State in Central Europe.
Territory - 41.3 thousand sq. Km. The capital is Bern.
Population - 7 million people. (1998).
The official languages are German, French and Italian, the official languages are German, French, Italian and Romansh.
Religion - 46% of believers are Catholics, 40% are Protestants.
In 58 BC. NS. the territory of modern Switzerland, which was inhabited by the Celtic tribes of the Helvetians, was conquered by the Romans. Since 536 - as part of the Frankish state. The official date of the founding of the Swiss Confederation is August 1, 1291, when the 3 cantons - Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden - entered into a military alliance of friendship and mutual assistance and created an independent formation within the Holy Roman Empire. During the XIII - XVI centuries. 10 more cantons joined this union. In 1499 Switzerland gained de facto independence. In 1798 French troops entered the country. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 restored the national independence of Switzerland and proclaimed its "eternal neutrality". In the civil war of 1847, federal forces defeated the alliance of the backward Catholic cantons. This made it possible to eliminate the remnants of feudalism and to centralize the country. In 1848, the Constitution was adopted, which officially proclaimed Switzerland a federal state.
Despite the fact that the official name of the country is the Swiss Confederation, according to the form of government it is a federal state. It consists of 23 cantons, 3 of which are subdivided into half cantons. Switzerland has a diverse system different forms local government and self-government; each canton independently determines the issues of their organization. Most cantons are administratively divided into districts and communes. Small cantons and semi-cantons have only communities. Each canton has its own constitution, parliament and government work. The boundaries of their sovereignty are defined in the federal Constitution: "The cantons are sovereign insofar as their sovereignty is not limited by the federal constitution. They exercise all rights that have not been transferred to federal power" (Article 3).
The current Constitution was adopted by referendum on April 14, 1999 and entered into force on January 1, 2000. It did not make radical changes in the state structure of the country, but only united the accumulated numerous amendments to the previous Constitution of 1874 in new text... Anachronisms were removed from the latter and some new provisions were introduced, as a rule, enjoying wide support among the population. Thus, the updated Basic Law includes articles that enshrine the rights of children, youth, and the right to strike.
According to the form of government, Switzerland is a parliamentary republic of the original type. The political regime is democratic.
Legislative power is exercised by Parliament - the Federal Assembly, which consists of 2 chambers - the National Council and the Council of Cantons. The National Council consists of 200 deputies, elected for a 4-year term by universal suffrage on the basis of proportional representation. The Council of Cantons has 46 deputies (2 from the cantons and 1 from the half-cantons); some of them are elected by local parliaments, some are appointed by the governments of the cantons. The term of office of the members of the Council of Cantons is from 3 to 4 years. The Constitution stipulates that regular sessions of parliament are held once a year. They are convened by the federal government. Extraordinary sessions may be called at the request of the government, members of parliament or several cantons.
Permanent and temporary commissions are formed as working bodies in both chambers. So, in the commissions there is an initial consideration of bills, which are then submitted to the plenary sessions of the chambers. At plenary sessions, after the discussion of the bill by the deputies, it is put to a vote. If the majority in both chambers voted for it, the bill is considered passed. When the opinions of the chambers differ, a conciliation commission is formed from their representatives on an equal footing. If she does not come to a positive decision, the bill is no longer considered.
In addition to legislative activity "on all matters falling within the jurisdiction of the federation", the Federal Assembly is endowed with a number of other functions defined by the Constitution. It elects the government, the Federal Court of Justice, the Chancellor and the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. The Federal Assembly determines the budget, ratifies treaties with foreign states, has the right to declare war and conclude peace. It is responsible for approving the constitutions of the cantons and deciding on measures to ensure that the cantons fulfill their federal responsibilities. The Federal Assembly is also competent to decide on measures to protect "internal order" and to prevent the "threat to the Federation." It also controls the federal administration, the armed forces, and has the right to pardon. Control over government activities is expressed mainly in the form of interpellations and the review of the government's annual reports on its activities. However, parliament has no right to demand the resignation of the government or its individual members.
The highest executive power is exercised by the Federal Council - the Government of Switzerland. It consists of 7 people elected by the Federal Assembly. The government is formed from representatives of the coalition parties with a majority in parliament. The Federal Council is headed by the President, assisted by the Vice President. Both are annually elected by the Federal Assembly from among the members of the government. The same person cannot be elected President or Vice President 2 times in a row. The President presides over the Federal Council and acts on behalf of the Federation in relations with other states. He has no other prerogatives in comparison with other members of the government.
The election of the members of the Federal Council takes place every 4 years after the election of the National Council. Members of parliament elected to the Federal Council can no longer exercise parliamentary powers, nor can they be in the service of the federation or cantons. The powers of the Federal Council are quite extensive: it is in charge of economic, financial and social issues of the federal level, the country's defense, intelligence. The government directs foreign policy, resolves disputes between the cantons over the application of federal legislation. He has the right to take emergency measures.
Certain powers are vested in the Federal Council in the field of legislation. He has the right to initiate legislation, considers bills introduced by the chambers of the Federal Assembly or the cantons, and gives opinions on them. The government can independently issue various normative acts, and in the exercise of emergency powers - generally binding decrees. Government meetings are held every week, decisions are taken unanimously. Management of various spheres of public life is distributed in the government between departments (internal affairs, foreign affairs, finance and customs, etc.).
Legal system
general characteristics
The Swiss legal system is part of the Romano-Germanic legal family. The first provisions of Swiss law proper in history were formulated in the treaty on the formation of the Swiss Union, concluded by the free peasants of 3 cantons (Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden) in 1291. This treaty, which laid the foundation for Swiss statehood, at the same time consolidated the principle of the independence of legal systems and judicial bodies of each from the cantons. The only exceptions were issues of joint armed struggle against the Habsburgs, as well as uniform criminal prosecution of the most dangerous crimes - murder, arson, robbery. Over the next centuries of the existence of the Swiss Union, to which more and more cantons were successively joined (by the beginning of the 16th century there were 13 of them and until 1789 there were 13), in some of its parts there were their own collections of legal customs of urban and rural areas (city and zemstvo law ). The unwritten customary law, the basic norms of which were announced by the city and village elders on the eve of the court hearings, over time began to be written down and even acquired a more or less codified character. For example, in the canton of Glarus in 1387, the constitution and rules of judicial procedure were written down, and in 1448 the Zemsky Code was issued. Such rules and codes were often borrowed by the cantons from their neighbors.
Over time, joint acts adopted by all or most of the cantons have become an important source of law. For example, the so-called Popov Charter of 1370 made a clear distinction between secular and ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and also prohibited all those living in the territory of the Swiss Union from applying to foreign courts with claims, with the exception of certain categories of marriage and ecclesiastical cases, amenable to the episcopal court in Constance.
As in other parts of medieval Europe, certain principles and norms of Roman law, as well as Carolina, a criminal code issued in 1532 by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. mercenaries in foreign military service, "Carolina" was officially recognized by the current Swiss criminal law, and in 3 cantons it was applicable to all citizens.
