UDC 809.452.1=808.2(038 )

T.V. Yantsukova

Differentiation between polysemy and homonymy in mountain Mari-Russian dictionaries

FSBEI HPE "Mari State University"

The article is devoted to the differentiation of polysemantic and homonymous words in Hill Mari-Russian dictionaries. Homonyms are given in dictionaries in separate entries, but the meanings of polysemantic words are presented in the same entries.

Key words: polysemy, homonymy, Hill Mari-Russian dictionary, criterion.

The article is devoted to the differentiation of polysemantic and homonymous words in the mountain Mari-Russian dictionaries. Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and the meanings of a polysemantic word are given in one dictionary entry.

Key words: polysemy, homonymy, mountain-Mari-Russian dictionary, criterion.

In linguistic literature, there is no unity of views on the phenomenon called homonymy, and on the delimitation of it from polysemy. Basically, there are two views on homonymy and polysemy. According to the first, only those equally sounding words are recognized as homonyms that were originally different in form and only in the process of historical development coincided with each other in a single sound due to various phonetic or random reasons. All other cases, when the same material, sound shell takes on a different content, are recognized as the phenomenon of polysemy, polysemy of the word.

According to the second view, homonyms include both words that are historically different, but for historical reasons coinciding in sound, and those cases when different meanings of a polysemantic word diverge so much that the material shell that connected them seems to be torn, as a result of which two ( or more) new words.

Such pairs are no different at any given stage of language development from those that have arisen due to the accidental convergence of their phonetic appearance. Both are characterized by the fact that they sound the same, and mean different, which does not differ graphically and morphologically (although there is a tendency for such a distinction in languages), but they always behave differently in a sentence and have different lexical compatibility.

Polysemy is the presence of several related meanings in the same word, usually resulting from the modification and development of the original meaning of this word. Polysem is one word that has several related meanings: NS¼ l¼ NS 1) know smb., Get to know, get to know; 2) guess, guess, guess; 3) define smth.; 4) discern ...

Homonymy is the sound coincidence of different linguistic units that are semantically unrelated to each other. Homonyms are words that sound the same, are identical in form, but whose meanings are in no way related to each other, i.e. do not contain any common elements of meaning, no common semantic features. Homonyms are separate, independent words. For example, pachkash 1 1) burn with nettles; 2) transfer read lectures, teach; 3) transfer scold, sneak, condemn and pachkash 2 1) shake off, shake off, shake, shake; 2) clap, gouge out.

One of the main features of a polysemantic word is that its individual meanings are always linked. Secondary, figurative meanings of a polysemantic word are grouped around the main one, which usually acts as a semantic core.

In polysemy, different meanings of one word are always related in meaning. This relationship can be different: based either on the similarity of objects, called in one word, or on the adjacency, or on the relationship "part - whole". No matter how many meanings a polysemous word has, no matter how varied these meanings are, the word remains itself. For example, the verb go in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova indicated 26 values; in the "Dictionary of the mountain dialect of the Mari language" by A.A. Savatkova at the verb ke¼ NS'Go' - 6 values. Verb go changes the meaning, but remains the same word, because its different meanings have one thing in common: the designation of movement.

Unlike polysemy, the meanings of homonymous words have nothing in common with each other, or the former connection between the meanings of homonyms from the point of view of the current state has been lost. Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and polysemantic words - in one; followed by highlighting several meanings of the word, which are given under the numbers. However, in different dictionaries, sometimes the same words are presented differently. A similar statement applies to the Gornomarisko-Russian dictionaries considered in this work. In the "Maro-Russian dictionary of the mountain dialect" V.S. Shorin and "Gornomariysko-Russian dictionary" by S.G. Epin, polysemantic words and homonyms are not always correctly distinguished: Catch¼ lt¼ m - hang myself, hang myself; kacheltesh - hang himself; ketch¼lt¼sh - to hang himself, to hang himself. Catch¼ ltesh- throws (dog on person); Catch¼ lt¼ NS- hang yourself, hang yourself. Catch¼ lt¼ NS- to rush, to rush at someone.

It remains unclear whether V.S. Shorin and S.G. Epin indicate in this way the meanings of the same word, or they are different words, i.e. homonyms.

In the "Dictionary of the mountain dialect of the Mari language" A.A. Savatkova verb ketch¼ lt¼ NS given as a polysemantic word: Kechaltash 1) hang, hang, hang, hang; 2) throw, throw at smb.; 3) hang, gag. Many similar examples can be cited in the mountain Mari-Russian dictionaries.

Of the numerous issues related to the problem of homonymy, the issue of separating polysemy from homonymy is the greatest difficulty both in the creation of lexicographic textbooks and in the practice of language learning. The difficulty is in the selection of lexical homonyms formed as a result of the disintegration of polysemy. Some researchers call such homonyms semantic.

The criterion for establishing semantic homonyms on the basis of only the remoteness of the meanings of a word, proposed by most researchers, is a necessary sign indicating homonymy, but nevertheless leads to subjective interpretations. Therefore, in addition to the semantic one, some kind of external sign is needed, confirming the formation of such semantic homonyms in the language.

V.V. Vinogradov believes that a sign of the isolation of a homonym can also be a constructively determined meaning of a word, for example, turn around(facing the window) and turn around(into smb.), i.e. turn into. But here V.V. Vinogradov stipulates that different types of constructive conditioning can be both signs of homonymy and serve as an indication of the boundaries of different meanings of the same word.

