Task B1 o Write down the word missing in the table. Branches of government The highest bodies of state power of the Russian Federation LegislativeFederal Assembly of the Russian Federation Executive Decision: The executive power in the Russian Federation is the Government of the Russian Federation Answer: The Government of the Russian Federation. Content

Task B2 o Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, characterize the concept of "art". Imagery, emotionality, fantasy, validity, subjectivity. Find and specify a term that refers to another concept. Solution: Art cannot be justified. Answer: Reasonableness. Content

Task B3 o Establish a correspondence between the stage of economic activity and its manifestation: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column: MANIFESTATION STAGE OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY A) accrual of bank interest on deposits 1) distribution B) purchase of shares 2) exchange C) making a profit D) selling registered bonds Solution: The correct sequence is as follows: 1212 Answer: Contents

Task B4 o Find the constitutional obligations of citizens of the Russian Federation in the list. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated: 1) preserve nature and the environment 2) receive special education 3) pay legally established taxes and fees 4) resolve disputes in court 5) protect the Fatherland Solution: Get special education and resolve disputes in court - is not a constitutional obligation of citizens of the Russian Federation. While citizens are obliged to preserve nature and the environment, pay legally established taxes and fees, and defend the Fatherland. Answer: 135. Contents

Assignment B5 o Read the text below, each position is numbered. (1) More and more people in the world use mobile phones: they not only make or answer calls, but also text messages using SMS messages. (2) The habit of communicating with the help of short, simple texts can lead to the fact that a person can forget how to talk heart to heart, delve into the intonation of the interlocutor and sympathize with him. (3) In a number of European countries, dozens of telephone users have been diagnosed with SMS addiction. (4) Specialists of the department of bad habits of one of the clinics recorded that people suffering from this disease can write SMS messages for seven or more hours a day. Determine which provisions of the text are A) factual B) nature of value judgments Solution: The correct sequence is the following: ABAA Answer: ABAA Content

Activity B6 o Read the text below where a number of words are missing. “Society is dynamic: both individuals and social groups are constantly changing their ________ (1). This phenomenon is called social ________ (2). Sociologists distinguish several types of it. Movements that do not change the social status of individuals and groups are called ________ (3) mobility. Examples are the transition from one age group to another, a change of place of work, as well as the relocation of people from one locality or country to another, i.e. ________ (4). ________ (5) mobility presupposes a qualitative change in a person's social status. Examples include obtaining or depriving a title of nobility in a feudal society, a professional career in modern society, etc. The channels of mobility are social ________ (6): family, school, property, church, army, etc. " A) migration B) mobility C) horizontal D) institution E) status E) vertical G) group H) stratification I) marginalization Solution: The correct sequence is as follows: DBVAEG Answer: DBVAEG Contents

Text for tasks C1-C4 o Try to conduct a small case study on your own. Ask people about the meaning of the words "spirit", "spiritual". You will be surprised at what different meanings your interlocutors will put into these words. For some, they will be associated with religion, church (for example, "sacred music"). Cultural professionals are likely to note that spirituality is synonymous with creativity for them. Most people associate with the concepts of "spirit", "spiritual" ideas about the higher goals and meaning of human life, about the moral character of the individual ... We will proceed from the generally accepted definition of social activity as a conscious, purposeful activity of people aimed at changing nature and society. As a result of social activity, objects are created that satisfy a variety of needs: tools, food and clothing, government and cultural institutions, works of art, architectural ensembles, scientific works. The side of human activity that is aimed not at processing the "substance of nature", but at processing "people by people", that is, ultimately, at changing the qualities of the social subjects themselves, we will call spiritual activity, and its products - spiritual values. A striking example of spiritual activity is the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, journalist. To be precise, in philosophy it is customary to distinguish between three types of social activity: practical, spiritual and spiritual-practical. However, here I deliberately go for some simplification in order to make my idea more understandable. How are spiritual values ​​different from all others? Take a book as an example. It has all the signs of a material, sensual thing: it can be seen and touched, moved from place to place, even destroyed (which, however, should not be done). Valuable natural materials and a lot of living, animate labor were invested in the creation of the book. Finally, the book, like many other products, has a market value. What specific properties give us the right to distinguish the book from other objects of the external world, referring it, first and foremost, to spiritual values ​​(A.V. Zakharov) Contents C1 C2 C3 C4

Task C1 o How, according to the author of this text, are spiritual and social activities related? What, according to A.V. Zakharov, is spiritual activity directed? What is the result of spiritual activities? Read the article Solution: Elements of the correct answer: 1) shows the relationship between spiritual and social activities. Namely: spiritual activity is one of the sides of the social. Activities; 2) shows the directionality of the spirit. activity: aimed at processing "people of people", ie, in the end, changing the qualities of the social. Objects; 3) shows the result of the spirit. activities: spirit formation. values. Content

Task C2 o The text gave several meanings of the words "spiritual", "spirit". List four of them. Read the article Solution: 1) spiritual - connected with the church, religion; 2) spiritual - creativity, the ability to create; 3) ideas about the meaning of life and higher goals; 4) an idea of ​​the morality of the individual. Content

Assignment C3 o Based on the text, facts of social life and personal experience, using three examples, confirm the validity of the author's statement that the work of a journalist, teacher, priest, artist personifies spiritual activity. Read the article Solution: Here are variants of relevant examples: 1. the teacher, telling about the heroic pages of the past, fosters patriotic feelings among young people; 2. the convincing performance of the actors in the film encourages many viewers to get acquainted with the original source; 3. the priest, through his preaching, promotes the conversion to a righteous life, to moral values; 4. A journalist writing an article about the country's problems is capable of influencing the civic consciousness of citizens. Content

Task C4 o The author speaks of the book as a subject in which the spiritual and material sides are inextricably linked. Name three properties that make it possible to classify a book as a product of spiritual culture. Read the article Solution: Here is a variant of the correct properties: 1) a fiction book is a reflection of the inner world, the value system of the author; 2) a scientific book contains knowledge, the experience of generations is preserved and transmitted in it; 3) the main thing in the book is its content, addressed to the needs, personal experience, interests of the reader, i.e. to his spiritual world. Content

Task C5 What is meant by social scientists by the concept of "social group"? With the help of knowledge of the course of social studies, you need to make two sentences, which contain information about social. groups in society. Solution: 1) Let's define the concept of "social group". It can be, for example, this: "A social group is any set of people that has a common significant social. Attribute"; 2) We will give two sentences. - Social groups are subdivided according to the method of organization, number, nature of interaction, degree of organization, character, duration of existence, gender and age - Being in a group, a person can realize his social essence.

Task C6 o Name any three economy. functions of the state. Illustrate each of them with an example. Solution: An example of the correct answer: 1. Function - creating public goods. Examples are communications, transportation, defense. 2. Function - redistribution of income. An example is fiscal policy. 3. Function - legal regulation of financial and economic relations. An example is antitrust law. Content

Assignment C7 o The star of the television series starred in a black and white non-commercial film with complex content. The film received high marks from film critics, but the box office gross was small. What form of culture would you consider this film to be? Give two signs of this. With the help of knowledge from the course of social studies, give at least one more sign of this form of culture. Solution: 1. This cinema belongs to an elite form of culture. (form of culture) 2. Features: - complex content; - focus not on making a profit Example of an additional feature: - sufficient preparedness of the audience. Content

Assignment C8 o You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The ecological crisis as a global problem of our time." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. Decision: When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account: - the correctness of the wording of the points of the plan in terms of their relevance to the given topic and the clarity of the expression of thought; - reflection in terms of the main aspects of the topic in a certain (adequate to the given topic) sequence. One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic: 1) What problems have become global for humanity? 2) The essence of the ecological crisis and its connection with other global problems 3) What caused the ecological crisis? 4) Manifestations and consequences of the environmental crisis 5) Ways to overcome the environmental crisis? a) changing the attitude of people to nature; b) science at the service of ecology; c) the movement of the "green". Content

Knowledge and ideas about politics, political value orientations (beliefs, preferences) belong to the field of political consciousness, and methods of practical political action - to models of political behavior. As you already know, political consciousness predetermines political behavior, which, in turn, actively influences political consciousness.

The political culture of the individual is closely related to the political culture of society, which is formed under the influence of the general culture of the country (religion, national mentality, the achieved level of science and technology, education). The national political culture embodies both modern political ideas, value orientations and norms of behavior, and the experience of the past. He appears in political traditions, symbols, customs, rituals, stereotypes of thinking and action.