During the period of the Helvetic Republic (1798-1803), proclaimed on the territory of Switzerland after the entry of French troops there, a number of legislative acts were issued with the aim of creating and strengthening a "single and indivisible" state. Among them - the Criminal Code of 1799, drawn up on the model of the French Criminal Code of 1791. It abolished torture, mutilation and other corporal punishment, and instead of qualified types of the death penalty (burning, quartering, etc.) introduced the guillotine. However, the abolition of the Helvetic Republic, the return of Switzerland to a confederation, and then (according to the Constitution of 1848) the formation of a federation of cantons led to the creation of such a legal system in which the federal (federal) legislation is in rather definite (for a particular period), but historically changing relationship with the legislation of individual cantons.
WITH early XIX v. in Switzerland, there was a process of gradual replacement of outdated norms of medieval customary law, including codified, by legislative acts, which were more consistent with the capitalist relations developing in the country. At the same time, for a long time, the decisive role in the development of legislation belonged to individual cantons, and not to federal authorities.
Since Switzerland was dependent on Napoleonic France until 1814, its legislation was strongly influenced by French laws, primarily the Civil Code of 1804 (this influence was also felt many decades after Switzerland gained full state independence). On the model of the French Civil Code, civil codes were drawn up in cantons with a French-speaking population. Cantons with a predominance of German-speaking citizens were guided by the Austrian Civil Code of 1811. This is how, for example, quite original civil codes of the cantons of Bern (1824) and Zurich (1853) were drawn up, which in turn served as a model for the codes of a number of other cantons. But at the same time, in several cantons throughout almost the entire 19th century. customary law remained the main source of law, including in the field of civil and commercial relations.
The process of unification of legislation began in Switzerland, in essence, only with the adoption of the Constitution in 1874 and, in particular, with the introduction of amendments to it in 1898, providing for the expansion of the powers of the federation and the transfer to its jurisdiction of the main issues of civil and almost all issues of criminal law. In the same 1874, the Federal Law on Civil Status and Marriage (later canceled) was issued, and in 1881 the Federal Code of Obligations, which regulated a wide range of issues, primarily related to trade. The Code of Obligations, drawn up with the participation of the prominent Swiss lawyer I. Bluntschli, was aimed at facilitating the civil circulation between the multilingual cantons. Tendencies to unify legislation throughout the country were also revealed in the draft of the general Swiss Civil Code, adopted in 1907. It was prepared by the famous Swiss civilist E. Huber on the basis of a thorough study of the system and history of civil law of the cantons and taking into account the experience of legislation in the field of civil law of other European countries. states.
The Swiss Civil Code became a significant milestone in the history of bourgeois civil law. In some countries, such as Turkey, he served as a model in preparing the reform of national legislation. This was largely due to the simplicity and clarity of the wording of the Code, since it was drawn up with the expectation of its correct understanding not only by lawyers, but also by citizens (including lay judges). In addition, the Code was to be translated and published in all 3 official languages - German, French and Italian.
The Swiss Civil Code came into force only in 1912, since its adoption required a lot of changes in the legislation of both the federation and the cantons, each of which issued rather lengthy laws to implement the Code. As a result, in the sphere of civil and commercial law, the competence of the cantons remained only separate, not so essential issues (regulation of property relations between neighbors, between brothers and sisters, etc.).
During the validity of the Constitution of 1874, several dozen amendments were adopted to it, with the help of which the competence of the federation was consistently expanding more and more at the expense of the competence of the cantons. The powers of the federation bodies include the decision critical issues public life, legislation in the field of finance, industry, transport, communications, labor, social insurance, civil and criminal law. The competence of the cantons, although they have their own constitutions, is limited on some of the above issues only by the ability to issue normative acts detailing or supplementing federal legislation. The most important subject that remains under the jurisdiction of the cantons is the regulation of the judiciary, civil and criminal proceedings and the police.
Among the sources of Swiss law, the main role belongs to legislation, and in it the Constitution takes the leading position. Questions about changing the Constitution, as well as about issuing other federal laws of national importance, should be put to a popular vote if this is required by collecting signatures of 30 thousand citizens or the authorities of 8 out of 26 currently existing cantons and semi-cantons (optional referendum). However, the government can declare a bill it has submitted "urgent" and thus avoid a referendum. In recent decades, the adoption of by-laws (ordinances) by the government or, on its behalf, by the departments of the federation has become increasingly widespread.
After the Second World War, a lot of work was done to codify the current federal legislation, ending with the publication of a carefully prepared, thematically compiled Systematic Collection of Federation Laws, adopted from 1848 to 1947. Those legislative acts that were not included in the 14 volumes of the Systematic Assembly, from January 1, 1953 (the date of the entry into force of the Meeting) were considered invalid. Legislation passed after 1947 is published in chronological collections and in additions to volumes of the Systematic Assembly. Since 1986, federal legislation has been published not only in French, German and Italian, as it was established earlier, but also in the fourth language, Romansh. The cantons also have their own collections of laws: in many of them there is a very long tradition of publishing well-prepared collections of this kind. They are usually published in the language of the majority of the population of the respective canton.
In addition to legislation, local and commercial customs can be a source of law in Switzerland when this is directly prescribed by the Civil Code or when gaps in the law are found. Under certain conditions, court decisions, primarily those made by the Federal Court, can also act as a source of law. The Civil Code allows that in the presence of gaps in the law, judges have the right to “replace” the legislator.
Legal research is carried out mainly under the auspices of the law schools of the universities in Basel (founded in 1460), Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Neuchâtel, Friborg and Zurich. They are taught in German or French(both in Friborg).
Civil and related
branches of law
Turning to the current state of the main branches of Swiss law, it should be noted that in the regulation of relations in the field of civil and commercial law, the decisive role now belongs to the Civil Code of 1907 with supplementary laws and regulations. It consists of a small introductory chapter (10 articles) and 4 parts, which regulate the following issues: individuals and legal entities (part I), family law (part II), inheritance law (part III), property law, including property issues, restrictions on property rights and ownership (part IV). As a section (or part V) of the Civil Code, an independent Code of Obligations of 1881 is often included, which was significantly revised in 1911 (on the eve of the entry into force of the Civil Code) and in 1936. It, in turn, consists of sections containing general provisions on obligations, norms governing certain types of contracts, obligations from offenses, the law of trading companies, including limited liability partnerships, the legal regime of securities, etc.
The Swiss Civil Code is characterized by providing participants in legal relations, primarily private owners and their associations, with very wide opportunities to act at their discretion when concluding contracts, creating legal entities... Restrictions are dictated only by the need to comply with the most important interests of the state and society. The Code also provides for fairly wide limits of judicial discretion. An essential feature of Swiss legislation in recent decades is the often simultaneous regulation of substantive and procedural law (for example, in 1985 such additions to Article 28 of the Civil Code regarding the protection of personal rights of citizens came into force).
In recent years, the process of revising the norms of the Civil Code regulating issues of family law and inheritance has begun. The rights of married women have been expanded, including in inheritance (laws of 1984 and 1987), and a reform is being prepared in the field of divorce procedure and legal implications... Commercial law and the activities of companies are governed by the norms of the Civil and, in particular, the Obligatory Codes, as well as a number of other federal laws: on banks in 1934 (contains provisions on the protection of "bank secrets", the disclosure of which is declared a crime), on cartels in 1985, on unfair competition in 1986 (aims to create conditions for fair competition "in the interests of all participants in trade").
The powers of the federation include the regulation of basic issues labor law... Since 1911, the Code of Obligations contains provisions on collective employment contract... These norms were repeatedly changed (in particular, as a result of the reform of 1956), and now it is mainly the collective agreement that determines the wages and working conditions of workers (some provisions on labor protection are formulated in cantonal legislation). A common practice is that in collective agreements employers undertake the obligation not to resort to lockouts, and workers are forced in response to give up their right to strike.