EAT. Galkina-Fedoruk considers the presence of different synonyms in words (along with the semantic remoteness of meanings) a sign that the word has broken up into homonyms. As an example, the words key'Master key' and key’Trickle’. EAT. Galkina-Fedoruk points out that if the same word acts as a synonym, then in such cases we are already dealing with polysemy. An example is the verb drum, to which, as in the context Someone is drumming on a drum and in context Drumming rain on the roof you can pick up one synonym knock .

M.S. Gurychev and B.A. Serebrennikov note the emergence of homonymy in those cases when the splitting of the meanings of a word is accompanied by the formation of new word-formation centers that are not semantically related to each other.

In some Russian-language dictionaries, the objective criterion of homonymy is sometimes considered the difference in the set of grammatical categories for two lexical meanings: (cf. hour (s) 1- 'length of time' and hours 2 -`` A tool for measuring time '' - without the singular form) or the difference in the ways of expressing grammatical categories for different meanings (cf. dazzle 1 - dazzle, for example, Flowers are dazzling in the distance and dazzle 2 - dazzle, for example, Posters on the walls are full of). In a number of cases, such grammatical or morphonological differences do indeed accompany the complete dissimilarity of lexical meanings, but this parallelism does not always take place. In particular, in the meanings of nouns hour - hours, and in the meanings of the verbs dazzle - dazzle there are undoubted common parts - 'time' and 'motley', therefore the assessment of the corresponding units as homonymous contradicts the definition of homonymy.

The problem of differentiating homonymy and polysemy can arise when homonyms appear as a result of semantic splitting of a polysemantic word. At the same time, completely different words are formed on the basis of different meanings of one word. Their previous semantic connections are lost, and only an etymological analysis makes it possible to establish a once common semantic feature, testifying to their single historical root.

Modern science has developed criteria for distinguishing homonymy and polysemy, which help to separate the meanings of the same word and homonyms that arose as a result of a complete rupture of polysemy.

1. The lexical way of differentiating ambiguity and homonymy, which consists in identifying synonymous relationships between homonyms and polysemes. If the consonant units are included in one synonymous row, then the different meanings still retain semantic similarity and, therefore, it is too early to talk about the development of polysemy into homonymy. If they have different synonyms, then we have a homonymy.

2. A morphological way of distinguishing between two similar phenomena: polysemous words and homonyms are characterized by different word formation. So, lexical units that have a number of meanings form new words using the same affixes.

3. A semantic way of differentiating these phenomena. The meanings of homonymous words always mutually exclude each other, and the meanings of a polysemantic word form one semantic structure, maintaining semantic proximity; one of the meanings presupposes the other, there is no insurmountable border between them.

Difficulties in accurately distinguishing polysemy and homonymy, arising in a number of cases, lead some linguists to the idea that only meanings related to words of different origin should be considered homonyms. Adopting this point of view would push the concept of homonymy into the realm of historical lexicology. Meanwhile, it is undoubted that it is for the modern language that one has to distinguish between meanings associated with each other and meanings that, although they refer to words that sound the same, have nothing in common in their meanings (cf. yukim kolash’Hear a voice’ and vysyshty kolash"Die in the war"; amasam h¿ h¼ NS'Close the door' and expressed h¿ h¼ NS'Make a hole').

Determination of homonyms helps to clarify the etymology of the word. Word T½ R means 'edge' and 'embroidery'. The meaning 'embroidery' can be explained as a result of a metonymic transfer of the name (patterns can be embroidered along the edges of the hem, sleeves, etc.). But by its origin, the words T½ R'Edge' and T½ R'Embroidery' are different: T½ R’Edge’ is of Finno-Ugric origin, and T½ R'Embroidery' is a Turkic borrowing.

There are transitional, intermediate phenomena in the language; their existence complicates the differentiation in a number of cases of homonymy from polysemy, however, the very distinction between these phenomena seems to be important both theoretically and for lexicographic practice.

Thus, one of the main tasks when considering the relationship between polysemy and homonymy is to determine the criteria for their differentiation. Polysemy is the presence of several related meanings in the same word; homonymy is a sound coincidence of different words that are not semantically related to each other. A polysemantic word is one word that has several related meanings. Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and the meanings of a polysemantic word are given in one dictionary entry. However, in the dictionaries under consideration, sometimes the same words are represented differently.

Literature:

1. Vinogradov V.V. The main types of lexical meanings of the word // Questions of linguistics, 1953. - № 5. - P.3-29.
2. Galkina-Fedoruk E.M. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary. - M .: Nauka, 1954 .-- 287 p.
3. Gurycheva M.S., Serebrennikov B.A. The tasks of studying the basic vocabulary fund of the language // Problems of linguistics. - 1953, No. 6. - S. 3-20.
4. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of Russian. - M .: Azbukovnik, 2001 .-- 944 p.
5. Savatkova A.A. Dictionary of the mountain dialect of the Mari language. - Yoshkar-Ola: Mar. book publishing house, 1981 .-- 235 p.
6. Shorin V.S. Maro-Russian dictionary of mountain dialect. - Kazan: The Third State Printing House, 1920. - 176s.
7. Epin S.G. Gornomarisko-Russian dictionary. Kyryk marla d rula sir½m shamak books¼. - Kozmodemyansk, 1935 .-- 196 p.