Traditions ensure continuity between the past and the future, unite society into a coherent mechanism. It is traditions that give stability to political and cultural forms of human activity. It is significant that the more stable the state structure of the country, the more respect its cultural and historical traditions are. In Great Britain, for example, there are traditional rituals associated with the history of the monarchy, parliament, courts. Some resemble a theatrical performance: the arrival of the queen to parliament in an old carriage, medieval clothes of statesmen, a speaker sitting on a sack of sheep's wool.

Political culture also includes diverse political symbols- signs that generalize any image, phenomenon, process.

It is well known that the symbols of the state are the flag, coat of arms, anthem. The scepter and orb were considered a symbol of power among different peoples at certain historical stages. Currently, power is symbolized by the residence of the head of state. When we talk about the policy of the Kremlin or the White House, we immediately understand that we mean the policy of Russia and the United States.

Various political ceremonies, ceremonies, rituals. You have probably observed more than once, say, the ritual of the President's entry into office, the ritual of meeting the head of a foreign state, the Wreath-laying ceremony, etc.

Reproducing traditions, rituals, ceremonies and relying on symbolism, political culture contributes to the introduction of a person to the political heritage, forms in his consciousness a sense of identity (identity) with his country, his people, a certain social

group. A person feels himself to be an integral part of this socio-cultural community.

At the same time, political traditions can come into conflict with modern (often officially enshrined) normative models of consciousness and behavior. This creates situations of conflicting coexistence of the old and the new. Thus, in the republic monarchist views can be represented; a high legal status of an individual can be combined with a low level of personal claims to political participation. It is not by chance that within the framework of a nationwide political culture, political subcultures- relatively independent blocks of values, norms, stereotypes of political behavior, which are adhered to by individual social groups. The formation of political subcultures also occurs as a result of borrowing the cultural experience of other peoples.

The analysis of political subcultures makes it possible to single out in the political culture of society a set of prevailing characteristics that give it a special flavor and originality in the relationship between the state and citizens. For example, Japanese political culture is a culture of consensus and duty. She is distinguished by her loyalty to the state and respect for power. The political culture of the French is characterized by a developed sense of belonging to a single nation, a solid republican tradition.

TYPOLOGY OF POLITICAL CULTURES

Political cultures can be classified for various reasons. Thus, American scientists G. Almond (born in 1911) and S. Verba (born in 1932), on the basis of the revealed uniqueness of individual countries and regions, identified three "pure" types of political culture. At first, patriarchal culture. This culture is characterized by a lack of people's interest in politics, knowledge of the political system and significant expectations from its functioning. Secondly, subject culture, where the orientation towards political institutions and loyalty to them are strong, but the level of individual activity of citizens is low. Thirdly, a culture of participation, reflecting the critical attitude of citizens to the authorities, their interest in political participation and political activity.

In practice, these types of political culture interact with each other, forming mixed varieties with a predominance of certain components. Moreover, the most massive and at the same time optimal is the synthetic culture, called by scientists civil culture. It is dominated by the attitudes of a subject culture,

giving rise to support for state power, as well as attitudes of a culture of participation, giving rise to requirements for power structures. This creates the balance necessary to ensure the stability of the political system. Political culture of developed democratic countries is called civic culture today.

In developed democracies, as a rule, 60% of citizens are representatives of a culture of participation, 30% - of a subject, 10% - of a patriarchal culture.

Political culture, being an important part of the political system, is largely determined by its type. In this regard, many political scientists believe that the most general typology is that based on the types of political systems. In other words, totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic political systems are dominated by totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic

types of political culture. Thus, in totalitarian political systems, the conviction of citizens in the justice of the state's unlimited power over the individual is formed, the belief that the world is divided into two hostile camps - "friends" and "enemies". The political consciousness cultivates the image of the enemy, which must be destroyed, and the struggle is perceived as a universal method of solving complex political problems. The deification of the personality of the political leader (leader) is observed, a feeling of merging with the power arises, which is one of the components of its legitimacy and largely determines the stability of the regime. The political behavior of the elite is dominated by the motives of omnipotence, in the behavior of citizens - modesty, enthusiasm, and their participation in political life is of a mobilization nature.

The authoritarian type of political culture differs significantly from the totalitarian type. Society realizes alienation from power, the feeling of merging with it disappears. Since the army is most often the mainstay of an authoritarian regime, there is no deification of the personality of a political leader as a factor in the legitimacy of power. Requirements of competence prevail in the political behavior of the elite, professionalism and obedience are required from citizens, a certain detachment from politics.

The democratic type of political culture is dominated by orientations towards democratic values ​​and norms. A person, his rights and freedoms are of particular value. In relation to the authorities, a mood of criticality prevails. People see the state as an institution controlled by civil society, and at the same time

an important factor in its integration. Openness of political positions and an orientation towards political participation are gaining in importance. Adherence to the law, a sense of responsibility of citizens for their political choice and the ways of its implementation, pluralism and tolerance in public opinion prevail.

The political culture of modern Russia has not yet settled down. On the one hand, it retains its traditional features: subservient attitude to any center of political power; low self-discipline and self-organization; distrust of the state; a tendency to anarchy with a simultaneous desire for strong power; weak respect for the law, individual rights. As before, many Russians prefer radicalism and revolutionary methods in politics to measures of an evolutionary, reformist type. Confidence remains in the possibility of simple and quick solutions to complex political problems.

On the other hand, there is a gradual acceptance of political pluralism as a necessary quality of political life and a guarantee of the irreversibility of democratic transformations. There is an open expression of various political orientations and preferences (with the still traditionally wide range of political extremes: from monarchism to anarchism). There is a growing understanding of the importance of personal responsibility, the desire for independence in political assessments and decisions. In other words, there is a transformation of political culture based on democratic values.

till Basic concepts: political participation, political culture, types of political culture.

IISI Terms: political role, political subculture.

Check yourself

1) What is meant by political participation? 2) What are its forms? 3) Expand the content of the concept of "political culture". 4) What types of political culture do you know? 5) What are the features of Russian political culture?

Think, discuss, do

1. Make a table "Typology of political culture".

2. Democratic political culture presupposes the presence of such personal qualities as tolerance, humanity, criticality. What else would you add to this list? Explain the answer.

3. Among the functions of political culture, scientists especially note: value-oriented, normative-regulatory, integration, innovative. How do you understand-

Do you have these functions? Expand them on the example of one of the types of political culture.

4. Imagine that you are entrusted with organizing a small sociological study on the topic "The political culture of high school students." Prepare a general outline of the study, including organizational issues as well as questions for the respondents. Discuss and implement this plan with your peers. Make a report on the results of the work done.

Work with the source

Read the reasoning of the modern Russian scientist E. B. Shestopal about the political socialization of the individual in Great Britain.

Many ordinary Englishmen are brought up (both by family, and by school, and by propaganda) in the belief that activity, active participation in all spheres of life can bring personal success. An active character is a national trait. This is also facilitated by the socialization of the younger generation through all kinds of voluntary organizations, committees, clubs, commissions, associations that flourish in all social strata.

In politics, socialization also involves fostering an active position from childhood (through school discussion clubs, youth branches of parties, etc.). This applies, first of all, to professionals, from whom "gladiatorial" qualities are required, but involvement, albeit more superficial, is promoted as a positive characteristic of an ordinary person.

Shestopal E.B. Personality and Politics. -M., 1988. -S. 94.

§§§ | Questions and tasks to the source. 1) What is the political socialization of the individual? 2) What institutions contribute to the political socialization of the British? 3) Based on the text, show the connection between political socialization and political culture. 4) Are the processes of political socialization similar in Great Britain and Russia? Argument your answer based on your personal experience.

Section 26. Political conflict

Remember:

what are the causes of interpersonal conflicts? What are the ways to overcome them? What is the significance of conflicts between social groups? What are the ways to manage such conflicts? What are the causes of interethnic conflicts? What are the conditions for their permission?

You already know a lot about conflicts in society. You also know that all the variety of conflicts is studied by the branch of science that has arisen at the intersection of philosophy, sociology, psychology - conflictology. This paragraph will focus on political conflicts, which are a type of social conflict. It is clear that the general features of social conflicts are inherent in political ones as well. However, political conflicts are not only a reflection of social conflicts that have reached a certain acuteness. This is an independent phenomenon with essential features that political science studies. We will focus on them, considering them in the context of the political development of society.

SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF CONFLICTS IN POLITICS

Let us recall that political activity is often characterized as a confrontation between social forces, political parties and organizations in the struggle for power. Political life cannot be imagined without conflicts. From the course of history, you know that various political conflicts in society have arisen at all stages of its development from antiquity to the present day. A conflict is always a clash of parties due to differences in social status, contradictions of interests, goals and values. In recent decades, we have witnessed acute conflicts in our country between political organizations, branches of government (parliament and the executive branch), federal subjects and federal bodies, as well as witnesses of interethnic and interstate conflicts.