Social insurance issues are mostly regulated by federal legislation, but with regard to certain types of insurance, the cantons have the right to independently determine how obligatory it is. Social insurance systems, jointly financed by federal and cantonal authorities, private institutions and public organizations, as well as the insured themselves, developed mainly only after the Second World War. Pensions and benefits are paid for old age, loss of breadwinner, disability, illness, etc. Since 1951, insurance against accidents at work and payment of unemployment benefits have been introduced. Security issues environment are governed in Switzerland by both federal and cantonal laws. In 1971, the Federal Office for Environmental Protection was created, and the corresponding bodies were established in each canton. At the level of federal legislation, the following acts are of greatest importance in this area: on the protection of waters - 1955 and 1972, on the protection of nature and landscape - in 1966, on national parks - in 1980, on the hunting and protection of birds and mammals - 1986 and, finally, adopted in 1988, the decree on emergency measures to preserve forests.
Since the Constitution of the Swiss Confederation left questions of justice in the jurisdiction of the cantons, there are 26 cantonal civil procedure codes in the country and the corresponding Federal Code of Civil Procedure of December 4, 1947, which regulates the procedure for hearing cases in the Federal Court. These codes were adopted at different times and reflect local peculiarities, but they also have a lot in common: all recognize the possibility of free formulation by the parties of their claims and allow a fairly active role of a judge, in particular, in the proceedings of claims in family matters and small property disputes, if the parties not represented by lawyers. The arbitration procedure, which is often used by participants in commercial transactions, is now governed by the 1969 inter-cantonal arbitration convention (almost all cantons have acceded to it).
Criminal law and the process
The development of criminal law in Switzerland after the abolition of the Helvetic Republic and its legislation in 1803 was determined by contradictory tendencies - towards particularism (initially stronger) and towards the unification of cantonal legislation, which was dictated by the needs of more effective fight with crime (ultimately it prevailed). After 1803, some cantons retained the Penal Code of the Helvetic Republic as cantonal law, while others declared the medieval "Carolina" as their current criminal and procedural law. Finally, a number of cantons were published in 1803 - 1848. own criminal codes, drafted under the strong influence of the legislation of neighboring states, primarily the French Criminal Code of 1810, the Austrian Criminal Code of 1803, the Bavarian Criminal Code of 1813. 1853 Swiss Criminal Law Act. This Law consisted of a General and a small number of norms of the Special Part, establishing responsibility for national crimes. Its adoption stimulated the renewal of criminal codes in many cantons (some of them followed the model of the German Criminal Code of 1871). However, in 2 cantons, even in the XX century. ordinary criminal law continued to apply.
At the end of the XIX century. in Switzerland, work began on the preparation of a draft general criminal code, which was to completely replace the cantonal criminal codes. This work was headed by the Bernese professor Karl Stoss. His draft, drawn up on the basis of a comparative analysis of cantonal and contemporary foreign criminal law, was approved by an expert commission in 1896. As a result, after a popular referendum, Article 64 bis was included in the Swiss Constitution in 1898, which proclaimed that "the Union has the right to legislate on matters of criminal law." However, the publication of the all-Swiss Criminal Code, despite the presence of K. Stoss's project, was delayed for several decades, during which more than one preliminary draft was drawn up. After a discussion that began in 1928 and ended in 1937, the Federal Assembly approved the text of the "Civil Criminal" (as it is called in contrast to the Military Criminal Code). In contrast to the Civil Code of 1907, it had to be put to a national referendum, since this was demanded by about 70 thousand voters. In the referendum, 53% of the voting participants voted in favor. It entered into force on January 1, 1942, after the authorities of each canton issued laws to bring it into force. The jurisdiction of the cantons (according to Article 335 of the Criminal Code) remained only to establish punishments for some minor criminal acts not provided for by the federal Criminal Code, for violation of cantonal administrative and procedural regulations, as well as cantonal tax legislation.
The Swiss Criminal Code reflected the contradictory tendencies in the development of bourgeois criminal legislation, associated primarily with the ideas of the sociological school of criminal law, one of the prominent representatives of which was K. Stoss. The Code has established wide limits of judicial discretion in the choice of punishment (other measures). At the same time, the introduction of the Criminal Code of 1937 was associated with the implementation of a number of liberal reforms: the death penalty for ordinary crimes was abolished (before that it was retained in some cantons; the death penalty was completely abolished in 1992), the sphere of probation and conditional early release, etc.
The contradictory trends in the development of Swiss criminal law are also manifested in the reforms that the Code underwent after its entry into force. Thus, in 1950, the sanctions for crimes of a "political nature" were strengthened and at the same time the possibilities for passing conditional sentences were expanded. In 1966, the text of the Criminal Code introduced norms aimed at strengthening the educational impact of imprisonment, assigned to minors and young people under the age of 25. In 1971, a major reform of the punishment system was carried out: in essence, the differences in conditions of detention in a convict prison and during "ordinary" imprisonment were abolished, the widespread use of the "semi-freedom" regime for prisoners was envisaged, the separate detention of persons sentenced to imprisonment for the first time, and etc. Subsequent reforms of the criminal legislation concern mainly changes in the Special Part of the Criminal Code (in particular, the punishment for participants in armed robberies and other violent crimes has been increased).
The regulation of criminal (as well as civil) proceedings is in the competence of the cantonal legislative bodies, with the exception of the activities of the Federal Court, which is guided by the rules that are issued by the federal authorities (the most important among them is the Federal Law on Criminal Justice of 1934 with subsequent amendments). The cantons have their own laws on the judiciary and codes of criminal procedure, most of which were substantially updated after the Second World War. As part of these reforms, some of the rights of the accused were expanded, but at the same time, the procedure for investigating cases of minor crimes was significantly simplified, in particular, the possibility of applying penalties by the police without bringing the case to court was established. The cantonal authorities also regulate the execution of sentences, including those related to imprisonment, although a number of very important norms in this area have been included over the past decades in the general Swiss Penal Code.
The judicial system. Control bodies
The Swiss judicial system includes federal courts (only in high level) and cantonal courts, both of which can apply both general Swiss law and the law of individual cantons.
The Federal Court, traditionally sitting in Lausanne, consists of 26-28 judges and 11-13 substitutes, all elected for a term of 6 years by the Federal Assembly (re-election is allowed). In the composition of the court, according to the Constitution, all 3 official languages of the federation must be represented. The chairman and vice-chairman of the court are elected by the Federal Assembly every 2 years (without the right to re-election) from among the judges who are senior in age and experience. The Federal Court, which practically never meets with its full complement, has permanent chambers of 5-7 judges each. 2 of them deal with issues of constitutional and administrative law, 2 - civil law, 1 chamber deals with debt collection and 1 - bankruptcy, and, finally, a chamber called the Court of Cassation deals with criminal law issues. In addition, other chambers are created, if necessary, on a temporary basis.
