensions of the cart; otklevok and visors; S s, S 3, S m- coefficients, taking into account, respectively: the season of work; the degree of waterloggedness of the cutting areas and the machine system that harvests timber.
Changeable volume of felling waste generated after final felling, in m 3 in different months years can be determined by the formula
where n pi- the number of working days in i-th month; k cm i- shift factor in i-th month.
The average shift volume of felling waste during the year is (2.7
where n p the number of working days per year; - coefficient of shift during the year.
Example(conventional figures): a logging enterprise with an annual production volume of 200 thousand m 3 is located in the Komi Republic and carries out transportation in assortments; harvesting is carried out by a system of machines using gasoline-powered saws; the number of working days by months, starting from January, is equal to: 24, 23, 24, 21, 23, 26, 25, 26, 24, 24, 20.25; the shift coefficient in all months is 1; the degree of waterlogging of cutting areas - 20%.
The volume of logging waste suitable for use for technological and fuel needs will include twigs, branches, tops, tree fragments, spits and canopies.
The real volume of felling waste generated in i-th month, is determined by the formula (2.68), using the data: table. 2.24 ( N i 1, decreased for mmmmmmmmmmm for winter months by 0.9 times and increased for summer months by 1.2 times); tab. 2.25, option ( K iT and K iB); standards for the use of damaged stem wood: N i 2= 6.4% (in winter 6.65%, in summer 6.16%), as well as standards for the generation of crosscutting waste, taken from Table. 2.26 and increased by 30%.
Table 2.25
Monthly coefficients of unevenness of skidding K i T and removal of wood K i B
| Months | Variants | |||||||||||
| a | b | v | G | d | e | |||||||
| K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | |
| January | 1,15 | 1,18 | 1,22 | 1,41 | 1,28 | 1,73 | 1,08 | 1,12 | 1,10 | 1,15 | 1,13 | 1,20 |
| February | 1,30 | 1,33 | 1,28 | 1,39 | 1,32 | 1,72 | 1,04 | 1,12 | 1,20 | 1,25 | 1,16 | 1,23 |
| March | 1,38 | 1,41 | 1,33 | 1,40 | 1,66 | 2,01 | 1,21 | 1,25 | 1,30 | 1,35 | 1,28 | 1,28 |
| April | 0,95 | 0,69 | 0,83 | 0,76 | 0,88 | 0,87 | 0,98 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 0,60 | 0,95 | 0,73 |
| May | 0,77 | 0,64 | 0,74 | 0,70 | 0,61 | 0,46 | 0,82 | 0,80 | 0,70 | 0,80 | 0,84 | 0,93 |
| June | 1,00 | 0,92 | 0,95 | 1,00 | 0,72 | 0,63 | 0,96 | 1,01 | 0,90 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 1,05 |
| July | 0,95 | 0,99 | 0,92 | 0,90 | 0,78 | 0,63 | 0,94 | 0,98 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,87 |
| August | 0,92 | 0,99 | 0,94 | 0,98 | 0,87 | 0,67 | 0,92 | 0,92 | 0,90 | 1,00 | 0,92 | 0,98 |
| September | 0,91 | 0,88 | 0,87 | 0,72 | 0,86 | 0,60 | 1,00 | 0,94 | 0,95 | 1,00 | 0,91 | 0,93 |
| October | 0,77 | 0,89 | 0,87 | 0,64 | 0,89 | 0,51 | 1,00 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 0,96 | 0,96 |
| November | 0,90 | 1,02 | 0,98 | 1,00 | 0,91 | 0,85 | 0,99 | 0,92 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,97 | 0,91 |
| December | 1,00 | 1,06 | 1,07 | 1,10 | 1,16 | 1,30 | 1,06 | 0,99 | 1,10 | 1,15 | 1,04 | 1,03 |
Table 2.26
Crosscutting waste generation rate
Then the volume of felling waste generated, for example, in the month of January, will be
and in August it will be equal to
The volumes of felling waste for other months are determined in a similar way. Summing up their values for all months (formula 2.67), we find the real annual volume of logging waste at the enterprise, equal to 19646 m 3.