Our language is multifaceted and rich. Sometimes, using this or that word, we do not think about the boundaries of its meaning. We know that the Earth is the name of our planet, and the earth is a part of its surface, land, soil. Also, everyone knows that peace is the entire system around us and at the same time peace is the absence of enmity, life without war. We express some different semantic interpretations with the same words, which are words with several meanings. Let's find out why this is happening.

Why are there words in a language that have multiple meanings?

Even the linguist A. A. Potebnya, who lived in the 19th century, wrote in his monograph “Thought and Language” that the development of human speech is in the direction of greater abstraction.

When our distant ancestors learned to express their desires and emotions with the help of sounds, they still did not know what geometry and the periodic table are, did not distinguish between the concepts of "bad" and "terrible", "good" and "excellent". The first words called objects, phenomena and feelings, the ability to designate and express which was necessary in everyday life. Likewise, children who are just learning to speak first use simple words such as "mom", "dad", "house", "table", and only then they understand what kindness, joy, hatred, and anger mean.

In the course of the development of the ability for imaginative and analytical thinking in ancient man, it became necessary to come up with new designations for the newly appeared concepts. Sometimes, as such designations, words already existing in the language were used, which, however, were given a new meaning. But at the same time, the original meaning of these words was preserved. This is how many words appeared with several meanings.

How to name lexemes with multiple meanings correctly

In linguistics, a word that has several meanings is called polysemantic. This is a term of Russian linguistics, and in foreign science such words are called polysemic (from the Greek polis - "many", and semanticos - "denoting").

Russian academician V.V. Vinogradov called polysemy the ability of one word to convey various information about objects and phenomena of extra-linguistic reality. It should be said that the meaning inherent in the word, its material-semantic shell is called the lexical meaning. The above are examples of the interpretation of words that have several lexical meanings. However, few people know that the word "peace" has not two, but as many as seven meanings! You can check this using Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary.

Polysemy and homonymy

In linguistics, as in any other science, there are concepts that are debatable. So, for example, A.A. Potebnya and R. Yakobson believed that words with several meanings do not exist, because if a lexeme under some circumstances began to denote another object or phenomenon, then it completely changed its semantic core.

However, in traditional polysemy and homonymy they still differ, although they are often confused on Internet resources.

It is believed that words that have several meanings still retain their semantic center in each interpretation, some representation that lies at the very root of the structure of the lexical unit. It is assumed that polysemous words have a continuity of meanings, while homonyms do not. For example, a crane and a faucet in the kitchen, the note "salt" and table salt are homonyms, not ambiguous words, because there is no semantic connection between them.

How does word ambiguity arise?

Polysemia is believed to arise in three main ways:

• With the help of metaphorical transfer. By metaphor is meant a shift in the meaning of a word based on the similarity of several objects. For example: a grain of wheat is a grain of truth.
• With the help of metonymy. Metonymy is understood as the transfer of the meaning of one word to another according to the principle of the presence of semantic connections between two concepts. For example: a dish made of expensive porcelain is a delicious French dish.
• With the help of synecdoche. Many linguists believe that synecdoche is a special case of metonymy. This term is understood as the transfer of the name of a part to a whole. For example: “home” instead of “home” and “returning home from America” instead of “returning to Russia” (if we mean exactly coming to your country, and not specifically to your home from someone else's home).

Examples of polysemous words

It can be assumed that the name of our planet - Earth - appeared a second time from the name of land, soil. After all, people and mammals exist precisely on land, it is this land that is their real habitat. And the name of our planet was formed with the help of a metonymic transfer, that is, the designation of a part of the surface was transferred to the whole whole. We also say, for example, that the class listens attentively to the teacher, meaning not the room, but the students in it.

We call berries raspberries, as well as the bush on which they grow. The ambiguity here has developed on the principle of synecdoche. But the colloquial meaning of the word "raspberry" - "thieves' den" is, rather, a homonym to the other two examples of its use.

What does the word "prefix" mean?

Can you tell right away - one or more meanings of the word "prefix"? From the school course of the Russian language, everyone knows that this is the name of the part of the word that precedes the root and serves to change the meaning of the lexical unit. This noun is derived from the verb "pester" and actually names everything that is "attached" that stands next to something.

In the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, two meanings of this word are noted:

• a tape recorder that amplifies the sound power;
• morpheme, prefix;
• also a special installation for virtual games was called a prefix 10-15 years ago.

Language puns based on ambiguity and homonymy

In every developed language there are words that are the same in form, but different in meaning. The combination of such lexical units in one text is used to create a comic effect, a pun on words. Try to explain what the comic effect of the following phrases is based on:

• Mowed with an oblique oblique oblique.
• He stoked the stove all night. By morning she drowned.
• Parrot us, parrot.
• He learned verse and verse.

In the above phrases, the comic effect is based on the homonymy of certain word forms. But at the same time, the vocabulary forms of these lexical units are different. So, in the first example, the words "mow", "oblique", "scythe" are used. "Oblique" as an adjective means "uneven", "crooked", and "oblique" as a noun is the colloquial naming of a hare. In the second example, the ambiguity of the word "drown" is used: to kindle a fire, to immerse it deeply in water. In the third example, homonyms are used: parrot as a noun - the name of a bird, parrot as an imperative from the verb "scare". And finally, in the fourth it is based on the coincidence of the past tense form of the verb "to die down" and the noun in the nominative case "verse" (a line in poetry).