A political conflict is a clash, a confrontation between the subjects of politics. The struggle between them reflects the divergence, and often the opposition of their political interests, values, views and goals, conditioned by their position and role in the system of power relations. The purpose of such a struggle is the realization of these interests and goals in the sphere of state power. It is a struggle to influence political decision-making.

Political conflicts grow out of social contradictions. The interests of the conflicting parties may reflect contradictions arising in the economic sphere (for example, between supporters of a free market and supporters of strengthening state regulation of a market economy); in the social sphere (for example, between striving for social equality and deepening income differentiation); in the field of culture (for example, on the issue of

use of national languages). The desire to resolve these social conflicts using the strength and means of state power makes them political.

At the same time, political conflicts arise as a result of the development proper political contradicts

- between state power and local government;

- between the state and society when the interests of the state administration apparatus and the people do not coincide;

- between various elements of the political system: the federal government and the authorities of the subjects of the federation, the legislative and executive authorities, political parties.

Unequal distribution of power, political rights and freedoms, contradictions between the “top” and “bottom”, the elite and the counter-elite, the political elite and the masses can become sources of political conflicts.

Timely identification and resolution of contradictions can in many cases prevent their development into a conflict. On the contrary, the authorities' lack of attention to contradictions in society and in the political system, their ignorance, gives rise to conflict situations.

In this case, the conflict becomes a way of resolving contradictions.

Constantly existing contradictions between states, reflecting the discrepancy, and sometimes the opposition of their interests, can become a source of interstate, regional, international conflicts.

Political scientists assess differently the role of conflict in the political sphere. Some believe that conflict is organically inherent in politics, that conflicts play the role of an engine of political life and contribute to the renewal of the political system. Others emphasize harmony, stability in society, considering the conflict as an anomaly of the political process, a deviation from normal development.

History knows the conflicts that led to the renewal of state bodies, political norms, political relations, political ideology. But there were also those who, taking on the most acute forms, had a destructive character.

In the first half of the XX century. the largest international conflicts were world wars. In the first of them about 10 million people died, in the second - 55 million. And the military conflicts of the second half of the past century added another 20 million people to the huge casualties of these wars.

In the course of armed conflicts, not only people are killed, but also material values ​​are destroyed, the psyche of people involved in such conflicts is traumatized.

Contradictions between different subjects of politics, as well as conflicts arising on their basis, are often divided into three types.

The first is related to the distribution of material resources, state budget funds, access to power, the size of the tax burden, etc. ("conflict of interest"). In this case, the position and interests of various social groups give rise to the desire to change in their favor the possibility of meeting their needs. Such conflicts are relatively easier to regulate than others.

The second is rooted in people's divergence over basic values ​​and political ideals (“conflict of values”). For example, a conflict may arise between that part of society that supports the principles of democracy, is oriented towards the market economy, and that part of it that shares anti-democratic values ​​and ideals. Since in these cases the “either - or” rule applies, their regulation is difficult.

The third type is characterized by the highlighting of people's belonging to a particular social group (“identity conflict”). At the same time, the subject of politics identifies himself not with the whole society, not with the entire people of the country, but with this or that ethnic group, a certain religious group, etc. Then a conflict may arise along the dividing line “ours are not ours,” which becomes an obstacle ways of nationwide unification. This gives rise to particular difficulties in resolving it.

DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL CONFLICT

Conflict does not arise suddenly. It manifests itself after a period of gradual exacerbation of the contradictions that generate it, hidden from the general public. There is a realization by the subjects of politics of these contradictions and their interests in the current situation, as well as obstacles on the way to their satisfaction. At this stage, the desire of various groups to improve their status, to achieve advantages in any spheres of life causes tension in society. The incompatibility of the interests of different political forces increases the tension that has arisen and leads to open confrontation, gives rise to a conflict situation.

During the development of a conflict situation, requirements are put forward that reflect the interests of those forces that wanted

would change their position in society. These forces, using the mass media, seek to influence public opinion, to win it over to their side. Actions are being taken to attract new supporters. At this stage of the development of the conflict, its main features are manifested.

First, the object of the conflict is indicated, what caused the confrontation. These can be territories, borders, discrimination against an ethnic group, race, social group, conditions for the development of national culture. The struggle may unfold around the question of the ways of development of the country or the methods used in politics. These and other issues are reflected in the requirements, programs, statements with which the conflicting parties come forward.

Secondly, the composition of the participants in the conflict is revealed. Each of the political forces determines its positions on both sides of the "line" of the conflict. It is determined on the support of which social groups they rely on. It is found out what position in the conflict are occupied by politicians, parties, the state and what is the degree of involvement of the masses in the conflict.

Third, the growing tension in relations between the parties to the conflict is becoming more noticeable. Threats are heard, an intention to harm opponents is expressed. Threats are gradually becoming more severe, taking the form of ultimatums, that is, requirements, the failure of which entails the application of sanctions (for example, in an international conflict, these can be economic, political or military sanctions). The parties to the conflict resort to a show of force.

There is an escalation (from the English escalation - climbing with a ladder) of the conflict, its gradual intensification. The scale of political confrontation is growing. As the conflict develops, like a funnel, it draws in new problems and involves new participants. Opponents are treated as enemies to be defeated. Forms of political behavior are becoming more violent. Violence is used, direct physical harm is inflicted.

In cases where state power is one of the parties, the struggle of its opponents threatens to take the most dangerous forms. It can be a riot, that is, coming from the bottom, a spontaneously arisen attempt to resolve the conflict between the rulers and the ruled. Riot often results in riots, seizures of people and institutions, murders, beatings, arson. This form of political behavior has a destructive character, a high level of intensity, activity of the participants and is one of the

the most dangerous options for the development of the conflict. Its characteristic feature is blind, unconscious actions that bring misfortune and suffering to a significant part of the population.

Unlike a riot, a riot is an armed and organized action. It arises as a result of purposeful preparation. The organizers of the rebellion are either officers or illegal organizations leading the armed formations.

The uprising bears the features of rebellion and revolt, is characterized by a certain level of organization and, being a mass protest, can become a form of political revolution, that is, the violent overthrow of the old government and the establishment of a new one.

The use of methods of armed struggle by both sides sometimes leads to civil war in the country. The characteristic features of a civil war are the intransigence of the warring parties, as well as the involvement in hostilities, in addition to the regular troops, of large groups of civilians. The consequences of civil wars are devastating to society.

International conflict has often escalated into wars between states.

Riots, riots, uprisings, wars (examples of which from the course of history you can give yourself) is the most acute phase of the conflict, an attempt to resolve it by force. This is the result of the development of unresolved conflicts.

SETTLEMENT OF CONFLICTS

Fortunately, not all conflicts develop to the most acute forms of confrontation, which have tragic and destructive consequences. It happens that a conflict fades away or loses its acuteness, being pushed into the background by other, more significant and acute conflicts. But relying on the natural course of events is dangerous. Modern society has developed methods for preventing, regulating, and resolving conflicts.

At the stage of a conflict, the authorities should not ignore the escalating contradictions. It is necessary to deeply study the causes of tension, take timely measures to weaken it, look for ways to remove or soften the contradictions fraught with the escalation of the conflict. These measures are aimed at preventing the transition of contradictions into an open phase of confrontation and a further increase in political tension.

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In sociology, the question serves as a research tool, hence the requirements for its formulation. In life, communication between a doctor and a patient, or an investigator with a defendant, or a conversation between two passers-by have an interpersonal character. Their addressee is individual. When questioning, the situation is different. The author of the sociological questionnaire addresses a large group of unknown people. Consequently, the question of the questionnaire should be equally understandable to various socio-demographic groups of respondents: young and old, people with higher and secondary education, townspeople and villagers.

All questions in the questionnaire can be classified according to: 1) content (questions about facts of consciousness, facts of behavior and personality of the respondent), 2) form (open and closed, direct and indirect) and 3) functions (basic and non-basic).

Questions of the first group are aimed at identifying opinions, wishes, expectations, plans for the future. They can relate to any objects, both related to the personality of the interviewee or to his environment, or not directly related to him. Any opinion expressed by the respondent is a value judgment based on individual perceptions, and therefore is subjective.

In the first group there is a special block - questions about the personality of the respondent, which are included in all sociological questionnaires and are called<паспортичкой>(more on her later).

When constructing questions, one of the prerequisites is often violated: the correspondence of the formulation of the question to the research task. At the same time, the researcher is not always aware of the substitution of information about people's knowledge with data about how they themselves evaluate them.

The main types of the questionnaire are open and closed questions. In the open questions after the text, the sociologist leaves space and asks the respondent to formulate his own opinion.