Determining the monthly volumes of felling waste according to the formula (2.70), it is easy to get changeable volumes of felling waste in these months. For example, in August, a shift will be formed
waste
Having determined the monthly and changing volumes of logging waste, we build a graph of the dynamics of their formation throughout the year (Fig. 2.9) based on Appendix 1.
Rice. 2.9. Dynamics of the formation of logging waste
Tasks for practical work 2.11
1) Determine the types of waste generated at the cutting area and the area of their use.
2) Determine the real annual volume of felling waste.
4) Build a graph of the dynamics of the formation of felling waste during the year.
Taxation measurements and measuring instruments
Forest inventory units.
The following units of measurement are adopted in forest taxation: to determine the length of ridges, logs, tree-lengths and the height of trees - meter (m); diameter - centimeter (cm); cross-sectional area of tree trunks and logs - square centimeter and square meter(cm2, m2); volume - cubic meter (m3); weight - kilogram (kg); growing stock - cubic meter (m3); growth in volume - cubic meter, in thickness - centimeter and in height - meter. The amount of harvested wood is taken into account in dense and fold cubic meters(square. m3 and floor. m3), and the amount of standing timber - only in solid cubic meters. In folding cubic meters, firewood, brushwood and small business assortments (balances, ore rack, etc.) are taken into account, while in addition to wood, the gaps formed between individual segments are included in the measurement; in dense - only wood of the corresponding assortments without gaps and voids.
Roulette.
To measure the length of felled trees, various materials, piles of wood, as well as woodpiles of firewood and heaps of brushwood, as a rule, a tape measure is used (Fig. 1, a). Usually it is made of linen ribbon, boiled in linseed oil and covered with paint, about 1.5 cm wide and 5-20 m long. - red. The made braid is put into a special (flat round) leather case: one end is attached to the metal axis of the case, driven by the handle in a clockwise direction, the other is taken out of the case and a metal ring is attached to the end of it. from the ring to the axis.
Rice. 1. Measuring tools: a - a pen; b - measuring tape
Measurements with a tape measure are carried out by two workers: one takes the end of the tape measure with a ring, the second has a case. The number located at the exit of the tape from the case shows the length of the measured line. If the measurement is carried out by one person, then the ring must be put on an object at the beginning of the measured line (at the zero of the tape measure). When unrolling the tape, care must be taken to avoid tearing the tape off the axis, and when wrapping it, do not twist, as this accelerates its wear and creates the possibility of breaks. It is recommended to use a tape measure in dry weather; in damp weather, it must be dried before curdling. A tape wrapped with a damp tape quickly breaks down.
The disadvantage of a tape measure is that it stretches over time and therefore can give incorrect results. To eliminate this drawback, it is made two-layer with a tab between the layers of thin copper wire. In both cases, the length of the tape must be checked in order to make the appropriate amendments. performance of work requiring special precision. Sometimes tape measures are made of steel: they do not stretch, but when rolled up they often break, the divisions on them are poorly visible, and, in addition, they are much heavier than linen.
With a careful attitude, a linen tape measure can serve for several years. Most often, the first centimeters of the tape and the place of attachment of the ring wear out at the tape measure, but this can be easily fixed by sewing the tape from the old tape measure.
Tape measures can also be used to measure small lines on the ground, such as on construction sites.
Measuring pole, folding rule.
You can also measure the length of felled trees and various timber with a measuring pole and folding rule. Especially when measuring woodpiles, it is convenient to use a measuring pole, which can be made from a thin, straight young tree. The felled tree is well dried, and then planted, giving it a square or rectangular shape a bar with a cross-section of (2-3) X (3-5) cm. The length of the pole should be commensurate with the length of the most common woodpiles. Poles with a length of 2-3 m are most convenient for work. On a manufactured pole, notches are made with a knife or an ax every 10 cm with a breakdown of the extreme division into centimeters. For clarity, along the bottom of the 1st notch, draw lines with a red pencil, 0.5 m - in blue, along the bottom of 10 and 1-cm - in black. In addition, numbers indicating the length in meters are put down in red pencil. For strength, the ends of the pole can be upholstered with metal plates or covered with tin.