The competence of the Federal Court is to consider, as the first and only instance, constitutional disputes between the authorities of the federation and cantons, between cantons, as well as complaints from citizens about violations of their constitutional rights. The court adjudicates civil disputes between the federation and cantons among themselves, with associations and citizens, as well as other civil disputes, if requested by both litigants and if the amount of the claim reaches the amount established for the given period. The federal court hears, at first instance, with the participation of a jury, criminal cases of high treason, crimes against international law, about crimes and misconduct of a political nature and about crimes of the officials of the federation. It acts as the highest court of cassation in civil, criminal and administrative cases, dealing with complaints on the right to decisions and sentences from the highest courts of the cantons (there are some restrictions for applying to the Federal Court).
As a relatively independent division of the Federal Court in Lucerne, the Federal Social Insurance Court sits. It consists of 7 judges and hears complaints against decisions of the cantonal courts on the payment of pensions and benefits.
The judicial systems of individual cantons, enshrined in their constitutions, are distinguished by considerable originality, which is even expressed in the names of the respective courts. Thus, the highest courts of the cantons can be called cantonal, supreme, cassation or appeal. In most cantons, they act as the highest court where decisions and sentences of lower courts can be appealed, and only in a few cantons they deal with certain categories of civil and criminal cases at first instance. The lowest civil courts are either justices of the peace, who hear small claims, or circuit courts (sometimes called courts of first instance), which handle the bulk of civil cases (with a relatively small amount of claim, cases are usually heard by a single judge). The first instance in criminal cases is either the police courts, in which the sole judge of the peace hears cases of minor criminal offenses, or correctional tribunals (consisting of 3 judges) in cases of crimes and misdemeanors of medium gravity, or, finally, the jury - on cases of grave crimes. Criminal offenses and misdemeanors of juveniles are tried in juvenile courts.
Some cantons, usually larger ones, also have other specialized courts. In particular, commercial courts have been created to deal with commercial disputes, which include both professional judges (usually 2-3) and representatives of the business community, elected by the cantonal councils. Labor disputes are resolved in labor courts, which include a professional judge and representatives of entrepreneurs and employees. Cantons 1-2 also have real estate rental courts. In a number of cantons and at the federal level, there are special bodies (commissions, etc.) of administrative justice.
Cantonal judges are elected to their positions either by the population or by cantonal councils for various terms (from 3 to 8 years), with the exception of a number of cantons where lower court judges are appointed by higher courts. In the lower ranks of the judiciary in many cantons, judges are held by persons without a legal background.
The investigation of criminal cases is carried out by the police under more or less strict, depending on the canton, the control of the prosecutor's office. The prosecution in court is usually supported by the cantonal prosecutor (appointed by the cantonal authorities) or his representatives. In the Federal Court and in some cases in the cantonal courts, the prosecution is supported by a federal prosecutor (appointed by the Swiss government) or others officials federal prosecutor's office.
In most cantons, criminal defendants can only be defended by professional lawyers who have a university law degree and who have been admitted to the cantonal bar associations after passing the relevant examinations. The interests of parties in civil cases are also often represented by professional lawyers, but in some cantons and in proceedings before the Federal Court, their participation is not mandatory.
Literature
Swiss Penal Code. M., 2000.
State in Central Europe. The capital is Bern. The form of government is a federal state. The name "confederation" is the result of a compromise reached with the approval of the Constitution of 1848, which put an end to the confrontation (which took on an armed form in 1830-1332) between the supporters of the unitary Helvetic Republic, proclaimed in 1798 under the influence of the French Revolution (abolished in 1803 .), and the supporters of the union of independent cantons under the Treaty of Union of 1815. The current Constitution of 1874 defines (Article 3) the limits of the sovereignty of the cantons: “The cantons are sovereign insofar as their sovereignty is not limited by the federal constitution. rights that have not been transferred to federal authorities. " This makes it possible to characterize Switzerland precisely as a federal state, moreover, as a constitutional federation, not a contractual one. Territorial division - 23 cantons (names are given in accordance with the language spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of this canton): Aargau, Appenzell, Basel, Bern, Valais, Vaud, Glarus, Graubünden, Geneva, Solothurn, Lucerne, Nevschatel, St. Gallen, Ticino, Thurgau, Unterwalden, Uri, Friborg, Zug, Zurich, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Jura. Each canton has its own constitution, parliament and government. Within the limits of their competence, the cantons issue legislative acts. The head of state is the president, elected by the Federal Assembly (parliament) from among the members of the Federal Council (government) for a period of 1 year without the right to be re-elected for another term. Usually, representatives of different cantons alternate in this post. At the same time, a vice-president is also elected, who, as a rule, represents another linguistic and religious community. Legislative power at the federal level is exercised by the Federal Assembly, which consists of two chambers: the Council of Cantons (upper house) and the National Council (lower house). The Council of Cantons consists of 49 members (each canton elects two members). The National Council consists of 200 deputies elected by direct universal suffrage by proportional representation for a term of 4 years. In addition to legislative activity, the competence of the parliament includes the election of the government, the Federal Court, the chancellor, the commander-in-chief of the army, as well as the approval of the constitutions of the cantons, control over the execution by the cantons of their duties as members of the federation. Executive power is exercised by the Federal Council - the government - headed by the president. The government consists of 7 federal advisers (ministers) who are heads of departments on a coalition basis. The Vice President is also part of the government, heading one of the departments. The government is elected by parliament for a term of 4 years. In addition to the usual powers for the government, the Federal Council has the right to resolve disputes between the cantons, including on the application of federal law. He also gives opinions on bills introduced by the Houses of the Federal Assembly or the legislatures of the cantons. The judicial system has two levels: federal and cantonal. The Federal Court, all of whose members are elected by the Federal Assembly, consists of several chambers according to branches of law. It is also entrusted with the functions of constitutional jurisdiction. The Federal Social Insurance Court sits in a separate chamber. The cantonal judiciaries are not uniform and bear the stamp of local traditions. They include justices of the peace, police courts, correctional tribunals, etc. In a number of cantons, courts are elected by the population; justices of the peace can be persons without legal education. However, the investigation and defense are carried out on a professional basis. (A.K.)
Watch value Switzerland (Swiss Confederation) in other dictionaries
Confederation- well. lat. close alliance of sovereigns or states. The Polish confederations were conspiracies, indignation.
Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
Confederation J.- 1. Union independent states having joint bodies for the coordination of military, foreign policy and some other tasks. // The corresponding form of state ........
Efremova's Explanatory Dictionary
Swiss J.- 1. Doorman's room.
Efremova's Explanatory Dictionary
Confederation- confederation, w. (Latin confoederatio). 1. Union, community, association of some kind. organizations (law). states. General Unitary Confederation of Labor in France (unification ........
Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
Confederation- (from Lat. Confoederatio - union, association) - a form of interstate association, in which the states-subjects of Kazakhstan form a permanent alliance in order to coordinate their ........
Political vocabulary
Confederation- -and; f. [lat. confederatio]
1. Union, the union of some l. organizations. World K. Labor. K. trade unions.
2. The Union of States Preserving their Independence and Uniting ........
Explanatory dictionary Kuznetsov
Confederation- (late lat.confoederatio -
union,
unification) - a temporary union of sovereign states, formed to solve joint political, economic or military ........
Economic Dictionary
Accounting Form, Swiss- - a kind of the French form of bookkeeping. Its feature was
transfer of articles from memorable
books to the Main.
The transfer technique assumed ........