It is not always easy to understand whether words have one or more meanings. The root of lexemes and analysis of the contexts of use can help determine if the units in question are polysemous or homonymous.

Exercise on the interpretation of the meanings of polysemous words

Assignment: Look at the list below and try to determine for yourself if one or more meanings have highlighted words: wardrobe, fox, machine, path, hand, core... Explain your choice. How many meanings could you single out for each word?

All of these words have several lexical meanings:

• Wardrobe refers to items of clothing, as well as the room where they are stored.
• The fox is an animal and at the same time a cunning person. The ambiguity has developed due to the fact that in ancient times (and in the villages - and now) foxes at night, when no one sees them, entered people's homes and barns to steal food.
• A machine is both a vehicle and technical equipment.
• The path is both a road on earth, and an air communication, and metaphorically a person's life.
• The hand is a body part and handwriting.
• The core is both the central part of something, and the basis of any movement, for example, an army.

Several tasks for logic

Take a look at the phrases below. Can you guess what unites:

1. the position of a diplomat and salting;
2. the radiation of the sun and the class of aristocrats;
3. spousal relationships and poorly made products;
4. a strip of land in the sea and the pride of a Russian beauty;
5. river fish and a dishwashing brush.

Answers: Ambassador; light; marriage; braid; ruff.

What do you think, which of these examples relate to homonymy, and which to ambiguity? Words with several meanings differ from homonyms by the presence of some logical-semantic connection between different concepts. In example No. 2, the connection is based on a metaphor: as the sun illuminates the earth, so the aristocrats, due to their education and development, were an adornment of society. And in example # 5, the connection between fish and brush is based on metonymy, because the external shape of the brush resembles a fish. Examples numbered 1, 3, 4 are based on homonymy.

Thus, we found out that a word that has several meanings is called polysemous, or polysemic. But at the same time, it is desirable to be able to distinguish ambiguity from homonymy. If between words with several meanings some semantic relationship is preserved, then there is no such relationship between homonyms.

Homonymy(from gr. homos - the same, ónyma - name), i.e. coincidence in the sound and spelling of words that are different in meaning; looks like ambiguity.

However, the use of a word in different meanings (polysemy) does not give grounds to speak of the appearance of new words each time, while completely different words collide with homonymy that coincide in sound and spelling, but have nothing in common in semantics. For example: marriage in the meaning of "matrimony" and marriage - “spoiled products”. The first word is derived from the verb brothers by suffix -To(cf. to marry), homonymous noun marriage borrowed at the end of the 17th century from the German language (German Brack - "lack" goes back to the verb brechen - "to break").

The problem of differentiating homonymy and polysemy is very relevant, and it often arises when homonyms appear as a result of semantic splitting of a polysemantic word. For example, as a result of the disintegration of a polysemantic word, homonyms appeared: abuse — swearing and abuse - war, battle; to mark - put a mark and to mark - try to hit the target, Wednesday - environment and Wednesday - day of the week, etc.

Modern science has developed some criteria for distinguishing homonymy and ambiguity.

1. Offered lexical way differentiation of ambiguity and homonymy, which consists in identifying synonymous relationships between homonyms and ambiguous words. If the consonant units are included in one synonymous row, then the different meanings still retain semantic similarity and, therefore, it is too early to talk about the development of polysemy into homonymy. If they have different synonyms, then we have a homonymy. For example, the word root in the meaning of "indigenous" has synonyms primordial, basic; a root in the meaning of "root question" - a synonym main... The words
basic and main- are synonymous, therefore, we have two meanings of the same word. Here's another example: the word thin in the meaning of "not well-fed" forms a synonymous row with adjectives skinny, puny, lean, dry, a thin meaning "devoid of positive qualities" - with adjectives bad, bad, bad... The words skinny, frail etc. are not synonymous with words bad, bad... This means that the lexical units under consideration are independent, that is, they are homonymous.

2. Applicable morphological way differentiation of two similar phenomena: polysemous words and homonyms are characterized by different word formation. So, lexical units that have a number of meanings form new words using the same affixes. For example, nouns bread - "cereal" and bread - "food product baked from flour", form an adjective using the suffix -n-; Wed respectively: grain shoots and bread smell... A different word formation is characteristic of homonyms. thin and thin ... The first has derivatives: thinness, lose weight, thin; the second one - worsen, worsening... This convinces of their complete semantic isolation. Homonyms and polysemous words, in addition, have different formations: thin - thinner; thin - worse.

3. Used and semantic way differentiation of these phenomena. The meanings of homonymous words are always mutually exclusive of each other, and for polysemantic words, different meanings are not isolated from one another, but are connected, systemic. There are cases when homonymy develops from polysemy, but even then the discrepancy in meanings reaches such a limit that the resulting words lose any semantic similarity and act as independent lexical units. For example: light in the meaning of "sunrise, dawn" ( A little light is already on my feet, and I am at your feet) and light in the meaning of "earth, world, universe" ( I wanted to go around the whole world, but did not go around a hundredth).