The pole is placed horizontally on the woodpile and the length is measured, then, by placing it on the woodpile, the height and, finally, the length of the logs. Multiplying the obtained values, the volume of the woodpile is obtained in folding cubic meters. For example, with the length of the woodpile 4 and the height of 2 m, the length of the logs of 0.5 m, the volume of the woodpile is 4X2X0.5 = 4 approx. m3.
The folding rule can be made of metal or wood. On one side of it, small divisions are applied (up to 1 mm), on the other, larger ones (up to 1 or 0.5 cm). The first side is used for measurements during work requiring great accuracy (for example, research), and the second - for household tasks. The folding rule device is very simple: it consists of six plates, fastened with hairpins. When folded, it is very portable and fits easily in your pocket. To avoid easy breakage, use it very carefully (a wooden meter is especially fragile). Sometimes measuring meters are made from a single elastic steel tape, placed in a small metal flat round case, reminiscent of a miniature tape measure.
Measuring tape. To measure large lines on the ground during various economic operations (allotment of cutting areas, laying test plots, etc.) and especially forest management (measuring glades, sighting lines, boundaries, etc.), measuring tapes are used (see Fig. 1.6). They are made of thin steel tape 0.5 mm thick, 2-3 cm wide and 20 m long. At the ends of the tape there are metal handles. On the one hand, divisions are made in meters, half meters and decimeters by attaching special metal plaques to the tape of various shapes, larger at meter and half-meter divisions. Sometimes on meter-long plaques, numbers are put down - 1, 2, 3, etc. For ease of carrying and storage, the tape is wound on an iron ring between the walls of four double-sided protrusions attached to it, which, after winding the tape, are screwed in with screws. Thanks to these screws and handles, which are wider than the tape and the holes between the tabs, the tape does not slide off the ring. Each strap comes with a set of 11 sharp pegs, 40-50 cm long, with rings at the top made of thick iron wire. The peg rings are put on a large iron ring and stored and transported as such.
In the process, two workers unwind the tape, carefully pull it in the direction of the measured and fixed line. At the beginning of the measured line, one worker, sticking a peg into the ground, applies a tape to it with a zero, and the other, standing facing the first and slightly shaking and stretching the tape, sticks a second peg into the ground against the mark on the tape showing its end - 20 m. Then both walk forward with tape along the measured line. Having reached the second peg stuck into the ground, the first worker stops the second and aligns the beginning of the tape with the peg set; the second again turns to face him and puts the next peg, and the first at this time takes out the second peg from the ground and puts it on the ring on which the first peg was put; the second peg means that one measurement has been made, that is, the measured distance is 20 m. These processes are repeated until the entire line is measured. When measuring lines over 200 m, a small wooden stake is hammered in place of every 11th peg; the first worker passes all 10 pegs to the second, and the measurement continues. In order to avoid the loss of pegs, and hence the incorrect counting, it is necessary to periodically check their presence.
When the worker reaches the end of the line to be measured, he pulls the tape from the last peg to the pole placed at the end of the line and counts the meters and decimeters. The total length of the measured line is determined by the number of wooden stakes and iron pegs (without one) driven into the ground by the worker, as well as the counted meters and decimeters at the last measurement of the tape.
Example. If 4 wooden stakes are driven into the ground, the worker has 9 pegs left, and 7 m and 4 dm are counted on the last tape, then the length of the measured line (4X200) + (8X20) +7.4 m = 967.4 m.
Taking measurements without placing lines can give errors, as in this case the line cannot be straight.
Measuring fork.
A forest caliper is used to measure the thickness (diameter) of felled and growing trees, as well as various round timber. It is the main tool for taxation work. There are a lot of caliper designs. The simplest of them consists of a thick line up to 1 m long with divisions. Attached at one end at right angles wooden block(fixed leg) about 0.5 m long, a second block of the same size (movable leg) is put on through the hole made in it onto the ruler from the other end. It should move freely on the ruler and at the same time always be parallel to the first bar.
Such a caliper has the disadvantage that, with frequent use, the movable leg soon loosens, loses its position perpendicular to the ruler. In addition, in wet weather, it swells, which delays the movement of the movable leg, in dry weather it shrinks, as a result of which the movements of the movable leg become excessively free. All this causes measurement errors. To eliminate this drawback, the cutout in the movable leg must be larger than the cross-section of the ruler; smooth movement of the movable leg in any weather and preservation of perpendicularity is ensured by the use of various devices - screws, springs, rollers, wedges, etc.