Closed question. This is the name of a question if a full set of answer options is given to it in the questionnaire. After reading them, the respondent only circled the code in front of the option that coincides with his opinion. This form of the question significantly reduces the time for filling out the questionnaire and preparing it for processing on a computer.

Closed questions can be alternative and non-alternative. Alternative ones assume that the respondent can choose only one answer option, as a result of which the sum of answers to all the options presented in the alternative question is always 100%. An example of an alternative question:

<Имеете ли вы детей?>

Answer options:

no I do not have.

Another example of an alternative question:

<Каков доход на одного члена в вашей семье?>

Answer options:

Up to 1000 rubles.

From 1001 to 2000 rubles.

From 2001 to 5000 rubles.

Over 5000 rubles.

Non-alternative questions allow the respondent to choose several answer options, so their sum may exceed 100%. Example:<Какие телепередачи Вы смотрели в прошедший выходной?>Answers: 1 - feature films, 2 - political programs, 3 - sports programs, 4 - programs for business people, 5 - what else (write).

The second question serves as an example of both a semi-closed question form, which is used in situations where the sociologist is not sure of the completeness of the answer options known to him, giving the respondent the opportunity to supplement them himself. At the end of half-closed questions, spare codes are left to encode additional answers.

Answers to alternative questions can be arranged in two forms - linear and tabular. These examples illustrate the linear shape. An example of a tabular form (Table 2.1.).

Table 2.1 Do you have enough time?

Lacks

It depends

For community service

For rest and entertainment

For physical education

Open questions. They do not contain prompts in the form of the answer options offered by the sociologist, but allow the respondent to express his own opinion in its entirety. With their help, richer information is collected.

In open-ended questions, after the text of the question, the sociologist leaves space and asks the respondent to formulate his own opinion. For example:

The numbers of the code are given under the text of the question. They are needed not by the respondent, but by the sociologist, who, after receiving the entire array of completed questionnaires, will start processing them. And the first step on this path will be the assignment of the corresponding code to the answer inscribed by the respondent's hand. The number of codes is determined based on the possible answers to the question. Practice shows that it is advisable to place up to 10 codes at the end of the question in advance. Formalization of answers is the main inconvenience that makes it difficult to widely use open-ended questions. Nevertheless, in some cases, their use is simply necessary.

The number of lines for recording the answer depends on the nature of the question and should be sufficient for the respondent to be able to freely express his / her thought. Experience shows that the average number of rows for records in an open-ended question ranges from 3 to 7.

All the variety of answers to open-ended questions will have to be coded by the researcher himself, ultimately reducing them to a certain limited number of the most frequently repeated answers. The closed form of the question avoids this, since, when checking one of the answer options, the respondent simultaneously codes it.

The same question can be made open and closed. Closed ones are easier to process on a computer, but they require a comprehensive knowledge of the subject from sociologists. The open ones are used where this knowledge is limited and the research is carried out for intelligence purposes.

Experts believe that the psychological basis of answering a closed question is significantly different than when answering an open question. Accordingly, the content of the information received does not match. When formulating an answer to an open-ended question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Consequently, such an answer will be more individualized and will provide more detailed and varied information about the structure of the respondents' perceptions. Therefore, an open-ended question is an indispensable tool if the cognitive task is to obtain data on the structure of the respondents' ideas on the problem being studied, on the peculiarities of the vocabulary of their language, on the circle of associations in connection with the subject of the survey, on verbal skills associated with the ability to formulate one's opinion and argue for it. ...

Closed versions of questions are preferable to formulate to identify facts and relationships, suggesting a previously known and uniform list of possible answers. It should be remembered that the set of answers proposed in advance belongs to the researcher and this frees the respondents from independent work on possible answer options.

Respondents willingly answer open-ended questions when they have a developed system of ideas on the topic of the question and consider themselves competent in it. If the subject of the survey is not familiar to them or is unfamiliar, difficult to analyze, then the respondents evade answers: either they give an indefinite answer, or they do not answer in essence. In this case, applying an open-ended question, the researcher runs the risk of not getting any meaningful information at all and can only find out that the totality of the respondents does not have a formed opinion on this issue. At the same time, using the closed form of the question, the researcher helps the respondent navigate the subject of the conversation and express his attitude to the problem through the proposed set of possible judgments or assessments.

Filter questions - belong to the class of non-basic questions of the sociological questionnaire, since their task is not to clarify the content of the studied social phenomenon, but to establish the main addressee of the question. The need for them arises when the researcher needs to obtain data that characterize not the entire population of respondents, but only some of it. In order to separate the part of the respondents of interest to the researcher from all others, filter questions are asked. So, when studying the readership of a particular newspaper, say<Вечерней Москвы>, before moving on to the actual substantive block of questions, the sociologist places filter questions, where he asks if the respondent is familiar with this newspaper.

Questionnaire composition. Sociological questionnaire is a plan or scenario of a conversation with a respondent. The beginning of such a conversation is preceded by an introduction (an appeal to the respondent), which sets out the topic, goals, objectives of the survey and the name of the organization conducting it; explains the technique of filling out the questionnaire. Then the questions are the most simple, neutral in meaning. In addition to their direct cognitive task, they provide<завязку>conversations, form a psychological attitude towards cooperation. Their task is to interest the interlocutor, to introduce them into the course of the discussed problems. Difficult questions requiring reflection, memory work, are placed in the middle of the questionnaire. By the end of the questionnaire, the difficulty of the questions should be reduced. Usually put here<паспортичку>, with the help of which socio-demographic information about the personality of the respondent is collected.

A passport is a set of demographic, economic and professional information at the end of the questionnaire (gender, income, age, etc.). They outline, as it were, a portrait of the respondent. It records those indicators whose statistical distributions in the general population are of interest to you. It is these questions - gender, age, profession - that are control questions for deciding how the sample corresponds to the general population. Along with gender, age and income, it also includes indicators such as nationality, education, profession, marital status, place of residence or work.

Questions can be combined into blocks according to thematic and problematic principles. In this case, the transition to a new direction of the conversation should be accompanied by explanations,<переключателями>attention. For example:<На этом мы заканчиваем разговор о труде. Теперь несколько вопросов о Вашем досуге>.

The function of the peculiar rules of movement on the questionnaire, indicating<перекрестки>, dangerous areas, etc., follow the instructions on the technique of filling out the questionnaire, addressed to the respondents and located directly in the text of the questions or in the fields of the questionnaire: how many answer options can be marked - one or more; how to fill in the question-table - by lines or by columns.

Serious attention is paid to the graphic design of the questionnaire: clear font, sufficient space for recording free answers, arrows indicating transitions from the filter question to other questions, etc. Illustrative materials play an essential role in graphic design. In addition to their main cognitive function, illustration questions also solve a methodological problem: they diversify the technique of filling out the questionnaire, reduce its monotony, and reduce the psychological burden.

Questions should not contain terms and concepts that are unclear to the respondent. The number of questions in the questionnaire usually does not exceed 30-40 (after 45 minutes of the survey, the respondent's attention decreases). The questionnaire is considered<хорошей>, if two basic rules are observed: the wording of the questions must correspond to the research task, and the questionnaire itself must correspond to the respondent's capabilities as a source of information (for example, one cannot impose unbearable demands on the respondent's memory, analytical skills, or humiliate his self-esteem).

Logical control of the questionnaire. At the end of the layout of the questionnaire, it is subjected to logical control, which allows it to be checked for compliance with scientific quality criteria. Two main parameters of the sociological questionnaire are controlled - the correctness of the formulation of the questions and the correctness of the layout of the entire questionnaire, its composition.

In the first case, each question is checked according to the following criteria:

Have you forgotten (if needed) such answer options as:<не знаю>, <затрудняюсь ответить>, <не помню>, <не думал об этом>and the like, giving the respondent the opportunity to evade an answer when he deems it necessary.

Shouldn't we add to some closed questions the position<другие ответы>with free lines for additional statements of the respondents.

Does the question apply to the entire population of the respondents or only to a certain part of this population. (In the latter case, add a filter question).

Is the technique of filling out the question sufficiently explained to the respondent?

Is there a logical inconsistency between the meaning of the wording of the question and the scale of measurement.

Does the question exceed the competence of the respondent? (If there is such a suspicion, a proficiency test filter question is needed).

Does the question exceed the memory capacity of the respondents?

Aren't there too many answers to the question? If so, then you need to divide the list into thematic blocks and instead of one question make a block of questions.

Does the question touch the respondent's pride, his dignity, prestigious performances?

Will the question provoke negative emotions in the respondent (fears about the consequences of the interview, unpleasant associations, sad memories and other negative emotional states that violate the psychological comfort of the interview situation)?