However, all three methods of differentiating ambiguity and homonymy cannot be considered completely reliable. There are cases when synonyms for different meanings of a word do not enter into synonymous relations with each other, when homonymous words have not yet diverged during word formation. Therefore, there are often discrepancies in the definition of the boundaries of homonymy and ambiguity, which affects
interpretation of some words in dictionaries.

The distinction between homonymy and polysemy is reflected in explanatory dictionaries: different meanings of polysemous words are given in one dictionary entry, and homonyms - in different ones. However, different dictionaries sometimes present the same words in different ways. So, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegov's words put - “to place something, anywhere, anywhere” and to put - “to decide, decide” are given as homonyms, and in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” (MAS) - as polysemous.

To study the phenomenon of homonymy, you can use special dictionaries. For example, "Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" O.S. Akhmanova(M., 1974), in which Russian homonyms are translated into English, French, German and supplied with grammatical and stylistic marks. A wide range of readers is addressed "Dictionary of Homonymy in the Russian Language" by N.P. Kolesnikova(Tbilisi, 1978).

Together with homonyms, they usually consider related phenomena related to the sound and graphic aspects of speech - homophones,homographs and homoforms.

Words that sound the same but are spelled differently ( meadow - onion) are called homophones(from gr. homos - the same, phone - voice, sound). Cases are close to the phenomenon of homophony when, when pronouncing, on the one hand, words coincide, on the other, parts of words or several words ( Not you, but Sima, she suffered unbearably, is carried by the water of the Neva).

Words that match only in writing, but differ in pronunciation, are called homographs(from gr. homos - the same, grapho - I write). Homographs usually stress different syllables ( circles - circles, fall - fall, forty - forty etc.). In modern language there are more than a thousand pairs of homographs, some of them have different stylistic colors: booty(public) - booty(prof.).

Words that match in sound only in certain forms ( flying"treat" - flying"Fly") are called homoforms... For example, the saying Mowed with oblique oblique oblique may have several different readings : Mowed by a crooked oblique hare or Mowed drunk with a crooked oblique... In this case, the forms of the instrumental case of the noun coincide scythe, adjective oblique and nominative case of a noun (substantive adjective) oblique.

In the language, you can find many speech units that sound the same and coincide in spelling. However, only words of the same sphere of use are real lexical homonyms. And such as, for example, a lion - animal and a lion - Bulgarian monetary unit, bar - restaurant and bar - a unit of atmospheric pressure, found side by side almost exclusively in dictionaries, therefore, as homonyms, they are largely potential.

DIVERSION, discrepancies, cf. (book). 1.units only. Action according to ch. disperse in 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 digits. diverge 2. Divergence of rays. Radius divergence of lines. The order of divergence of the columns at the meeting is established by the senior commander. ... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Market oscillator signal about a trend reversal; the discrepancy between the directions of price movement and the oscillator curve. In English: Divergence See also: Market Oscillators Finam Financial Dictionary ... Financial vocabulary

A graph of the dynamics of the state of the market, in which market indicators indicate various trends. Dictionary of business terms. Academic.ru. 2001 ... Business glossary

Divergence, I, cf. 1. see disperse. 2. Disagreement, contradiction, disagreement. Differences in views. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Divergence is a type of dynamics observed in the analysis of market conditions, when market indicators indicate different trends. Raizberg BA, Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva EB .. Modern economic dictionary. 2nd ed., ... ... Economic Dictionary

divergence- - Telecommunications topics, basic concepts EN discrepancy ... Technical translator's guide

Divergence- the term of the followers of the theory of phased cognitive development by J. Piaget, denotes all forms of asynchronous, not corresponding to the mentioned theory, the appearance of concepts in a child: a) horizontal divergence (for example, the child has an understanding ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

Divergence- This term is primarily found in the works of followers of Piaget, studying cognitive development. According to Piaget, cognitive development goes through several stages, and therefore, when the child reaches a higher level of cognitive ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Psychology

Divergence- (cleavage) see Political discrepancy; Class divergence ... Comprehensive explanatory sociological dictionary

divergence- significant discrepancy ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms

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The main (or direct) lexical meaning of the word is directly related to the reflection of the phenomena of objective reality; the primary, stylistically neutral meaning of the word, which has no figurativeness, which practically does not depend on the context and which immediately arises in the mind of the speaker when pronouncing the word

out of context;

Derived (or figurative) - the secondary meaning of the word, acquired by him in the process of the historical development of the language and functioning along with the direct; unlike the main meaning, it is always contextually conditioned and has a living or partially extinct imagery. The figurative meaning arises in the process of the historical development of the language.

3. Based on the possibility or impossibility of attributing a word to a specific subject

Concrete meanings - have words that denote specific objects;

Abstract - respectively abstract phenomena.

4. Depending on the ability of a word to realize its meaning in the context or outside it (i.e., syntagmatic conditionality or non-conditionality of its meaning):

Free meaning is not predetermined by context; an independent meaning of a word, which does not depend on the context and is retained in it in any speech situation; words with this meaning form free combinations;

Nonfree values:

Phraseologically related - predetermined by the context; it is realized only as part of stable phrases, phraseological combinations, that is, it completely depends on the context; words with this meaning can only be combined with certain words;

Syntactically (or functionally) conditioned - is acquired by a word in a certain syntactic function, namely, when it appears in a sentence in the function of a predicate (predicate), therefore it is also called predicative-characterizing;

Constructively conditioned - arises in a word only in a certain grammatical structure - in combination with words standing in a certain form.