When making a caliper, the following requirements must be met: the right angle between the ruler and the fixed leg; easy and smooth sliding along the line of the movable leg, parallel to the fixed leg; the length of the legs, slightly more than half the thickness of large measured trunks and timber; sufficiently thin ends of the legs for the convenience of slipping a fork under a lying tree; correct and clear divisions on the measuring ruler; contact along the entire length of the inner planes of the legs with full convergence; low weight of the plug and ease of handling.
As the State All-Union Standard, a measured timber wooden fork of an improved design (Fig. 2) has been introduced, which consists of a ruler and legs - movable and fixed. The movable leg has a device - a metal insert with a screw that allows you to increase or decrease the leg opening. Thanks to this device, the movable caliper leg smoothly walks along the ruler in any weather, keeping perpendicular to the ruler and parallel to the fixed leg.
To reduce the contacting surfaces on the wide sides of the ruler, recesses are made 1 mm deep for divisions of 0.5 cm with numbers every 2 cm, starting from zero on one side for more accurate measurements, on the other 1 cm with numbers after 4 cm for the production of rounded recalculations in steps of a thickness of 4 cm. With such recalculations and measurements, shares less than half of the steps of thickness are discarded, and more than half are taken as integers. To save the measurer from the need to round up and speed up the counting, rounding divisions are applied to the ruler: the first thickness step (4 cm) is marked in half (2 cm), and the subsequent divisions are applied and indicated, counting from the first, in the usual order (after 4 cm) , as a result of which the mark of 8 cm is set where in fact it should be 6 cm, etc. the degree of rounding.
Rice. 2. Standard measuring wooden fork (I) and measurement by it (II): a - side for accurate measurements; b - for measurements in 4-cm steps of thickness; в - wrong; r - correct; 1 - trunk diameter, 2 - chord
Example. The movable leg goes over the number 12 by one division, therefore, the measurer marks the diameter of 12 cm, although it is equal to 2 + 8 + 1 = 11 cm.With rounding, it is equal to 12 cm, and if the movable leg goes over the number 12 by 3 divisions (2 + 8 + 3 = 13 cm or rounding 12 cm), i.e. until the movable leg reaches the number 16.
Thus, the trees are counted in 4-cm steps of thickness. As a result of rounding, errors are possible, but when performing counts of a large number of trees, as a result, these errors are reduced to a minimum, which is quite acceptable for forestry practice. When measuring a small number of trees and various round timber, the back of the caliper should be used, which gives results without rounding to an accuracy of 0.5 cm.
When using a caliper, it is necessary to adhere to the following rules: apply a ruler to the barrel and smoothly, without pressure, enclose the barrel between the movable and fixed legs, taking into account the ability of the legs to spring, as a result of which pinching the barrel with an effort between them or the ends of the legs can give reduced results due to the measurement of only the chord, and not the diameter (see Fig. 2); the ruler must be read before removing the caliper from the tree; when measuring thickness standing tree the measurement site should be cleared of mosses and lichens; to obtain the most accurate results, it is necessary to measure not one diameter of the barrel (or part of it), but two mutually perpendicular diameters or the largest and smallest diameters and take the average value, since the barrel is usually not round.
Measuring bracket.
The thickness of the log in the upper section can be determined with a measuring bracket (Fig. 3). To make it, take a well-dried wooden block 50-80 cm long and cut a ruler out of it rectangular section ZOX "10 mm. One end of it is rounded and given the shape of a handle, and a metal plate is nailed to the other with a width equal to its thickness. The plate on one side is bent into a ruler, and on the other it remains in the form of a protrusion-hook with a length of 1.0-1 , 5 cm, which serves so that when the measuring clip is applied to the cut of the log, the ruler does not slip and its beginning coincides with the edge of the cut (see Fig. 3). On both sides of the ruler, markings are made in the direction from the protrusion of the hook to the handle in centimeters and half centimeters with numbers every 2 or 5 cm. Every 10 cm is marked with a red pencil, the rest in black.