Economic Dictionary
Swiss Exchange of Financial Fews- (Swi Option and Financial Future Exchange, SOFFEX) was established in 1988 by the stock exchanges of Zurich, Basel and Geneva with the participation of five
banks. Located in Zurich. Among the transactions performed -
........
Economic Dictionary
Swiss Exchange of Financial Futures & Options- The world's first fully automated trading system with a fully integrated and automated clearing system. Contracts include freely ........
Economic Dictionary
Swiss Options And Financial Futures Exchange (soffex)- The Zurich-based financial futures exchange. Among the transactions performed on it, there are index futures based on the Swiss ........
Economic Dictionary
Swiss- -Oh; f. Doorman's room at the entrance.
Explanatory dictionary Kuznetsov
Ashanti Confederation- early political formation of Ashanti in the territory of modern Ghana. Founded in the late 17 - early. 18th century Captured by Great Britain and in 1901 included in the Gold Coast colony.
Bar Confederation- in 1768-72 the armed alliance of the Polish gentry against the king Stanislav Poniatowski and Russia. It was formed in the city of Bar (Podillia). The suppression of the Bar Conference by the royal troops ........
Big encyclopedic Dictionary
World Confederation of Labor (WKT)- founded in 1920 with the support of the Vatican under the name International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions (ICHL). St. 14 million members (late 1990). Residence - Brussels.
Big encyclopedic dictionary
General Italian Confederation of Labor- the largest national professional center in Italy. Founded in 1944. 4.5 million members (1992).
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General Confederation of Labor- France - the largest national trade union center. It was founded in 1895. It is a member of the World Federation of Trade Unions. 1.3 million members (1988).
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Irish Confederation- a revolutionary organization in 1847-48. Created by the left elements of the Repiler Association. The uprising organized by the Irish Confederation (1848) was suppressed by the English ........
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Confederation- (from the late Lat. Confoederatio - union - unification), 1) the form of state structure, in which the states forming a confederation fully retain their independence, ........
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Confederation of Journalistic Unions- a self-governing independent creative organization. It was created in 1991 in Moscow (history dates back to the Union of Journalists of the USSR, founded in 1959).
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Confederation of Filmmakers' Unions Is a creative public organization uniting cinematographers from different states. It was created in 1990 in Moscow on the basis of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR (formed in ........
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International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICBU)- founded in December 1949 in London as a result of the split of the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU); in 1989 - 142 national organizations in 100 countries and territories with a total number of approx .........
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International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions- until 1968 the name of the World Confederation of Labor.
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Saxon Switzerland- (Sachsische Schweiz) - foothills of the Ore Mountains, southeast Germany, in Saxony. The height is 500-700 m. It is cut by the gorges of the Elba River and its tributaries. Bizarre relief forms (towers, needles, ........
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Targovice Confederation- the union of Polish magnates (the act of the Targowice Confederation was published on May 14, 1792 in the town of Targowica, Targowica). In an effort to eliminate the reforms of the Four-Year Diet, the Targowice Confederation ........
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French Democratic Confederation of Labor (fdkt)- the national professional center of France. Founded in 1964. approx. 470 thousand members (1992).
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Switzerland- (German Schweiz - French Suisse, Italian Svizzera), the Swiss Confederation, the state to the Center. Europe. 41.3 thousand km2. Population 6.99 million man (1993). Urban population 60% (1991). Official ........
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Confederation- ConfederationA union of state entities based on the principles of federalism. The states of the confederation retain their independence and have their own ........
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Saxon Switzerland- Saxon Switzerland (Sächsische Schweiz), north. foothills of the Ore Mountains in the SE. Germany, between the cities of Pirna (Germany) and Decin (Czech Republic). Height 500-700 m. Built by sandstones and conglomerates, ........
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Switzerland- (German Schweiz, French Suisse, Italian Svizzera, English Switzerland), Swiss Confederation, state in the Center. Europe. Pl. 41.3 thousand km², the capital is Bern. Federation composed of ........
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In the mountain valleys of the Alps, medieval republican institutions have survived to this day. Already in 1291, three peasant, or forest, cantons - Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden - entered into an "Eternal Alliance" to maintain laws and mutual assistance against the Austrian Habsburgs. 124 Over the next two centuries, these cantons entered into alliances and confederal treaties with the cities of Zurich, which were ruled by craft guilds, and Bern, where the military patriciate ruled. Over time, ten cantons became part of the confederation, united in a multi-level confederal system, and it took a long time for a sense of national unity to develop in this ethnically and linguistically heterogeneous region.
The borders of the union remained highly unstable, and at various times, many neighboring cities and lands expressed a desire to join the confederation. Domination over Saint Gotthard and other passes on the trade routes from Italy to Germany gave her great strategic advantages. But perhaps an even more important consequence of the geographical position was something that the Italian and German cities- local patriotic troops, composed of highly trained and warlike spearmen, who were supplied in abundance by overcrowded mountain villages. In the XIV century. and at the beginning of the 15th century. the Swiss repelled several attacks by the Habsburgs; in 1476 and 1477 they defeated the feudal army of the Burgundian Duke Charles the Bold, and in 1499 forced the emperor Maximilian I to retreat. After these events, no great power dared to attack the Swiss until the French Revolution. Already in the XIV century. a legend was formed about the national Swiss hero Wilhelm Tell, a well-aimed arrow, whom the Habsburg governor forced to knock down an apple from the head of his little son with an arrow.
Western and Eastern European cities
To the east and west of the wide belt of German and Italian city-states, European cities never enjoyed full independence, although they often enjoyed considerable administrative autonomy. Since the XV century. territorial rulers sought to limit this autonomy in every way. They easily managed to achieve their goal in Eastern Europe, where relatively small and weak cities could not withstand the alliance of princes and large landowners. In the West, this process was slower. It must be admitted, however, that the English monarchy met almost no resistance from the cities. London, which was in awe of the Royal Tower and was economically connected to the Court of Westminster, could not and did not want to play an independent role. Other English cities were too small to have similar expectations. The dukes of Burgundy, the rulers of the Netherlands, had more problems. Flanders, the richest and most populous province, was dominated by the three largest cities - Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. Like many other cities that flourished in the 12th – 13th centuries, they suffered from population decline and economic decline in the 14th – 15th centuries. But Ghent and Bruges nevertheless remained the largest and richest cities north of the Alps, with the exception of Paris. They succeeded in obtaining considerable self-government from the Counts of Flanders and establishing de facto control over the assemblies of the Flemish estates, which were usually convened several times a year. Workshops had a lot of places in city councils. During the 14th century in Ghent, the weavers' workshop twice roused the people to revolt, although patricians, wealthy representatives of the ruling urban clans, became the head of the new governments then established. The movements of the urban masses never achieved any significant results, but the very revolutionary traditions of the largest Flemish cities were always alive and erupted in the periodic clashes of the townspeople with the Burgundian dukes. Only over time did the dukes manage to tighten their control over the cities, and one of the reasons for the uprising of the Netherlands against Philip II of Spain 125 was the attempts of the cities to regain some of their former freedoms. A similar situation exists in France. "The general power and government in the kingdom ... as well as in our good cities, large and small ... belong only to us," - said Louis XI (1461-1483); but really strict control over the cities became possible only with the advent of the system of royal intendants in the 17th century. 126
Shopping
In the minds of a huge number of people, Switzerland is associated with cheese and watches. And, of course, people come here to make sure that the Swiss cheese is the tastiest and the watches are the most accurate. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is so.