21 Ambiguity, or polysemy(gr. poly - many + sma - sign), The ability of a word to have not one, but several meanings, and the word is called ambiguous... However, despite the changes that occur in the semantic structure of a word, the connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word remains, which gives reason to consider them as meanings of the same word, but qualify as lexico-semantic variants. The semantic development of a word occurs in two directions.

Change of denotations when the name is transferred from one object or action to another;

Enrichment of the concept and deepening of the meaning of the word.

Based on this, the following can be distinguished sources of ambiguity:

Creation of new (derivative and complex) words;

Phraseologization of word combinations, that is, the use of such word combinations as not constructive, but elemental, semantically inseparable nominative units;

Borrowing words from other (related and unrelated) languages;

The use of tropes, that is, the use of already existing words in new meanings for them, the figurative use of words.

A set of meanings of the same word in the works of V.V. Vinogradov and his followers is called the semantic structure of the word. Separate components of the semantic structure of words by A.I. Smirnitsky called lexico-semantic variants, or LSV; Yu.S. Maslov spoke about the semantic variants of the word, V.A. Zvegintsev suggested

the term "monoseme". The system of meanings of a polysemantic word is organized hierarchically, that is, it highlights:

The main (or main) meanings are the least contextually conditioned - they arise in the minds of the speakers when pronouncing a word out of context;

Derivatives (or portable) are implemented only in context.

In the system of meanings of a polysemantic word and their hierarchy, two types of relations of its meanings are distinguished:

The main and particular meaning of the word;

Invariant (extremely generalized, abstract and semantically the simplest meaning, allocated in a word in abstraction from its specific modifications - variants and inherent in all its semantic variants) and variant meanings of the word.

According to the degree of closeness to the invariant value, the remaining meanings of the word (LSV) are subdivided:

The central meanings are semantically the simplest;

Peripheral - semantically more complex, and therefore farther from the invariant meaning of the word.

On a functional basis, the values ​​are highlighted:

The main thing is the least due to the context; at the same time, the word in the main meaning has a wide compatibility, in which its independence from the context is manifested;

Private are the most context-dependent; in particular, the word has a limited, selective compatibility.

The simpler the meaning of a word, the wider its compatibility, and vice versa, the more complex it is, the narrower the compatibility. The relationship between the meanings of a polysemantic word is determined by the action of the following associative mechanisms:

The formation of a derived meaning is conditioned by the action of the paradigmatic mechanism of similarity associations; this is how metaphors arise - semantically derived names with a characterizing function; are more common in predicative positions (for verbs and adjectives); metaphorical and non-metaphorical names easily replace each other in the same context;

The formation of a derivative semantheme is explained by the action of the syntagmatic mechanism of contiguity associations; this is how metonyms arise - semantically derived names with an identifying function; metonymic names are more often found in subject positions (in nominal formations); the interchange of metonymic and nonmetonymic names implies a transformation of the context.

28. Neologisms(from the Greek. neos "new" and logos "word") - words (or phrases) denoting a new reality (object or concept) that appeared in the language relatively recently, still retaining a shade of freshness and unusualness. New lexicon units are also not included in the active vocabulary of the language.

Sources of neologisms:

They can arise from existing roots and stems using available derivational models such as derivative and complex words of various types;

Arise due to a partial or complete rethinking of the components of phrases as phrasemes and idioms;

To borrow in the literary language from territorial and social dialects, and in one or another dialect from the literary language or from another dialect;

Borrow from other languages ​​as a result of interethnic and intercultural contacts or mixing of languages.

Types of neologisms depending on the reasons that caused their appearance in the language:

Neologisms denoting a new reality in the life of society, which appeared in the language in connection with scientific, technical, socio-political, social and other changes in the life of native speakers:

Neologisms denoting existing realities, displacing their outdated names; they appear in the language in connection with the need to give a new, more accurate name to that which already had its designation.

Types of neologisms depending on the nature of their novelty(i.e., is this word new at all or is only its meaning new):

Lexical - borrowed from other languages ​​or formed on the basis of existing words;

Semantic - neologisms, in which a new concept is conveyed using words already existing in the language.

24. Paronyms(from the Greek. Para - about and Onyma - name) - these are words that are similar in sound and morphemic structure, but have different meanings. Usually, paronyms are words formed from the same root, but with the help of different affixes (suffixes, prefixes). For example: Put on (coat on yourself) - put on (child); Economical (human) - economical (mode) - economic (crisis); Escalator (movable ladder) - excavator (earthmoving machine); Zdravitsa (toast, congratulations) - health resort (sanatorium).

The similarity of paronymic words in sound and the common root in them is the main source of errors in their use. Paronyms are sometimes mixed in speech, although they denote different phenomena. For example, they say “put on a coat” instead of “put on a coat”. Meanwhile, the verbs to put on and to put on differ in meaning: they put on what, and who is dressed (put on a coat, a hat, mittens - to dress a child, a sick person). This example shows that paronyms differ not only in meaning, but also in compatibility with other words.

Classification of paronyms.