Rice. 3. Measuring bracket
When measuring, the measuring bracket must always pass in the middle of the cut, and the protrusion of the hook rests against the edge of the cut, otherwise an incorrect result will be obtained. Better to take two mutually perpendicular measurements with the conclusion of the average. The count is recorded without removing the staples from the cut. For accurate measurement, the log should be carefully debarked, otherwise the protrusion is; the hook may catch part of the bast, and the result will be exaggerated.
Altimeter.
Many different devices and devices are used to determine the height of a standing tree. The simplest and most accessible altimeter is the usual forest caliper (Fig. 4, a). When using it as an altimeter, a plumb line is attached approximately 6 cm from the end, and a zero line is marked on a movable leg at the same distance from the end, from which centimeter and half-centimeter divisions are applied to both sides. When aligning the legs, the attachment point of the plumb line on the fixed leg and the zero division on the movable leg must match. The divisions on the movable leg for the convenience of the readings when crossing them with a plumb line are applied at an obtuse angle to the ruler of the caliper.
When taking a measurement, the gauge moves away approximately at a distance equal to the height of the tree, so that its top is clearly visible from this point. The distance from the tree to the measurer is accurately measured with a tape measure; then the movable leg is moved away from the fixed leg by the number of centimeters corresponding to the number of meters to the gauge, and the movable leg is fixed with a screw; along the inner edge of the fixed leg, they sight at the top of the tree and measure the centimeters of the movable leg along the plumb line. The number of centimeters shown by the plumb line, replaced by meters, plus the average height of a person (up to the eyes), taken 1.5 m, is equal to the height of the tree. The caliper allows you to measure trees with an accuracy of ± 0.5 m.
Example 1. The plumb line crossed the movable leg by 23.5 cm. The height of the tree is 23.5-4-1.5 = 25 m. it is necessary to sight at the top of the tree and make a reading along the plumb line in centimeters, then to the base and make the same reading. In this case, the plumb line passes on the other side of the zero of the movable leg, that is, in the direction of its end. Summing up both readings, we get a number equal to the height of the tree in meters. To obtain the height of the tree located above the gauge, the result of the second count must be subtracted from the first.
Example 2. The countdown when sighting a tree below the measurer to the top showed 17 and to the base 3 cm. Therefore, the height of the tree is 17 + 3 = 20 m.
As an altimeter, you can use a simple rectangular plank, approximately 10x15 cm, made of plywood or thin board. The small size of the board allows you to carry it in your pocket (see Fig. 4, b). Its surface is divided by lines parallel to the edges into a series of small squares. The grid of squares can be previously drawn in ink on parchment paper and carefully glued to the board. In the upper right corner, at a distance of about 3-4 cm from the edge at point E, a plumb line is attached. Along the edges BD and CD, the divisions are inscribed: along the edge BD from top to bottom, and along the edge CD to the left and right from the line EO, crossing the plate from top to bottom through the point of attachment of the plumb line E.
Rice. 4. Instruments for measuring the height of a tree: a - caliper; o - altimeter plate; c - pendulum altimeter
To determine the height of a tree, the distance from the point of sight to the tree is measured with such a plate (as when working with a caliper) and the same number of squares is counted from top to bottom along the edge by the number of received meters. The line crossed at the end of the reading, parallel to the base of the plank, serves to measure the height of the measured tree. Then they sight along the edge of the LP to the top of the tree. When the plumb line has calmed down, it is clamped by hand and the number of squares at the point of intersection of the plumb line with the previously found parallel line is determined (parts of the squares are determined by eye). This number plus 1.5 m (the height of a person up to the eyes) is the height of the tree.
Example. The distance from the point of sight to the tree is 18 M. Therefore, the line parallel to the base and passing through the number 18 along the edge BD (18 squares from top to bottom) is used to read the height of the measured tree. Suppose that the plumb line crossed this line by 15.5 squares, then the height of the tree is 15.5 + 1.5 = 17 m.
If the measurement site is uneven, the height of the tree is determined in the same way as when working with a caliper; for readings when sighting at the base of the tree, when it is lower than the observer, serves Right side plate from the line crossing it from top to bottom through the point of attachment of the plumb line E. The accuracy of measurement with a plate is about the same as when working with a caliper. In order to obtain greater accuracy, it is advisable to attach diopters to the upper edge of the LV plate.