The result of the logical control of the questionnaire is the aggregate assessment of its quality, which is characterized by the number of comments received according to various criteria. Depending on this, all the questions of the questionnaire are sorted and those that contain obvious methodological errors that cannot be corrected are rejected. It is advisable to replace them with questions that have a different methodological solution. By itself, the logical quality control of the questionnaire questions serves as a preparatory procedure for developing the tasks of the pilot (trial) study.

In the second case, the composition of the questionnaire is checked for compliance with the following criteria:

Is the principle of placing the questions from the simplest at the beginning of the questionnaire to the most difficult in the middle and simplest at the end observed?

Is there any influence of the previous questions on the subsequent ones.

Are the semantic blocks of questions separated?<переключателями внимания>, by appeals to the respondent informing about the beginning of the next block.

Are the filter questions provided with jumpers for different groups of respondents?

Are there any clusters of questions of the same type that cause a feeling of monotony and fatigue in the respondent?

Are there any violations in the layout and graphic design of the questionnaire (transfer of part of the question to another page; non-lined tables;<слепой>the text of the questionnaire; not enough space to answer open-ended questions, etc.).

The final verdict on the quality of the entire questionnaire is made by a pilot study. It reveals all the shortcomings of the questionnaire, and especially in the formulation of questions. One of the sure indicators of the unsuitability of a question is a large proportion of those who did not answer or found it difficult to answer it. The value of this indicator is interpreted depending on the cognitive task of the question. If a widespread phenomenon is being studied, which everyone or the vast majority of people should know about, and the proportion of those who found it difficult to answer is high, then this is evidence of a methodological error in the compilation of the question. And if the awareness of the respondents about a rather rare phenomenon is measured and the proportion of those who did not answer or found it difficult to answer is high, then it is quite possible to conclude that the question corresponds to the task set.

The logic of constructing the questions in the questionnaire corresponds to the objectives of the study and serves to obtain only such information that tests hypotheses.

The journalist, doctor or investigator also adhere to a certain program and goals, but they do not put forward scientific hypotheses, although the investigator checks a certain version, the journalist builds an interview plan in advance.

The questions in the questionnaire are formulated as concretely and accurately as possible. Ambiguity and ambiguity should not be allowed.

Practical example 1 Development of a theoretical model of the research subject

Imagine that you, an aspiring sociologist, set yourself the task of finding out who steals more - the representatives of the rich, middle or poor class? How and where will you conduct your research? Let's say you decide to do this in your class. What will you do?

There are two ways to move towards the goal - empirical and theoretical. Let us show that only the second is correct.

You have compiled a questionnaire and included in it the so-called<паспортичку>where gender, profession, age, income, social origin of the respondents are indicated. Having received and processed the answers to the question:<К какому классу Вы себя относите?>, we thus seem to have solved the main problem, namely, to find out which class representatives steal the most. In fact, we do not have a complete and comprehensive picture; we received data on only one variable.

The information was obtained on the basis of self-esteem, and it may well be erroneous. You can improve the reliability of the information. Self-esteem is checked by the intersection of three questions in<паспортичке>: income, profession (occupation), social origin. The conjugation of two questions for the purpose of self-testing is called the mutual control of variables (questions).

After doing your research, for example, you got the following statistics: 5 people are rich, 70 belong to the middle class, 25 are poor. Statistics can be expressed in two ways - in absolute and relative values. In the second case, we are talking about the percentage distribution of answers. It is used most often by sociologists. You got it: 5%, 70%, 25%. So far, you have quantified only one variable - the class distribution of the respondents.

A variable is a concept in sociology that can take on various meanings. For example, income or education can take many values ​​expressed in numbers, say, income of 100-500, 501-1000,1001-1500 rubles, primary education (4 grades), incomplete secondary (9 years), complete secondary (11 years) , higher (5 years) or incomplete secondary, secondary, technical secondary, higher incomplete and higher completed, etc.

What to do next? Next, you need to get the numerical value of the second variable - theft - and then associate it with the first. Perhaps this is the way to ask the respondents: do you steal? One will answer<нет>, implying that 50 kopecks, which he took from a junior student in the morning, is not theft. Another climbed into his school bag and scooped up a lot of money, but does not want to confess. In either case, the sociologist will receive<нет>, although in fact it should be<да>... You are confused because you do not know exactly how to interpret the empirical data.

In fact, the problem must be approached from the other end - to go from theory. First of all, it is necessary to accurately determine what theft is, for which it is necessary to carry out a special procedure - the operationalization of the original concept<воровство>... In operationalization, the sociologist establishes the quantitative contours of the phenomena under study, expressed in numbers or observable features. Word<операционализация>implies that you are able to perform measurement operations with this or that phenomenon or thing.

So, passing from abstract concepts to concrete terms, finding them empirical signs (properties) and empirical referents (objects), we carry out the operationalization of concepts. The program needs to operationalize or at least clearly define all the key concepts and categories. Empirical signs indicate which methods of collecting information should be used by the sociologist. For example, how can the wealthy know how much money they have: ask the respondent directly, access a bank account, interview neighbors or competitors? How do you know about the results of investment behavior? Will a pensioner or an engineer say that he put money in the bank, hoping for<халявные>interest and burned out? Another clue for choosing research methods is the structure of the subject of social action. Once you have established that it includes the poor, middle and rich, you have decided on the general population from which to derive the sample population. In any case, it became clear to you exactly who to interview. It is not known just where exactly - at home or at the bank?

Confessing to theft and confessing to activities such as photocopying personal material at work are not the same thing, although both of them may be related to the same phenomenon. When differentiation grows in society, many sink to the social bottom, and a few soar upward, moral criteria are erased. Some are beginning to think of themselves as Robin Hood taking money from the rich without touching the poor. Polls in police stations show that many burglars consider themselves to be such robin hooters, and not thieves. They do not consider it stealing to get into a rich man's apartment and take $ 5,000 worth of goods. Some call it the expropriation of the expropriators, while others call it the equation of life's chances. It is possible that each class has its own type of theft. And this fact needs to be investigated by a sociologist. The modern middle class in Russia has bank accounts, but banks, falling into a deep crisis, as happened in August 1998, refuse to pay the bills. What are they doing - stealing or getting out of the crisis? And what about the financial pyramids that robbed hundreds of thousands of Russians, including pensioners, in the mid-90s? And how should one assess bribes from officials?

So what is stealing? Maybe for an answer to look into the Criminal Code? But there is no sociological definition of theft. There are specific articles, attributing the penalty for specific types of theft, in particular, Article 158 for theft. It gives a short definition -<кража, то есть тайное хищение чужого имущества>followed by a list of punishments:<наказывается штрафом в размере от двухсот до семисот минимальных размеров оплаты труда или в размере заработной платы или иного дохода осужденного за период от двух до семи месяцев, либо обязательными работами на срок от ста восьмидесяти до двухсот сорока часов, либо исправительными работами на срок от одного года до двух лет, либо арестом на срок от четырех до шести месяцев, либо лишением свободы на срок до трех лет>... In the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation there is no indication of social groups committing theft, but there is a decoding according to the severity of the crime, in particular:<Кража, совершенная: а) группой лиц по предварительному сговору; б) неоднократно; в) с незаконным проникновением в жилище, помещение либо иное хранилище; г) с причинением значительного ущерба гражданину... Кража, совершенная: а) организованной группой; б) в крупном размере; в) лицом, ранее два или более раза судимым за хищение либо вымогательство...>

Theft in the Criminal Code also includes theft, under which<понимаются совершенные, с корыстной целью противоправные безвозмездное изъятие и (или) обращение чужого имущества в пользу виновного или других лиц, причинившие ущерб собственнику или иному владельцу этого имущества>.

We also have the right to classify fraud as theft (Article 159), that is<хищение чужого имущества или приобретение права на чужое имущество путем обмана или злоупотребления доверием>; appropriation or embezzlement (Article 160), that is, theft of someone else's property entrusted to the guilty>; robbery (article 161) or<открытое хищение чужого имущества>; robbery (article 162), that is<нападение в целях хищения чужого имущества, совершенное с применением насилия, опасного для жизни или здоровья, либо с угрозой применения такого насилия>; extortion (Article 163), since it<требование передачи чужого имущества или права на имущество или совершения других действий имущественного характера под угрозой применения насилия либо уничтожения или повреждения чужого имущества, а равно под угрозой распространения сведений, позорящих потерпевшего или его близких, либо иных сведений, которые могут причинить существенный вред правам или законным интересам потерпевшего или его близких>, as well as causing property damage by deception or breach of trust (Article 165).

