First stage - stage of the elementary sensory psyche. At this stage, the animal reacts only to certain properties of objects of the external world acting on it, which have a certain biological meaning for it, i.e. significantly associated with those influences on which the implementation of the basic biological functions of the animal depends. The reflection of reality at this stage is presented in the form of elementary sensations.
This stage includes two levels: lower and higher.
Lower level characterized by primitive sensitivity. Developed irritability. Reaction to biologically significant properties environment occurs through a change in the speed and direction of movement. Weak plasticity of behavior, unformed ability to respond to biologically neutral properties of the environment devoid of vital value. Weak physical activity.
At this level, there are the simplest, many lower multicellular organisms living in the aquatic environment.
The highest level is characterized by the presence of sensations. The most important organ of manipulation appears - jaw. The ability to form elementary conditioned reflexes appears.
At this level are annelids, molluscs, and some other invertebrates.
Second stage- the stage of the perceptual psyche.
At this stage, the activity of the animal is of a more complex nature, due to a more diverse habitat and, accordingly, a changed way of life, is determined by the impact of not individual properties of objects, but things as a whole. The reflection of reality is no longer carried out in the form of elementary sensations, but as a more complex reflection in the form of more or less dismembered images.
The lowest level - the reflection of the environment occurs in the form of images of objects. There is a unification of the influencing properties into a holistic image. The main organ of manipulation is the jaw. Motor skills are formed, genetically programmed components prevail. Motor abilities are quite varied (diving, crawling, walking, running, flying, etc.). Active search for positive stimuli, avoidance of negative (harmful) ones. Developed defensive behavior.
At this level there are fish, some higher invertebrates, insects.
The highest level is characterized by elementary forms of problem solving. Instinctive forms of behavior are highly developed. Ability to learn by developing skills.
At this level are vertebrates with a well-developed nervous system, a high level of sensory development: organs of vision, hearing, balance, skin and muscle sensitivity, etc.
Third stage - the stage of intelligence is characterized by both a very complex activity and complex forms of reflection of reality. Essential for this stage of development of the psyche is the ability to solve two-phase problems. They include at first the preparatory phase, when the animal is prompted to activity not by the very object to which it is directed, not by the very purpose of the activity, but by something that is only a means or a way of achieving a given goal of action. The second is the phase of the actual implementation of a given activity, when it is already directed at the object that serves as its immediate stimulus. At this stage of development, one and the same problem can be solved in many ways using different operations. For the mental reflection of reality at this stage of development, it is characteristic that its object is not only things, objects of reality in themselves, but also the relations between them, various situations.
The found principles for solving the problem can be transferred to new conditions. The ability to cognize the surrounding reality, regardless of existing biological needs. Consideration of causal relationships between phenomena in practical actions. Allocation of specialized organs of manipulation. Developing exploratory behaviors with widespread use previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities.
Higher vertebrates - monkeys, dolphins - are at this stage.
The actions of the great apes are primarily of an intellectual nature. However, we note that the intellectual actions of animals, unlike human ones, do not follow from knowledge of objective laws and are not realized by them, they are not generalized and are not transmitted by “human” methods (through speech, tools and products of labor). The intellectual actions of even the highest apes are extremely elementary in nature and do not go beyond the range of tasks that arise in natural conditions their lives.
A feature of the behavior of higher monkeys is their imitation (for example, a monkey can "sweep" the floor, "extinguish" the fire, etc.). But they do not imitate the result of the action, but the action itself. Imitation of the result of their actions has not been proven.