1. Givenfeatures of word formation , the following groups of paronyms can be distinguished: 1) Paronyms with different prefixes: typos - prints, pay - pay... 2) Paronyms differing in suffixes: unrequited - irresponsible, 3) Paronyms differing in the nature of the stem: one has a non-derivative stem, the other - a derivative. In this case, the pair can be: a) words with a non-derivative stem and prefixed formations: height - age; b) words with a non-derivative stem and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - braking; c) words with a non-derivative stem and words with a prefix and suffix:. 2.Insemantically among the paronyms, two groups are distinguished: 1) Paronyms differing in subtle semantic shades: long - long, welcome - desirable, diplomatic - diplomatic and under. There are most of such paronyms, their meanings are commented on in linguistic dictionaries (explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by peculiarities in lexical collocation: economic consequences - economical management of the economy, rich legacy - heavy legacy, 2) Paronyms that differ sharply in meaning: nest - nest,

3. A special group of paronyms is made up of those that differstylistic coloring : work(generally.) - to work(simple specialist),

4. Some authors interpret the phenomenon of paronymy in a broader way, referring to paronyms any words similar in sound (and not just single-root ones). In this case, such consonant forms as drill - trill, lancet - tweezers, mince - farce, escalator - excavator, bend - stained glass and others. However, their rapprochement in speech is of a random nature and is not consolidated by the whole variety of systemic relations in the language. In addition, the comparison of different-root consonant words is often subjective (to one, the words seem similar bend - stained glass, to another - bend - mirage).

The differences between polysemy and homonymy are as follows:

Multiple words:

They must have a meaning component (semu) or an associative attribute that unites all the other values ​​included in it;

Interdependence of all meanings of a polysemantic word;

General compatibility for different meanings of the word;

Synonyms for the meanings of polysemantic words form synonymous series;

Homonyms:

They do not have a binding seme;

Divergence of word-formation series caused by the divergence of word meanings;

Different compatibility;

The absence of synonymous relations between their synonyms, that is, words are homonyms if their synonyms do not form a synonymous series.

26. Limited vocabulary

The group of limited in use vocabulary includes:

Dialectisms - belong to the dialects of a particular language;

Professionalisms - belonging to the speech of a particular professional group;

Argotisms (from the French argot - jargon) are words that are limited in their use socially (and sometimes professionally), which are emotionally expressive equivalents of stylistically neutral words of the literary language.

22. Homonymy. Types of homonymy. different, but the same sounding words are called homonyms. There are two types of lexical homonyms: complete and incomplete (partial). Complete homonyms- these are words that coincide in all grammatical forms, for example: Shop (1) - "bench" and Shop (2) - "a small room for trade". These words in all cases will appear in the same forms, and the plural forms will also be the same. Incomplete homonyms- these are words belonging to the same part of speech, in which the system of grammatical forms does not completely coincide, for example: Shelf - "a device for storing something", can be in the forms of units. and many others. h (shelf - shelves, many shelves); The shelf - "weed control" (a verbal noun formed from the verb weed), exists only in the singular form. h.

types of homonyms

1) by the degree of formal coincidence: a) complete homonyms- words that match in sound, spelling and in all grammatical forms So, key1(from the lock, nut, etc.) and key2"spring" are homonymous in all singular cases. and many others. h (cf. also stern1 and stern2 or match1 and match2). ; b) incomplete(partial) homonyms Homonyms 6 op1 (forest) and bor2(dental) are in a relationship of partial homonymy, since in all forms of plural. h. have different stress (hog, hog ...- but hog, hog ...), and in one of the forms unit. h and different ending (in the forest- v bore). Homonyms leak1 and leak2(or know1 and know2) the infinitive of the verb is homonymous with it. (and wine) p. noun, all »E other forms diverge .;

2) by the quality of formal match incomplete (partial)

a)homophones - words that match in sound (rock - horn, campaign - company);

b)homographs - words that coincide in spelling: flour´ - mu´ka; 1. Bor1, bor2 and bor3 recognized as homonyms due to the absence of any connection between their lexical meanings. It is natural to call such homonymy “purely lexical”. Wed more examples: drown1"keep the fire" (in the oven), "heat" (the room), "heat, melt" 1 and drown2"make you drown"; stern1"serving as fodder" and stern2,"located at the stern of a ship, boat"; English Tatch1 "match" and match2 "competition, match"; fr. Loander1 "lend (or borrow), rent" and louer 2 "praise".

v)homoforms - words that match only in certain grammatical forms: saw (noun) - saw< пить. Leak1 and Leak2 recognized as homonyms, since these are different parts of speech. We will call this homonymy "grammatical homonymy of words." Wed more examples: evil1(noun) and evil2 (adverb); EnglishLove1 "love" and Love 2 "love".

Types of homonymy:

Lexical homonymy is a sound coincidence of linguistic units of different meanings belonging to the same part of speech;

Grammatical - sound coincidence in individual grammatical forms of linguistic units of different meanings;

Word-formation - the sound coincidence of morphemes with different word-formation meaning;

Syntactic - sound coincidence of different syntactic constructions;

Phonetic - a sound coincidence of linguistic units of different meanings with different spellings;

Graphic - graphic coincidence of linguistic units with different pronunciation;

Conversion is a special type of homonymy when a given word passes into another part of speech