Of the special altimeters, the easiest to use and quite reliable in terms of measurement accuracy is the pendulum altimeter, proposed in 1949 by the taxator NI Makarov (see Fig. 4, c). This is a thin metal plate resembling a sector of a circle with a radius of 8-10 cm. At some distance from the corner of the sector, a metal pendulum is suspended, the bushing of which outside ends with a special head - a button that presses the pendulum to the plate, and from the inside it has a nut, when pressed on which the pendulum begins to move. On the arc of the sector there are two scales of divisions: the upper one - for counting the height of the tree when departing from it at a distance of 10 m, the lower one - by 20 m.The scales make it possible to obtain, without preliminary calculations, the height of the tree when departing for sighting at 10 and 20 m. the plate, on which the pendulum is attached, is soldered a sighting tube with a bell for viewing from one side and with a small rounded hole for sighting to the top and base of the tree on the other.
The height of the tree is determined as follows. If the height does not exceed 15 m, they move away from it by 10 m, and if it approaches 20 m, then by 20 m. right hand take the altimeter, covering the recess of the arc with the thumb, and the sighting tube with the index, point the latter to the top of the tree ^ and press with the index finger of the left hand on the nut of the pendulum, which begins to swing freely; allowing it to calm down, the nut is smoothly released, as a result of which the pendulum in the vertical position is pressed against the plate. After that, the height of the tree is counted according to one of the division scales: 10 or 20, respectively. If the height of the tree, according to preliminary determination, is more than 25 m, they retreat 30 m and, after sighting at its height, readings are taken on both scales. Then the obtained readings are summed up and 1.5 m is added, as a result, the height of the measured tree is obtained.
Example 1. When measuring a tree from a distance of 10 m, a reading on the 10th scale of 9.5 m was obtained. Therefore, the height of the tree is 9.5 + 1.5 = 11 m.
Example 2. When measuring a tree from a distance of 20 m, a reading was obtained on a 20-m scale of 17 m. Therefore, the height of a tree is 17 + 1.5 = 18.5 m.
Example 3. When measuring a tree from a distance of 30 m, a reading was obtained on the 10th scale of 9 m and on the 20-m 18 m. Therefore, the height of the tree is 9 + 18 + 1.5 = 28.5 m.
If the tree grows on uneven terrain, then you need to sight 2 times: to the top and to the base (as when working with a caliper). A more accurate determination of the height of a tree is obtained when measured from a distance approaching their actual height. In this case, the reading obtained on the upper scale is divided by 10 and multiplied by the distance from the tree to the point from which the sighting was made.
Example. The sighting was carried out from a distance of 14 m, on the upper scale, a reading of 11 m was obtained.Consequently, the height of the tree
X14 + 1.5 = 16.9 m.
Before starting work, it is necessary to check the serviceability of the altimeter. In the horizontal position (at the spirit level), the pendulum hand should point to the zero division. When pressing the nut, the pendulum should swing freely, and when lowering, immediately stop moving, since it is pressed against the plate.
Incremental drill.
To determine the growth of a tree in thickness, a small tool called an incremental drill is used (Fig. 5). This instrument consists of a metal tube inner diameter 5-7 mm. The drills come in various lengths, but usually 12 cm. One end of the tube is somewhat narrowed and has sharp edges with an external screw (also sharp) thread, the other has a quadrangular section and flat edges. With its quadrangular end, the tube is tightly inserted into another tube (hollow, unscrewing, metal), which is both a handle and a case for the instrument.
Before work, the thick bark of the tree must be slightly cleaned, but not to the wood. Then, perpendicular to the surface of the barrel, a drill is screwed in to the desired depth, having previously inserted a lanceolate steel serrated with one-side a plate - a brush, with the teeth of which a column of wood is clamped in a drill and together with it is removed from the tree. It is necessary to take out the drill very carefully so as not to break this column, since the thickness of the annual layers is also measured on it with the help of a brush, on back side which is marked with divisions in millimeters and centimeters. After work, the handle of the drill is unscrewed and a tube with a screw thread and a brush inserted into it is placed in it. In this form, the drill is convenient for carrying around the forest.