Regarding the formation and development of the psyche and behavior in animals, there is whole line hypotheses. One of them, concerning the stages and levels of development of mental reflection, from the simplest animals to humans, is put forward by A.N. Leontiev. The stages described by him are based on mental development Leont'ev put the signs of the most profound qualitative changes that the psyche underwent in the process of evolution of the animal world. According to this concept, a number of stages and levels can be distinguished in the development of the psyche and behavior of animals. A.N. Leontiev identified two main stages in the development of the psyche: elementary sensory and perceptual. The first includes two levels: the lowest and the highest, and the second - three levels: the lowest, the highest and the highest. As noted by A.N. Leontyev, in the process of evolutionary development, these processes are closely interconnected. Improvement of movements leads to an improvement in the adaptive activity of the organism, which, in turn, contributes to the complication of the nervous system, the expansion of its capabilities, creates conditions for the development of new types of activity and forms of reflection. All this taken together contributes to the improvement of the psyche. A clear, most essential line runs between the elementary sensory and perceptual psyche, marking the main milestone in the grandiose process of the evolution of the psyche. Such a division, however, is too superficial and does not cover the entire diversity of the animal world. Later, taking into account many studies related to behavior, this hypothesis was refined and refined by K.E. Fabry. K.E. Fabry believes that both within the elementary sensory and within the perceptual psyche, significantly different levels of mental development should be distinguished: lower and higher, while allowing the existence of intermediate levels. It is important to note that large systematic groups of animals do not always and do not completely fit into this framework. This is inevitable, since within large Taxons - (from Latin taxare - to evaluate) a set of discrete objects connected by a certain commonality of properties and features that characterize this set. This can be explained by the fact that the qualities of the highest mental level always originate at the previous level. From the point of view of A.N. Severtsov, changes in living conditions give rise to the need to change behavior, and this then leads to corresponding morphological changes in the motor and sensory spheres and in the central nervous system. But not immediately and even not always functional changes entail morphological ones. Moreover, in higher animals, purely functional changes without morphological rearrangements are often quite sufficient, and sometimes even the most effective. adaptive behavioral changes only. Therefore, behavior in combination with the multifunctionality of the motor organs provides animals with the most flexible adaptation to new living conditions. The indicated functional and morphological transformations determine the quality and content of mental reflection in the process of evolution. At the same time, innate and acquired behavior are not successive steps on the evolutionary ladder, but develop and become more complex together, as two components of one single process. The progressive development of instinctive, genetically fixed behavior corresponds to progress in the field of individually variable behavior. Instinctive behavior reaches its greatest complexity just in higher animals, and this progress entails the development and complication of their forms of learning.
Sensory stage (or the stage of elementary sensitivity) - at this stage, animals reflect individual properties of objects and phenomena, there is no integral reflection of objects;
The lowest level - the reticular (diffuse) nervous system - coelenterates
The highest level is the nodal (ganglionic) nervous system - worms.
Perceptual stage (perception) - animals at this stage are able to reflect not only individual properties of objects and phenomena, but also objects and phenomena in general.
The lowest level: this stage is typical for animals with a ganglionic nervous system with the allocation of various departments. The rudiments of the brain appear, the abdominal region - all arthropods.
The highest level: tubular nervous system - in chordates (lancelet, fish, freshwater, mammals).
The stage of intelligence (manual thinking) - animals are able to reflect simple connections between objects, reflect the objective situation, solve two-phase tasks.
The lowest level is animals that already have a central nervous system and a cerebral cortex (dogs, cats, dolphins, monkeys).
The first - the stage of the elementary sensory psyche - has two levels: lower and higher. The first stage is characterized by a sensory way, or the level of sensations.
The second - the stage of the perceptual psyche - has three levels: lower, higher and highest. The identification of these two stages of development of the psyche is based on the main characteristics of the methods of obtaining information about the world around us. For the second - the perceptual way, or the level of perception
15. General idea about the forms of behavior: instinct, learning, skill, intelligence
Behavior is understood as an activity organized in a certain way that connects the organism with the environment. While a person has inner plan consciousness is differentiated from behavior, in animals the psyche and behavior form a direct unity, so the study of their psyche must be included as a component in the study of their behavior. Instinct is a set of innate components of the behavior and psyche of animals and humans. Component instinctive behavior is its least plastic component. Animals have genetically programmed forms of behavior that are characteristic of this species and are primarily associated with the food, protective and reproductive spheres. Sufficiently constant and independent of local changes external environment... Conclusions about "blindness" or "rationality" of instincts are incorrect: one should speak, respectively, about their fixity, rigidity and biological expediency. The rigidity of the instinct is also expedient - it reflects the adaptability of the animal to the constancy of its living conditions. "Errors" of instinct when an animal falls into unfamiliar conditions can be compared with "errors", illusions of perception; instincts are characterized by the same "irresistibility" and even "compulsion." Those and other "errors" arise as a result of the automatic operation of involuntary mechanisms - correct, but found themselves in "wrong", artificial, unlikely or even impossible situations in nature. According to ethological theory, instincts are determined by the action of external and internal factors. External stimuli include special stimuli - key stimuli. Internal factors include endogenous stimulation of the centers of instinctive actions, leading to a decrease in the threshold of their excitation. In this sense, the facts of the expansion of the spectrum of stimuli that cause instinctive actions are very indicative, especially the facts of the spontaneous appearance of the latter. According to K. Lorenz's model, usually the endogenous activity of instinctive actions is inhibited and blocked. Adequate incentives release the blockage, acting like a key, which is why they got the name. Nowadays, views on the question of the relationship between instinct and learning have changed significantly. Previously, forms of behavior based on instinct and learning were contrasted. It was believed that instinctive actions are strictly programmed and their individual "fine-tuning" is impossible. Later it turned out that this is far from the case: many instinctive actions must go through a period of formation and training in the course of the individual development of the animal - the period of obligate learning. So many instinctive acts are "completed" in the individual experience of the animal, and this completion is also programmed. It ensures the adaptation of instinctive action to the conditions of the environment. Of course, the plasticity of instinctive action is limited and determined genetically. A much greater plasticity is provided by facultative learning - the process of mastering new, purely individual forms behavior. If during teaching obligate all individuals of a species improve in the same species-typical actions, then during teaching optional they master individually special forms of behavior, adapting them to specific conditions of existence. Into the concept of instinct in different times different content was invested:
1) sometimes instinct was opposed to consciousness, and in relation to a person, it served to designate passions, impulsive, thoughtless behavior, "animal nature" in human psyche and so on;
2) in other cases, complex reflexes, unconditioned, nervous mechanisms for coordinating vital movements, etc., were called instinct.