25. Active and passive vocabulary Changes in the life of society (politically, economic, social, cultural) are reflected in the language, and above all in its vocabulary. The emergence of something new in the life of society leads to the emergence of new words, as a result of which the vocabulary of the language is replenished. The reverse process is also observed in the language - the withering away, the disappearance of some words, which is also a reflection of changes in the life of society. In the process of the historical development of the language, semantically transformations of words occur: new meanings appear and old ones are lost. Thus, in any language there are two layers of words: 1) Words that are constantly used, actively functioning in different spheres of human activity. This group is active stock Russian vocabulary. 2) Words that are not widely used. This group of words is passive stock Russian vocabulary. Each period of language development is characterized by a certain ratio of active and passive vocabulary, since what was relevant for one era may lose its relevance in the future, as a result of which the words cease to be active and pass into the passive composition of the language. For example, for the Moscow state of the 17th century. the following words and the concepts behind them were relevant: Order - "institution", for example: Polish order, Servants order; Petition - "petition"; petitioner - "supplicant", etc. Already in the XVIII century. there is a gradual loss of the relevance of these concepts, as a result of which the words denoting them pass into a passive vocabulary. In Soviet times, words such as Burmister, sergeant, merchant, clerk, captain, and others have passed into a passive vocabulary. The content of the following words has changed at the same time: Brigadier, dynasty, warrant officer, etc. state power ". So to active vocabulary includes common, common words that do not have a shade of obsolescence or novelty, for example: water, air, bread, breathe, live, work, beautiful, courageous, good, two, thirty, etc. The active vocabulary also includes words that have a limited scope of use (terms, professional vocabulary): gamma rays, molecule, ecology, etc. In passive vocabulary distinguishes between two main groups of words: 1) Obsolete words, that is, obsolete or obsolete; 2) New words, or neologisms, that is, words that have not yet become common, preserving the shade of novelty.

Archaisms- these are words denoting concepts, objects, phenomena that exist at the present time

Neologisms(from the Greek. neos "new" and logos "word") - words (or phrases) denoting a new reality (object or concept) that appeared in the language relatively recently, still retaining a shade of freshness and unusualness.

27. Obsolete words - words that belong to the passive stock of the language, obsolete but understandable. Depending on the degree of obsolescence: 1 words that are not clear without reference 2. understandable but passive (distress) 3. words disappeared (not visible)

Depending on the reasons why this or that word belongs to the category of obsolete,

1.Histories- these are words that have gone out of use because the objects and phenomena that they denoted have disappeared from life. Historicisms have no synonyms, since this is the only designation of a disappeared concept and the object or phenomenon behind it. Historicisms are quite diverse thematic groups of words: 1) Names of old clothes: zipun, camisole, caftan, kokoshnik, zhupan, shushun 2) Names of monetary units: altyn, penny, polushka, hryvnia, etc .; 3) Titles: boyar, nobleman, king, count, prince, duke, etc .; 4) Names of officials: policeman at the governor, clerk, sergeant, etc .; 5) Names of weapons: pishchal, hedgehog, unicorn (cannon), etc.; 6) Administrative names: volost, uyezd, okolotok, etc. For polysemantic words one of the meanings can become historicism. For example, the word people has the following meanings: 1) The plural of the noun person; 2) Others, strangers to someone; 3) Persons used in any business, personnel; 4) Servant, an employee in a noble house. The word people in the first three meanings is included in the active dictionary. The fourth meaning of this word is outdated, therefore we have before us semantic historicism, which forms the human lexeme in the meaning of "a room in which a servant lives." 2. Archaisms- these are words denoting concepts, objects, phenomena that exist at the present time; for various (first of all - extralinguistic) reasons, archaisms were ousted from active use in other words. Therefore, archaisms have synonyms in modern Russian, for example: sail (noun) - sail., Psyche (noun) - soul; Overseas (adj.) - foreign; Koi (pronoun) - which; Sei (pronoun) - this; Poeliku (union) - because, etc.

Depending on whether the whole word, the meaning of the word, the phonetic design of the word or a separate word-forming morpheme are outdated, archaisms are divided into

1) Actually lexical archaisms are words that have completely gone out of use and have passed into a passive vocabulary: lzya - you can; tat - a thief; aki - how; piit — poet; adolescent - teenager, etc. 2) Lexico-semantic archaisms are words for which one or several meanings are outdated: Belly - "life" (not to fight, but to death); The idol is a "statue"; Scoundrels - "unfit for military service"; Shelter - "port, pier" 3) Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words for which, as a result of historical development, the sound design (sound shell) has changed, but the meaning of the word has been preserved completely: Mirror - mirror; Iroism is heroism; Eighteen - eighteen; Passport - passport; A special group is made up accentological archaisms- that is, words whose stress has changed (from Latin Accentum - emphasis, stress): Muzy "ka - mu" of the language; Suffi "ks - su" ffix; Philoso "f ~ filo" sof et al.

4) Lexico-derivational archaisms are words for which individual morphemes or derivational model are outdated: Dol - valley; Friendship is friendship; A shepherd is a shepherd; Fisherman - fisherman;

Archaization of words is not related to their origin. The following types of words may become obsolete: 1) Primordially Russian words: laby, outcast, lzya, endova, etc .; 2) Old Slavicisms: glad, united, zelo, cold, child, etc. 3) Borrowed words: satisfaction - satisfaction (about a duel); Securs - help; Fortetia (fortress), etc. The role of obsolete words in the Russian language is varied. Historicisms in special scientific literature are used to describe the most accurate era. In the process of historical development, obsolete words can return to the active stock of the language (citizens-residents of the city)