Tourists can taste Swiss cheeses and dishes based on them in any corner of the country. But many people go to Geneva on purpose to buy watches and jewelry. By the way, original products can be bought here on any central street.
The spring months in Switzerland are especially attractive for those who like to shop for designer items. The fact is that it is at this time that many manufacturers make discounts (up to 70%!) On their goods - from clothes to souvenirs. You can buy clothes from famous designers in Ticino, in the south of the country.
Among the largest shopping centers are Shop Ville (Zurich) and Fox Town Faktory (Menndrisio). The latter is the largest shopping mall in Europe.
Shopping in Bern is a great pleasure. In shopping boulevards up to 6 kilometers long, you can find everything from souvenirs to pastries.
As for the schedule of the shops, you will have to get used to it. Firstly, on Sunday most of the institutions are closed. On Saturday, the working day lasts, as a rule, up to 16 hours. Stores used to close on Wednesday, especially in rural areas, but on Thursday they are open longer - until about 21:00. Quite strict for the Swiss with lunch: from 12:00 to 14:00 most institutions are closed.
Gas stations are beyond competition: they work every day from 08:00 to 22:00. True, food and drinks are more expensive here.
Transport
The largest international airports in Switzerland are located in Zurich, Basel and Geneva. They are serviced by the Swiss company Swiss.
In general, transport links in Switzerland are one of the densest. Trains run approximately every half hour. Large cities have a very dense bus and tram network. Most of the metro lines in Switzerland resemble ours tram lines: they pass over the ground. Only in 2008, the first underground metro opened in Lausanne.
Intercity transportation is also flawless. Even to remote settlements, buses are regularly wanted. You can get to any place of the city and country quickly, easily and by the transport that you prefer.
Ferries run right on schedule across numerous lakes in Switzerland. There are cable cars in the mountains: not only very convenient, but also exciting!
In general, transport in this country works - pardon the pun - like a Swiss watch.
As for the roads, traveling in your own car can also be a great pleasure. If only because of the landscapes that stretch around. In addition, you cannot complain about the quality of coverage and infrastructure. Roads that pass through mountain passes play an important role.
An important point: in order to travel by car on some highways, your car must be equipped with a special coupon. You can buy it when you enter Switzerland, at customs. It costs around $ 30. The permissible speed on highways is 120 km / h, up to 80 km / h - outside settlements, up to 50 km / h - in settlements. There are video cameras on all roads to help catch offenders, so be careful. By the way, speeding in Switzerland can be judged. You can pay a fine even for speeding by 5 km / h.
Helpful Hint: Do not drive with sunglasses on. The fact is that there are a lot of tunnels on the roads of Switzerland. Having entered a tunnel on a sunny day, you will find yourself in pitch darkness, which is unsafe for you and, possibly, for an oncoming vehicle.
Connection
Communication in Switzerland, you guessed it, also works smoothly. Moreover, modern public telephones offer very unusual opportunities for many tourists. So, they have a touch screen, through which you can not only make a call, send email or flip through the telephone directory, but also book train tickets.
With regard to mobile communications, the GSM standard is used here.
Internet access can be found everywhere: in public places or in virtual cafes - for free or for a couple of francs.
Post offices are open on weekdays (Monday-Friday) from 07:30 to 18:30 (lunch - from 12:00 to 13:30). Most hotels have one or two internet-connected computers in the lobbies that you can use.
Security
Tourists who intend to spend their holidays in Switzerland with accommodation in a rented accommodation or hotel need a tourist visa. To obtain it, you need to submit the following documents: a foreign passport and a copy of its first page, a completed application form with a signature and a photograph, the original and a copy of the ticket in both directions, confirmation of the prepayment of housing, confirmation of the availability of funds. In some cases, the Embassy may require other documents.
Switzerland is considered safe country, and yet experts recommend getting insurance, which can save you from paying impressive sums for emergency medical assistance(you never know what). And in the event of theft of your property, insurance will help make up for the damage.
In general, the crime rate in Switzerland is very low. However, pickpockets should still be wary of, especially during the high season or during exhibitions and conferences. It is recommended to be especially careful at train stations and during night train journeys.
In case of theft, immediately go to the police station for a report. It is best to always have your passport with you if you want to avoid problems with the police. By the way, the representatives of the law here are not distinguished by their angelic character.
The level of road safety in this country is also very high. However, winding mountain roads can pose an increased danger, especially during summer and winter break when the workload increases.
Business
Switzerland is the richest country in the world. In addition, it is one of the most important financial centers in the world: a huge number of branches of foreign banks operate here. The secret of the reliability of Swiss banks is simple: they are located in a country with a stable economic and legal system, and therefore cannot go bankrupt.
It seems completely logical that a country with such a status annually hosts international conferences and exhibitions, which attract tens, hundreds of thousands of people from different points planets. So, the most popular of the exhibitions are: FESPO ZURICH ("Leisure, travel, sports"), SICHERHEIT ("International security fair"), IGEHO ("International exhibition of the supply industry, hotel and restaurant business"), Internationaler Automobil-Salon Genf ( International Automobile Salon), Blickfang Basel (Exhibition of Furniture Design, Jewelry and Fashion) and many others. Conferences on political, financial, banking, industrial and cultural issues are regularly held here.
Real estate
Switzerland has long been considered one of the most closed countries for foreign property buyers. It is impossible to buy real estate here if you do not have a category B residence permit (and this is a permanent visa extension for 10 years). Moreover, the buyer is still obliged to comply with the rules of the "game" of the state: the acquired real estate cannot be used for commercial purposes. A foreigner is allowed to use housing only for his own needs, with a time limit of 6 months a year. Permanent residence in this house can only be obtained by obtaining a residence permit in this country. At the same time, there is still a limitation on the area.
Houses and apartments in Switzerland are very expensive, and the country's real estate market has demonstrated its resilience even during the crisis. Experts even noted a slight increase in prices for a number of properties.
The cost of housing in Switzerland depends on many factors. One of the most important is location. So, a small apartment in Villars, in a residential complex, can be purchased for some 60 thousand euros. Apartments in more expensive resorts can cost from 150 thousand to 800 thousand euros (this depends on the area and the view from the window). Those who have more serious means and are looking for seclusion in the bosom of nature and huge personal space, of course, choose luxury villas and chalets. Such housing will cost about 5-8 million euros.
Contrary to popular belief, traveling in Switzerland is no more expensive than traveling in Germany or Italy. It's just that the Swiss understand very well that “good money” equals “good service”. In this country, a tourist always gets what he paid for.
If you want to spend as little as possible, then the best option is to live in a camp site, cook yourself, travel short distances and only by bike. With such a rest, you can spend about $ 30 per day. You will not spend much more if you eat in fast food restaurants or student canteens at universities: lunches there are relatively inexpensive ($ 7-9).
Comfortable conditions within reason - a three-star hotel or an inn - will "pull" about $ 100 a day. Having lunch at a restaurant can make your wallet a lot lighter. By the way, the tip there (+ 15%) is included in the bill. The same goes for the cost of taxi services.
A visit to a museum or acquaintance with any attraction will cost about $ 4. You will spend about the same amount on moving around the city by public transport.