In phylogeny, before the learning of living things, instinctive behavior helped to survive and adapt. Learning (first obligate, then optional learning) became the next step in evolution. The next stage of acquisition individual experience after learning - training, education and upbringing.
Learning in broad sense(in this sense, the term is more often used by foreign authors) includes training, and then it is understood simply as a change in behavior due to the acquisition of new experience. Types of learning. Usually behavioral learning includes such processes as addiction, imprinting, imprinting, sensitization, associative learning (anchoring, the formation of the simplest conditioned reflexes), operant learning, including instrumental learning (trial and error) and creative learning, sequential learning
Separately, social learning should be highlighted - learning social life: how to live among people (or, in the case of animal behavior, how to live among other animals).
With regard to learning as the acquisition of knowledge, there are three types of learning: building knowledge, restructuring and tuning.
A person has several types of learning. The first and simplest of them unites a person with all other living things with a developed central nervous system. This is learning according to the mechanism of imprinting, that is, fast, automatic, almost instantaneous in comparison with the long process of learning the adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior that are practically ready from birth. For example, it is enough to touch any hard object to inner surface the palms of a newborn, as his fingers are automatically clenched. Through the described mechanism of imprinting, numerous innate instincts are formed, including motor, sensory and others. According to the tradition that has developed since the time of I.P. Pavlov, such forms of behavior are called unconditioned reflexes, although the word "instinct" is more suitable for their name. These behaviors are usually genotypically programmed and not amenable to change. The second type of learning is conditioned reflex. This kind learning presupposes the emergence of new forms of behavior as conditioned reactions to an initially neutral stimulus, which previously did not cause a specific reaction. Stimuli that are capable of generating a conditioned reflex reaction of the body must be perceived by it. All the basic elements of the future reaction must also already be present in the body. Thanks to conditioned reflex learning, they communicate with each other in new system ensuring the implementation of more complex shape behavior than elementary congenital reactions. The third type of learning is operant. With this type of learning, knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. It is as follows. The task or situation that the individual is faced with gives rise to a complex of various reactions: instinctive, unconditioned, conditioned. The body sequentially tries each of them in practice to solve the problem and automatically evaluates the result achieved. That of the reactions or that random combination of them, which leads to best result, that is, it ensures optimal adaptation of the organism to the situation that has arisen, stands out from the rest and is fixed in the experience. This is learning by trial and error. All the described types of learning are found both in humans and in animals and represent the main ways of acquiring life experience by various living beings. But a person also has special ones, higher ways learning, rarely or almost never found in other living beings. This is, firstly, learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately adopts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. Secondly, it is verbal learning, that is, the acquisition of a new experience by a person through language. Thanks to him, a person has the opportunity to transfer to other people who can speak, and to receive the necessary abilities, knowledge, skills and abilities, describing them verbally in sufficient detail and understandable for the student.