That's all we can learn from the Criminal Code about theft. By the way, the term itself<воровство>there is no. Apparently, it is assumed that this is not a strictly legal category that can be operationalized in terms of law. Most likely, theft is a common usage of a number of offenses that fall under a variety of articles of the Criminal Code. And some do not fit at all. We will not find an exact decoding of the concept of theft neither in ethics and philosophy, nor in pedagogy and economics, nor in political science. In general, not in any of the existing sciences.

Apparently, theft is a purely social category that describes a very wide range of legal, economic, ethical and social actions. We can judge him not from the data of science, but based on common sense and life experience. They give even more complete information about this problem. Unfortunately, it is impossible to clearly operationalize it; therefore, sociologists use a rather approximate interpretation.

How would a sociologist approach the definition of theft? First of all, he would define it as the appropriation of someone else's property, in other words, as a form of illegitimate (illegal) behavior, which is based on the appropriation of what does not belong to you and what you yourself did not create. Moreover<чужое>must be fixed, that is, it must be established somewhere that it is not yours. But how to do that? A man walks down the street and finds a wallet. Is he a stranger or no one already? It does not say that he is a stranger. True, it may contain a passport indicating the owner's surname. Its appropriation is theft. Although in everyday life we ​​often think differently:<что упало, то пропало>... In this case, the discovered wallet can be considered a find, and not theft.

It is possible that the signs of the phenomenon discovered by us are necessary, but not yet sufficient to qualify this phenomenon as theft. Additional signs are needed. They can be the presence of a subject of theft, a possible accomplice, witnesses, malicious intent, that is, a specific type of selfish motivation. With the addition of new features, we get all the constituent parts of social action according to Weber or Parsons. But stealing is one of the types of social action or interaction.

Without even continuing to further decipher the concept<воровство>, we can establish that we are performing a methodological procedure for concretizing an abstract concept. In the course of such decoding, it has acquired a mass of specific signs and manifestations. We have compiled a fairly detailed<портрет>social phenomenon.

But this is not yet operationalization. Making a social portrait of theft, we<приобщили к делу>many theoretical concepts from other areas of knowledge, besides sociology proper: property, property, one's own and someone else's, illegitimate methods, malicious intent, appropriation, motivation, witnesses, etc. What have we done? We have included the concept<воровство>, which at first was completely incomprehensible and seemed very poor in content, in the totality of theoretical knowledge. We kind of surrounded it with a layer of theoretical constructs. This procedure is called conceptualizing the original problem.

Conceptualization - endowing or defining the theoretical meaning of words and thereby transforming them into concepts. So,<автомобиль>can be theoretically generalized in<транспортное средство>... The economist will turn it into<потребительский товар>, psychologist - in<фигуру отца>, sociologist -<статусный символ>... Thus, conceptualization is the summing up of the private under the general, but within the framework and means of a specific science.

To conceptualize means to load the original concept with such theoretical features, each of which belongs to a different theory or a different discipline, and to link them into a logical system. Conceptualization means the theoretical prescription of the problem. And only then, from each newly acquired feature, we can branch out a system of specific features, which will allow us to empirically observe first individual fragments of the phenomenon, and then the phenomenon itself. For example, we can indicate methods of appropriation or alienation of someone else's property, describe the signs of the property itself, clarify who exactly needs to be understood as a witness or a culprit, etc.

It is characteristic that the conceptualization ended with the construction of a logically interconnected system of theoretical constructs related to the essence of theft. This is not a spontaneous selection of terms. But by doing so, we have proved in practice that logic is a powerful weapon for constructing a scientific theory.

When we tried to define what theft is, we discarded unnecessary signs. We reasoned theoretically, using our life experience, common sense. But we built the concepts and facts of everyday knowledge according to the rules of scientific technology. The builder, of course, cares about the quality of the raw material. But he's also worried about meeting technology requirements. A mixture of scientific and everyday concepts is our building material. But the role of the technology for constructing the building of scientific theory was not common sense, but the scientific method. And this circumstance turned out to be decisive.

When we have written down the main signs of theft in a column, we can easily track each of its types. But the types of theft are based on sociological, not legal, economic, or ethical criteria. The sociologist must empirically establish which types of theft are inherent in each class. It is quite obvious that their choice was dictated to the respondents by the nature and content of work, the level and way of life, and finally, by the class subculture. An engineer or manager will never rob passers-by, climb into other people's apartments through the window and do other things that an unemployed or desperate poor man decides to do. But the same<белые воротнички>they will calmly transfer other people's money to their account if such an action turns out to be unpunished. The boss will not go into someone else's pocket. But he will gladly crawl into the pocket of the state.

When we have identified the types of theft, can we answer the question posed: who steals more often - rich or poor? We have determined that the rich and the poor have their own kind of theft. Defined what theft is. Can we choose the right research methods - survey, observation or interview?

If theft is the misappropriation of someone else's property with malicious intent against the will of the person who owns this property, then will the fraud of accounts be considered theft? If so, the sociologist will have to visit banks, businesses, all kinds of offices, and not just shops, markets and gateways. A specific list of signs of theft dictates a specific list of research objects.

By making a list of specific signs, you find out the object of research. Where should theft be observed - in the bank, on the street, on the tram, in apartments, or perhaps, include garden trees in the list when it comes to stealing apples (by the way, this is one of its widespread types)?

The list of specific signs of a social phenomenon, obtained by the sociologist after the completion of the operationalization procedure, acts as a compass that helps to navigate and find the desired object.

However, before moving to the starting line and starting to touch, the sociologist needs to carry out another tedious procedure. Each type of theft must be associated with its corresponding data collection method. For some types of theft, observation is suitable, for others - a survey, for others - an analysis of statistics. For example, can newspapers be a source of information? Our journalists conduct their own investigations of theft, corruption, bribery, reporting the results in the press. Therefore, the method of analyzing documents may be useful to the sociologist. Some types of theft are only available to the surveillance method, for example, burglary. The interview can be used to interview, of course, not the thieves, but the victims. Although, while respecting the confidentiality of information, you can also interrogate thieves in law, having received a lot of interesting information from them. In other words, to put in mutual correspondence two series of phenomena - a list of types of theft and a list of scientific methods.

Having decided on the methods and objects of collecting information, the sociologist must decide on the formulation and type of questions. For example, it is better to ask projective questions to those who are inclined to hide information or hesitate to express it, and direct ones - to experts. If you are interviewing the victim and you feel that he is hiding something, then it is wiser to go to the projective form of the question. You can foresee it in advance, but this is not always possible. Let's say a rich man has been robbed. What should he hide? In all likelihood, he has something to hide. He is afraid of<наводки>listing a long list of stolen goods. Does the poor have something to hide? Only a specific survey will allow you to give an accurate answer. Or you have come to jail and interrogate convicted of theft. What questions are better for them to ask - direct or indirect (projective)?

The situation with experts is not easy either. Even their political orientations must be taken into account. Communist-oriented experts representing the opposition party would benefit from exaggerating the scale of corruption in the country. On the contrary, it is more profitable for official officials, especially those in charge of law enforcement agencies, to play down them. Who do you ask about the true scale of, say, bullying - army officials or women from the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers? The former have a higher motivation to hide the true dimensions of the phenomenon, but they have more accurate information and statistics. The latter are focused on revealing the true scale of events, but they do not have accurate statistics.

When you have compiled a complete list of research objects, a list of respondents and experts, as well as their addresses, then you have compiled what is called the empirical scheme of the research object. In it, you must indicate which camp you need to go to, who specifically to interview among the prisoners, what questions to ask them. The same must be done for all categories of respondents and observed. If it is supposed to use the analysis of documents, then it is necessary to clearly define the names, quantity, exact dates of newspapers.

In contrast to the empirical scheme, in the theoretical model, we must write the basic concepts:<воровство>, <социальный класс>, their relationship, frequency or<интенсивность воровства>, <вид воровства>etc. When we began to decipher the concept<социальный класс>, we have identified three categories: rich, middle, poor. When we began to concretize what theft is, we introduced a number of other concepts: property, property, abduction, malicious intent, etc. What are we missing? We introduce a new concept - the scale of theft. How can the scale of theft be expressed? This is the amount of money that measures the result of theft, that is, the amount stolen.

We have built a logical chain of concepts. We identified ways in which the described phenomena can be measured, built an instrument, and prepared forms for observation and interviews. Now you can start the field research stage.

Case Study 2 Questionnaire

I borrowed this example from the famous American sociologist N. Smelzer, whose textbook on general sociology is well known to the domestic reader.

An American student of sociology decided to conduct a questionnaire in order to find out in practice all its advantages and disadvantages. He acquired a printer and printed out questionnaires that he handed to students strolling down the university alley in Berkeley. The questionnaire contained several questions about fraud issues. The respondents were asked: which is worse - cheating with taxes or<выколачивать>benefits? Cheating taxes means giving false information about your income, not paying taxes. Gouging means getting money from the government when you are not really eligible for benefits. In addition, students indicated their age, educational level, parents' profession, and family income. In total, Mark (that was the name of the future sociologist) interviewed 100 students.