Visa information
Citizens of the CIS and the Russian Federation need a visa to travel to Switzerland, which is part of the Schengen countries. A short-term Schengen visa (category C) can be tourist (when booking a hotel or a tour of the country), guest (when visiting relatives or friends), business (if necessary, meetings with business partners) and transit (when traveling in transit to those countries that are not members of Schengen).
In addition, the Swiss Embassy issues study visas for persons going to study for more than 90 days and work visas for persons who are employed.
The Swiss Embassy in Moscow is located at: per. Ogorodnaya Sloboda, 2/5. You can also contact the Consulate General in St. Petersburg (Chernyshevsky Ave., 17) or the Visa Section of the Embassy (Moscow, Prechistenskaya nab., 31).
History
The history of Switzerland dates back to the XII millennium BC. It was then that the territory covered with eternal snows, under the onslaught of global warming, began to free itself of ice. Gradually changed the white cover turned into green, and the "revived" land found its first inhabitants from the human race.
In ancient times, Switzerland was inhabited by the Celtic tribes of the Helvetians, hence its ancient name - Helvetia. Around the 1st century BC, after the campaigns of Julius Caesar, the country was conquered by the Romans and gained worldwide fame. In the 5th century AD, in the era of the Great Nations Migration, it was captured by the Alemanni, Burgundian and Ostrogoths; in the 6th century - the Franks. In the XI century, Switzerland became part of the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation."
Initially, the Swiss were not a single nation, but Switzerland itself was a union of communities (cantons) seeking self-government. In early August 1291, the peasants of the forest cantons Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, who lived on the shores of Lake Lucerne, entered into an alliance and vowed to help each other in the struggle against the rule of the Habsburg dynasty; in a bitter struggle they defended their independence. The Swiss celebrate this joyful event to this day: August 1 - Swiss National Day - fireworks and fireworks illuminate the Swiss sky in memory of events more than seven centuries ago.
For two centuries, Swiss troops won victories over the feudal armies of dukes, kings and kaisers. Provinces and cities began to join the initial alliance. The united allies sought to expel the Habsburgs, gradually expanding their borders. In 1499, after the victory over Kaiser Maximilian I of Habsburg, Switzerland was freed from the rule of the empire. In 1513, there were already 13 cantons in the union. Each canton was absolutely sovereign - there was no general army, no general constitution, no capital, no central government. In the 16th century, a severe crisis hit Switzerland. The reason for this was the split in the Christian church. Geneva and Zurich became centers of activity for the Protestant reformers Calvin and Zwingli. In 1529, a religious war broke out in Switzerland. Only a serious danger from the outside prevented the complete disintegration of the state. In 1798, the French invaded Switzerland and transformed it into a unitary Helvetic Republic. For fifteen years the country was under their rule. The situation changed only in 1815, when the Swiss introduced their own constitution with equal rights for 22 sovereign cantons. In the same year, the Vienna Peace Congress recognized Switzerland's "permanent neutrality" and defined its borders, which are still unshakable. However, the unity of the cantonal union was not reliably ensured by the organization of a sufficiently strong central government. Only according to the 1948 constitution, the fragile union turned into a single state - federal Switzerland.
National characteristics
Switzerland is a highly developed country with intensive agriculture. It is the largest exporter of capital, the financial center of the capitalist world. Swiss banks are the most reliable. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the country has never adjoined any blocs. It was and remains a stable country in Europe.
In Switzerland, four languages are spoken and written: German (65% of the population speaks various local dialects of Swiss-German and literary High German), French (18%), Italian (mainly one of the Lombard dialects, 12%), and in Romansh (in five different dialects). Having the opportunity to study all the languages of the country at school, every Swiss, as a rule, understands them, although he is not always able to express himself at all.
The Swiss are very religious: according to the 1980 census, about 50% profess the Protestant faith, 44% - the Catholic, 6% adhere to other religions or atheism. Traveling around Switzerland, one cannot fail to notice the world famous virtue of the Swiss - the love of cleanliness and order. They vacuum the streets! James Joyce once noticed that soup can be eaten here without plates, right from the pavement. In Switzerland, it is impossible to pass by Swiss watches, which have become the embodiment of precision, elegance, a kind of world standard. For this small country, watches have become the most prestigious and significant export.
Culture
In Eastern Switzerland there is the Rhine Falls (average water flow - 1100 cubic meters per second). The town of Schaffhausen is located near the waterfall. This part of the country is replete with variegated floral carpets: alpine rose (rhododendron), edelweiss, saxifrage, break. Most of the plants are perennial grasses and shrubs. Their flowers are relatively large and bright; both flowers and plants themselves are often fragrant. Small towns and villages with an unobtrusive charm fit perfectly into such a natural landscape. In Central Switzerland, you can admire Mount Pilatus - a favorite vacation spot for both residents of the country and foreign tourists.
Switzerland is an amazing country. In a small space, both the beauties of nature and the outstanding creations of human hands are concentrated in it. At every step there are traces of various civilizations. The Romans are reminiscent of the ruins in Nyon and Avenches, in particular an amphitheater for 10,000 visitors. In Basel, Geneva and Lausanne, a variety of Romanesque and Gothic architectural monuments attract attention. The fortress of Castello di Montebello has been preserved since the Renaissance - one of the places of pilgrimage for tourists. The Baroque is richly represented, mainly the monasteries of Einsiedeln, Engelberg and the churches of Kreuzlingen and Arlesheim.
The architectural appearance of the city of Schaffhausen is dominated by Baroque and Rococo, and the oldest surviving buildings date back to the late Gothic period. A stone-paved path leads to the ancient fortress of Munot. The center of Eastern Switzerland is the city of St. Gallen, which, according to legend, owes its birth to the Irish monk Gallus. During the construction of the skete, Gallus was assisted by a bear; his image can be seen today on the city coat of arms. The famous cathedral in St. Gallen and the monastery library are considered the main monuments of the Baroque style in Switzerland.
The cultural life of the country is diverse and rich. Every big city has its own theater and symphony orchestra. Of the musical theaters, the most famous are the Opera House in Zurich, the Grand Theater in Geneva and the Basel City Theater. Summer in Switzerland is the time for festivals; they take place in Lausanne, Zurich, Montreux and many other cities. In addition to the world famous international music festivals, Lucerne hosts a carnival every year. The feast always begins on Thursday and lasts until the first Wednesday of Lent.
Swiss cuisine
Swiss cuisine enjoys well-deserved recognition among gourmets all over the world, and the Swiss themselves do not shy away from Lucullus delights at home. So, the favorite pastime of the residents of Zurich is walking through restaurants and cafes, and if they praise you any of the eateries, you can safely go there. The local cuisine has been strongly influenced by its neighbors, primarily the "older French cousin" and Italian cuisine, as well as purely Swabian cuisine, but it still has enough of its own delicacies, which are widespread in other countries. A quintessentially Swiss dish, the famous fondue is best enjoyed when it's cold outside and it's raining or snowing. Then sit comfortably in front of the fireplace and, pinning pieces of bread crumb onto a long fork, dip them into the melted cheese. This delicacy is best washed down with white wine or tea.
Another famous cheese dish that has become widespread is the Wallis raclette. The very name of the dish ("raclette" (fr.) - coarse grater) gives out the principle of its preparation. Cheese is grated on a coarse grater or broken into small pieces, heated and served with potatoes. However, in order to enjoy the taste and aroma of cheese, it is not at all necessary to warm it up. The best examples are the Emmental (more often called Swiss) and Appenzell cheeses, which enjoy well-deserved recognition among gourmets, as well as the Gräyerz cheese. Vaheren, which is prepared only in winter, and Shabziger, cheese with spicy herbs from Gllerland.