After collecting the data, he found a clever way to analyze the responses to the questionnaire. He asked himself: Who is more prone to tax cheating - the poor or the rich? Not knowing the answer yet, Mark suggested that the rich have more money, so they are more interested in hiding the size of their income. But, realizing that it is not good to deceive, they will try in every possible way to justify their actions with some rational considerations, blaming the poor for everything: they, they say, receive too much benefits from the state, so the rich have to pay excessive taxes.

Having built a chain of reasoning, which is also called a theoretical model, Mark formulated the first hypothesis: students from wealthy families should call illegal receipt of benefits worse than tax evasion. The second hypothesis was that for the poor, tax evasion looks more evil than illegal receipt of benefits. As you can see, the poor and the rich should behave exactly the opposite. When Mark placed the data in table 2.2, he found that his hypotheses were confirmed. Thus, he proved the link between family income and people's attitudes towards various types of fraud.

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abstract, added 01/29/2009


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Demonstration version of the exam 2010 SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 11) B4 Find in the above list the constitutional obligations of citizens of the Russian Federation. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. 1) preserve nature and the environment 2) receive special education 3) pay legally established taxes and fees 4) resolve disputes in court 5) defend the Fatherland Answer: ___________________________ B B5 Read the text below, each provision of which is numbered. (1) More and more people in the world use mobile phones: they not only make or answer calls, but also text messages via SMS. (2) The habit of communicating with the help of short, simple texts can lead to the fact that a person can forget how to talk heart to heart, delve into the intonation of the interlocutor and sympathize with him. (3) In a number of European countries, dozens of telephone users have been diagnosed with SMS addiction. (4) Specialists of the addiction department of one of the clinics recorded that people suffering from this disease can write SMS messages for seven or more hours a day. Determine which provisions of the text are A) factual B) the nature of value judgments Write down the letter under the position number indicating its nature. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form. 1 2 3 4 © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010 SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 12) B6 Read the text below where a number of words are missing. “Society is dynamic: both individuals and social groups are constantly changing their ________ (1). This phenomenon is called social ________ (2). Sociologists distinguish several types of it. Movements that do not change the social status of individuals and groups are called ________ (3) mobility. Examples are the transition from one age group to another, a change of place of work, as well as the relocation of people from one locality or country to another, i.e. ________ (4). ________ (5) mobility presupposes a qualitative change in a person's social status. Examples include obtaining or depriving a title of nobility in a feudal society, a professional career in modern society, etc. The channels of mobility are social ________ (6): family, school, property, church, army, etc. " The words in the list are given in the nominative, singular. Each word (phrase) can be used only once. Choose one word after another in sequence, mentally filling in each gap with words. Note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the blanks. A) migration B) mobility C) horizontal D) institution E) status E) vertical G) group H) stratification I) marginalization Write under each number the letter corresponding to the word you have chosen. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Do not forget to transfer all the answers to answer form No. 1. © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demo version of the Unified State Exam 2010 SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 13) Part 3 For answers to the tasks in this part (C1 – C9), use answer form No. 2. First, write down the number of the task (C1, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it. The number of points awarded for the tasks of Part 3 depends on the completeness and correctness of your answer. Both the complete correct and partially correct answer will be evaluated. Read the text and complete tasks C1 – C4. Try to conduct a small case study yourself. Ask people about the meaning of the words "spirit", "spiritual". You will be surprised at what different meanings your interlocutors will put into these words. For some, they will be associated with religion, church (for example, "sacred music"). Cultural professionals are likely to note that spirituality is synonymous with creativity for them. Most people associate with the concepts of "spirit", "spiritual" ideas about the highest goals and meaning of human life, about the moral character of the individual ... We will proceed from the generally accepted definition of social activity as a conscious, purposeful activity of people aimed at changing nature and society. As a result of social activity, objects are created that satisfy a variety of needs: tools, food and clothing, government and cultural institutions, works of art, architectural ensembles, scientific works. The side of human activity that is aimed not at processing the "substance of nature", but at processing "people by people", that is, ultimately, at changing the qualities of the social subjects themselves, we will call spiritual activity, and its products - spiritual values. A striking example of spiritual activity is the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, journalist. To be precise, in philosophy it is customary to distinguish three types of social activity: practical, spiritual and spiritual-practical. However, here I deliberately go for some simplification in order to make my idea more understandable. How are spiritual values ​​different from all others? Take a book as an example. It has all the signs of a material, sensual thing: it can be seen and touched, moved from place to place, even destroyed (which, however, should not be done). Valuable natural materials and a lot of living, animate labor were invested in the creation of the book. Finally, the book, like many other products, has a market value. What specific properties give us the right to distinguish a book from other objects of the external world, referring it primarily and mainly to spiritual values? (A. V. Zakharov) © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010 SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 14) C1 How, in the author's opinion, are social and spiritual activities related? What, according to the author, is spiritual activity directed and what is its result? C2 The text gives a number of meanings of the words "spirit", "spiritual". List four of them. C3 Based on the text, personal experience and facts of public life, use three examples to confirm the validity of the author's assertion that the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, journalist, personifies spiritual activity. C4 The author views the book as an example of a subject in which the material and spiritual sides are inextricably linked. What properties make it possible to attribute the book, first of all, to the products of spiritual culture? Name three such properties C5 What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social group"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, compose two sentences containing information about social groups in society. C6 Name any three economic functions of the state and illustrate with an example each of them. C7 The star of the television series starred in a non-commercial black and white film that was complex in content. The work was highly appreciated by critics and experts, but at the box office it could not collect any significant funds. What form of culture does the described work belong to? Indicate two signs by which you determined this. Based on social science knowledge, give another sign of this form of culture. C8 You are going to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The ecological crisis as a global problem of our time." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs. © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010. SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 15) By completing task C9, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. To this end, select only ONE of the statements below. C9 Select one of the statements below and state your thoughts (your point of view, attitude) about the problem raised. Provide the necessary arguments to substantiate your position. When completing the task, use the knowledge gained during the course of social studies, the relevant concepts, as well as the facts of social life and your own life experience. C9.1 Philosophy “Nature knows no rights, she knows only laws” (D. Adams). C9.2 Social "You are not born a person, you become a person" psychology (A. N. Leont'ev). C9.3 Economy “Three things make a nation great and prosperous: fertile soil, active industry and the ease of movement of people and goods” (F. Bacon). C9.4 Sociology “One and the same social role is experienced, evaluated and realized in different ways by different people” (I. Kon). C9.5 Political Science “In a democracy, a person not only enjoys the greatest possible power, but also bears an extremely great responsibility” (N. Cousins). C9.6 Jurisprudence "The law reveals its beneficial effect only to those who obey it" (Democritus). On answer sheet 2, write down the full task number (for example, C9.5), the selected statement, and then the expanded answer. © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010. SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 16) Instructions for checking and evaluating the work of examiners in social studies Part 1 For the correct answer for each task of part 1, 1 point is given. If two or more answers are indicated (including the correct one), the wrong answer or the answer is missing - 0 points. Task number Answer Task number Answer A1 2 A13 4 A2 1 A14 1 A3 3 A15 4 A4 4 A16 1 A5 2 A17 3 A6 3 A18 1 A7 4 A19 1 A8 3 A20 2 A9 2 A21 3 A10 2 A22 4 A11 3 A23 1 А12 2 А24 1 © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010. SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 17) Part 2 Correctly completed tasks B1, B2 are evaluated by 1 point, B3 - B6 are evaluated as follows: 2 points - no mistakes; 1 point - one mistake was made or one symbol is missing in the correct combination of the answer; 0 points - two or more mistakes were made. Task No. Answer В1 Government OR Government of the Russian Federation В2 Reasonableness В3 1212 В4 135 В5 ABAA В6 DBVAEG (2010 - 18) Part 3 Try to conduct a small case study on your own. Ask people about the meaning of the words "spirit", "spiritual". You will be surprised at what different meanings your interlocutors will put into these words. For some, they will be associated with religion, church (for example, "sacred music"). Cultural professionals are likely to note that spirituality is synonymous with creativity for them. Most people associate with the concepts of "spirit", "spiritual" ideas about the higher goals and meaning of human life, about the moral character of the individual ... We will proceed from the generally accepted definition of social activity as a conscious, purposeful activity of people aimed at changing nature and society. As a result of social activity, objects are created that satisfy a variety of needs: tools, food and clothing, government and cultural institutions, works of art, architectural ensembles, scientific works. The side of human activity that is aimed not at processing the "substance of nature", but at processing "people by people", that is, ultimately, at changing the qualities of the social subjects themselves, we will call spiritual activity, and its products - spiritual values. A striking example of spiritual activity is the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, journalist. To be precise, in philosophy it is customary to distinguish between three types of social activity: practical, spiritual and spiritual-practical. However, here I deliberately go for some simplification in order to make my idea more understandable. How are spiritual values ​​different from all others? Take a book as an example. It has all the signs of a material, sensual thing: it can be seen and touched, moved from place to place, even destroyed (which, however, should not be done). Valuable natural materials and a lot of living, animate labor were invested in the creation of the book. Finally, the book, like many other products, has a market value. What specific properties give us the right to distinguish a book from other objects of the external world, referring it primarily and mainly to spiritual values? (A. V. Zakharov) © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010 SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 19) C1 How, in the author's opinion, are social and spiritual activities related? What, according to the author, is spiritual activity directed and what is its result? Answer: The content of the correct answer and instructions for assessment. Points (other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning). The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1) the relationship between social and spiritual activity is shown: spiritual activity is one of the aspects of social activity; 2) the direction of spiritual activity is indicated: "the processing of" people by people ", that is, ultimately, a change in the qualities of the social subjects themselves"; 3) the result of spiritual activity is indicated: the formation of spiritual values. The ratio is shown correctly, the goal and the result are indicated. 2 Correct ratio shown, target indicated OR 1 ratio indicated, result indicated OR target and result indicated. Shown only the ratio OR only the target is indicated OR 0 only the result is indicated OR the answer is incorrect. Maximum score 2 C2 The text gives a number of meanings of the words "spirit", "spiritual". List four of them. Answer: The content of the correct answer and instructions for assessment. Points (other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) The following values ​​must be indicated in the correct answer: 1) spiritual as related to religion, church; 2) the spiritual as the ability to be creative, creativity; 3) ideas about the highest goals and meaning of human life; 4) ideas about the moral character of a person. The meanings can be given in other, similar in meaning, formulations. Four values ​​are indicated. 2 Two to three values ​​are indicated. 1 Any one value is specified OR the answer is incorrect. 0 Maximum score 2 C3 Based on the text, personal experience and facts of social life, confirm with three examples the validity of the author's assertion that the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, journalist personifies spiritual activity. © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation Demonstration version of the Unified State Exam 2010. SOCIETY, grade 11. (2010 - 20) Answer: The content of the correct answer and instructions for assessment Points (other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) The correct answer should contain examples confirming the connection of these professions with spiritual activity, for example: 1) a teacher, talking about heroic pages of our past, influences the formation of patriotic feelings of youth; 2) the convincing performance of the actors in the film based on the classic prompts many to turn to the original source; 3) the preaching of the priest promotes the conversion of the flock to moral values, a righteous life; 4) a journalist who publishes materials about the country's problems influences the civic consciousness of readers. Other relevant examples may be given. Three examples are given. 3 Two examples are given. 2 One example is given. 1 General reasoning is given, not in the context of the task 0 OR the answer is incorrect. Maximum score 3 C4 The author considers a book as an example of a subject in which the material and spiritual sides are inextricably linked. What properties make it possible to attribute the book, first of all, to the products of spiritual culture? Name three such properties. Answer: The content of the correct answer and instructions for assessment Points (other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) The following properties can be named in the correct answer: .e. to his spiritual world; 2) the art book reflects the inner world, the value system of the author; 3) a scientific book carries knowledge, preserves and transfers the experience of generations; Other properties may be named. Three properties are named. 3 Two properties are named. 2 Named one property. 1 The answer is wrong. 0 Maximum score 3 © 2010 Federal Service for Supervision of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Political cultures can be classified for various reasons. Thus, the American scientists G. Al-Mond (born in 1911) and S. Verba (born in 1932), on the basis of the revealed uniqueness of individual countries and regions, identified three "pure" types of political culture.

At first, patriarchal culture ... This culture is characterized by a lack of people's interest in politics, knowledge of the political system and significant expectations from its functioning. Secondly, subject culture where the orientation towards political institutions and loyalty to them are strong, but the level of individual activity of citizens is low. Thirdly, culture of participation , reflecting the critical attitude of citizens to the authorities, their interest in political participation and political activity.

In practice, these types of political culture interact with each other, forming mixed varieties with a predominance of certain components. Moreover, the most massive and at the same time optimal is the synthetic culture, called by scientists civil culture ... It is dominated by attitudes of a subject culture that generate support for state power, as well as attitudes of a culture of participation that generate demands on the power structures. This creates the balance necessary to ensure the stability of the political system. Political culture of developed democratic countries is called civic culture today.

Political culture, being an important part of the political system, is largely determined by its type. In this regard, many political scientists believe that the most general typology is that based on the types of political systems. In other words, totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic political systems are dominated by totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic types of political culture.

V totalitarian type political culture is formed by the conviction of citizens in the justice of the unlimited power of the state over the individual, the belief that the world is divided into two hostile camps - "friends" and "enemies". The political consciousness cultivates the image of the enemy, which must be destroyed, and the struggle is perceived as a universal method of solving complex political problems. The deification of the personality of the political leader (leader) is observed, a feeling of merging with the power arises, which is one of the components of its legitimacy and largely determines the stability of the regime. The political behavior of the elite is dominated by the motives of omnipotence, in the behavior of citizens - modesty, enthusiasm, and their participation in political life is of a mobilization nature.

Authoritarian type political culture differs significantly from the totalitarian type. Society realizes alienation from power, the feeling of merging with it disappears. Since the army is most often the mainstay of an authoritarian regime, there is no deification of the personality of a political leader as a factor in the legitimacy of power. Requirements of competence prevail in the political behavior of the elite, professionalism and obedience are required from citizens, a certain detachment from politics.

In a democratic type political culture is dominated by orientations towards democratic values ​​and norms. A person, his rights and freedoms are of particular value. In relation to the authorities, a mood of criticality prevails. People see the state as an institution controlled by civil society, and at the same time an important factor in its integration. Openness of political positions and an orientation towards political participation are gaining in importance. Adherence to the law, a sense of responsibility of citizens for their political choice and the ways of its implementation, pluralism and tolerance in public opinion prevail.

Political culture of modern Russia has not yet settled down. On the one hand, it retains its traditional features: subservient attitude to any center of political power; low self-discipline and self-organization; distrust of the state; a tendency to anarchy with a simultaneous desire for strong power; weak respect for the law, individual rights. As before, many Russians prefer radicalism and revolutionary methods in politics to measures of an evolutionary, reformist type. Confidence remains in the possibility of simple and quick solutions to complex political problems.

On the other hand, there is a gradual acceptance of political pluralism as a necessary quality of political life and a guarantee of the irreversibility of democratic transformations. There is an open expression of various political orientations and preferences (with the still traditionally wide range of political extremes: from monarchism to anarchism). There is a growing understanding of the importance of personal responsibility, the desire for independence in political assessments and decisions. In other words, there is a transformation of political culture based on democratic values.

Basic concepts: political participation, political culture, types of political culture.

Terms: political role, political subculture.

1. Make a table "Typology of political culture".

2. Democratic political culture presupposes the presence of such personal qualities as tolerance, humanity, criticality. What else would you add to this list? Explain the answer.

3. Scientists emphasize among the functions of political culture: value-orientation, normative-regulatory, integration, innovation. How do you understand these functions? Expand them on the example of one of the types of political culture.

4. Imagine that you are entrusted with organizing a small sociological study on the topic "The political culture of high school students." Prepare a general outline of the study, including organizational issues as well as questions for the respondents. Discuss and implement this plan with your peers. Make a report on the results of the work done.

Work with the source

Read the reasoning of the modern Russian scientist E. B. Shestopal about the political socialization of the individual in Great Britain.

Many ordinary Englishmen are brought up (both by family, and by school, and by propaganda) in the belief that activity, active participation in all spheres of life can bring personal success. An active character is a national trait. This is also facilitated by the socialization of the younger generation through all kinds of voluntary organizations, committees, clubs, commissions, associations that flourish in all social strata.

In politics, socialization also involves fostering an active position from childhood (through school discussion clubs, youth branches of parties, etc.). This applies, first of all, to professionals, from whom "gladiatorial" qualities are required, but involvement, albeit more superficial, is promoted as a positive characteristic of an ordinary person.

Shestopal E.B. Personality and Politics. - M., 1988 .-- P. 94.

Questions and tasks to the source:

1) What is the political socialization of the individual? 2) What institutions contribute to the political socialization of the British? 3) Based on the text, show the connection between political socialization and political culture. 4) Are the processes of political socialization similar in Great Britain and Russia? Argument your answer based on your personal experience.