Among the Ticino delicacies are, first of all, small soft formagini cheeses made from cottage cheese, as well as various varieties of mountain cheese, the most famous of which is Piora. Another famous Swiss delicacy is Zurich schnitzel (veal in a creamy sauce). Food lovers prefer the Bernese appetizer (Berner Platte) - a dish made from sauerkraut with beans and chips. Bern is also considered the birthplace of the famous Rosti - thinly sliced fried potatoes with cracklings.
Now is the time to think about soups like Basel flour chowder, Bunden barley soup or Busecca - Ticino soup with offal. The National dish sunny southern Switzerland is, of course, polenta, a cornmeal dish with cream and pieces of fruit. To the south of Saint Gotthard, risotto is very popular - a rice dish that is prepared in the Milanese way (with saffron), with mushrooms or in a peasant way (with vegetables).
The menu of Swiss cuisine also includes fish dishes: rudd, trout, pike and egli (freshwater perch), which are cooked differently everywhere. In late autumn and winter, many restaurants offer game delicacies such as the back of a roe deer. Another delicacy, famous on both sides of the Swiss border, deserves your attention. This is Bunden-style meat, beef jerky, cut into the finest slices. Those who first tasted it in Valais, and not in Graubünden, call this dish "Welsh meat".
The Alpine Republic is famous for its wines. White wines are widely known - Dezaley and St.-Saphorin, Fendant and Johannisberg, Twanner. The best varieties red wines - exquisitely thin "Rose der CEil-de-Perdrix", strong "Dole", "Pinot Noir" and "Merlot". But, perhaps, the best Bunden wines are made in the Italian town of Velthalin, which since 1815 became the Swiss canton of Graubünden. "Sassella", "Grumello", "Inferno" - these are the names of strong ruby-red wines that owe their luxurious bouquet to the generous southern sun. It remains only to say a few words about all kinds of sweets served for dessert, afternoon tea, and evening coffee. These are fruit pies, and Zug cherry cake, and carrot cake, and Engadin nut cake, and, of course, the famous Swiss chocolate.
Economy
Switzerland is one of the most developed and richest countries in the world. Switzerland is a highly developed industrial country with intensive, highly productive agriculture and an almost complete absence of any minerals. According to Western economists, it is among the top ten countries in the world in terms of economic competitiveness. The Swiss economy is closely connected with the outside world, primarily with the EU countries, with thousands of threads of industrial cooperation and foreign trade transactions. OK. 80-85% of Switzerland's turnover falls on the EU countries. More than 50% of all goods from the northern part transit through Switzerland Western Europe to the south and vice versa. After significant growth in 1998-2000. the country's economy entered a recession. In 2002, GDP grew by 0.5% to CHF 417 billion. fr. Inflation was at around 0.6%. The unemployment rate reached 3.3%. The economy employs approx. 4 million people (57% of the population), of which: in industry - 25.8%, including in mechanical engineering - 2.7%, in the chemical industry - 1.7%, in agriculture and forestry - 4.1% , in the service sector - 70.1%, including in trade - 16.4%, in banking and insurance - 5.5%, in the hotel and restaurant business - 6.0%. The policy of neutrality made it possible to avoid the devastation of two world wars.
Politics
Switzerland is a federal republic. The current constitution was adopted in 1999. The federal authorities are in charge of issues of war and peace, foreign relations, the army, railways, communications, money issue, approval of the federal budget, etc.
The head of the country is the president, who is elected every year on a rotation basis from among the members of the Federal Council.
The highest legislative body is a bicameral parliament - the Union Assembly, consisting of the National Council and the Council of Cantons (equal chambers).
The National Council (200 deputies) is elected by the population for a 4-year term by proportional representation.
The federal structure and constitution of Switzerland were enshrined in the constitutions of 1848, 1874 and 1999.
Switzerland is now a federation of 26 cantons (20 cantons and 6 semi-cantons). Until 1848 (except for the short period of the Helvetic Republic) Switzerland was a confederation). Each canton has its own constitution, laws, but their rights are limited by the federal constitution. Legislative power belongs to Parliament, and executive power belongs to the Federal Council (government).
The Council of Cantons has 46 deputies who are elected by the population according to the majority system of a relative majority in 20 two-mandate constituencies and 6 single-mandate constituencies, that is, 2 people each. from each canton and one from a semi-canton for 4 years (in some cantons - for 3 years).
All laws passed by parliament can be approved or rejected in a popular (optional) referendum. To do this, after the adoption of the law, it is necessary to collect 50 thousand signatures within 100 days.
The right to vote is granted to all citizens who have reached the age of 18.
The highest executive power belongs to the government - the Federal Council, consisting of 7 members, each of whom heads one of the departments (ministries). The members of the Federal Council are elected at a joint meeting of both chambers of parliament. All members of the Federal Council alternately serve as president and vice president.
The foundations of the Swiss state were laid in 1291. Until the end of the 18th century, there were no central state bodies in the country, but all-union councils - tagzatzung - were periodically convened.
Switzerland is officially confederation(which means a union of several independent states), but in essence it is a federal republic that unites several sovereign cantons under a single authority and with a single federal center.
This discrepancy arose due to the historical name of the country in Latin - Confoederatio Helvetica, corresponding to the state structure before 1848.
In 1848, a new Swiss constitution was announced, according to which several separate cantons were united into a solid union state with a single political system. From this moment begins the modern history of Switzerland as a country with in full order in the political system. The new constitution also laid the foundations federal parliamentary system that are still valid.
Switzerland cannot be called a real parliamentary or presidential republic, since the country has unique rules in the state structure. Legislative power belongs to a bicameral parliament - the Union Assembly, which is divided into the National Council and the Council of Cantons, completely equal in rights. The National Council consists of 200 deputies, elected for 4 years by universal suffrage. The cantonal council consists of 2 representatives from each canton and one from the semi-cantons.
Any laws passed must be approved by members of both chambers to minimize the risk of laws being passed that are not in the interests of the country's residents. In addition, within 10 days after the adoption of a law by parliament, a nationwide referendum is held, at which at least 50 thousand signatures must be collected for approval. This is how the policy of direct democracy is implemented in Switzerland. Amendments to the Constitution are approved only through a mandatory popular referendum.
Members of Parliament appoint 7 members of the Federal Council, which is the government with executive power. Each year, one of these 7 representatives is appointed to the presidency, thus the head of state changes annually. The rest of the members of the Federal Council are headed by departments or ministries, one of them is also appointed by the vice president. The composition of the Federal Council is selected in such a way that it includes representatives of all major political parties and geographical areas of the country.
All government bodies are located in the capital of the country, the city of Bern. The Swiss Federal Court, which has the highest judicial power, is located in Lausanne. Although this body is essentially the supreme court of the state, it cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional.
Switzerland consists of 26 cantons and semi-cantons, each of which has its own government and its own constitution, limited by the main Swiss constitution. The federal authorities decide the issues of the war, foreign policy, army, federal budget management, railways. Executive power in the cantons is vested in a government council consisting of several members - from 5 to 11 people, with a president at the head. In smaller cantons, the government works on a voluntary basis.