SKILL (automated action, secondary automatism) is an action formed by repetition, characterized by a high degree of development and the absence of element-wise conscious regulation and control. There are differences in perceptual, intellectual and motor skills, as well as: 1) initially automated skills, which are formed without awareness of their components; 2) skills are secondarily automated, formed with a preliminary awareness of the components of the action; they more easily become consciously controlled, improve and rebuild faster. Thanks to the formation of skills, a double effect is achieved: the action is performed quickly and accurately, and there is a release of consciousness, which can be aimed at mastering more complex actions. This process is fundamental and underlies the development of all skills, knowledge and abilities. Together with knowledge and skills, skills provide the correct reflection in ideas and thinking: the world, the laws of nature and society, human relationships, a person's place in society and his behavior. This all helps to determine your position in relation to reality. Skills are characterized by varying degrees of generalization: the wider the class of objects in relation to which the skill can be realized, the more generalized and labile it is. The process of skill formation includes the definition of its components and such a mastery of the operation, which allows you to achieve the highest indicators on the basis of improving and consolidating the links between components, automation and high level the readiness of the action to be played. Skills exploration started with motor skills, but as the study progressed different sides of mental activity, sensory and mental skills were studied. This classification was entrenched, because not only distinctive, but also general properties skills of all classes. Most often, skills are formed by imitation or by developing conditioned reflexes, but also by trial and error, and with an increase in the number of trial errors, it becomes less and less. So, the development of a skill is a process, as it were, going from two opposite sides: from the side of the subject and from the side of the organism. From complex movements, individual elements are arbitrarily and deliberately isolated and their implementation is worked out. At the same time, already without the participation of will and consciousness, the process of automation of action is underway. In the course of automation, the body takes over a significant part of the work organized by consciousness. The formation of a skill is influenced by the following empirical factors: 1) motivation, learning, progress in assimilation, exercise, reinforcement, formation as a whole or in parts; 2) to understand the content of the operation - the level of development of the subject, the availability of knowledge, skills, the way of explaining the content of the operation (direct communication, indirect guidance, etc.), feedback; 3) for mastering the operation - the completeness of understanding its content, the gradual transition from one level of mastery to another according to certain indicators (automation, interiorization, speed, etc.).
Intelligence is the ability of a person to act purposefully, think rationally and achieve certain results. This ability is required when various difficulties and problems in human life. It could be math problem, the ability to quickly make decisions and act in dangerous situation... Types of intelligence. The development of intelligence predetermines both heredity and the development of mental functions. The concept of intelligence includes such types of mental activity as memory, perception, thinking, speech, attention, which are prerequisites for cognitive activity, the ability to make the most of previously acquired experience, perform analysis and synthesis, improve skills and multiply knowledge. The better the memory and thinking, the higher the intelligence. For the level of intelligence, and Creative skills, and social intelligence, as well as the ability to solve psychological problems... Psychologists use the concept of fluid and crystallized intelligence to determine age-related changes in intelligence. Crystallized, or concrete, intelligence is the skills of speech, knowledge and the ability to apply one's knowledge in practice or in scientific activity. Fluid, or abstract, intelligence is the ability to think abstractly, to draw conclusions and the ability to use them. With age, a person's fluid intelligence decreases, and crystallized, on the contrary, increases. The development of intelligence. In the first ten years of a person's life, intelligence gradually increases. This can be easily verified by performing an age-appropriate test. The intellect of a person aged 18-20 reaches its peak, although, of course, a person improves his intellect throughout his life, learns, gains experience, etc. IQ can be predicted relatively early. During the first 18 months of a child's life, nothing can be said about his future intelligence, but already at this time it is necessary to develop the child's mental abilities.
Cheat sheet on general psychology Rezepov Ildar Shamilevich
2. Development of the psyche of animals
2. The development of the psyche of animals
Psyche is a product of long-lasting and complex process development of organic nature. The simplest microorganisms have no psyche. They are characterized by a more elementary form of reflection - irritability.
The emergence of the psychic form of reflection as a property of special matter is associated with the emergence of the simplest nervous system. Such a nervous system first appears in coelenterates (hydra, jellyfish, anemones). This nervous system is a separate nerve cells with processes intertwining with each other, and is called reticular or diffuse. With such a nervous system, undifferentiated reactions of the whole organism to various stimuli are observed. There is no governing center here yet.
The control center appears at the next stage in the development of the nervous system - ganglionic(nodal or chain) nervous system. Have worms nerve nodes(ganglia) are located in each segment of the body. All nodes are interconnected, and the body acts as a whole. In this case, the head node is much more complex than all the others, and reacts more differentiatedly to external stimuli.
The nervous system characteristic of insects, represents the further development and complication of the ganglionic nervous system. Here, the abdominal, chest and head areas are already clearly distinguished. The head node, which regulates the movement of limbs, wings and other organs, becomes noticeably more complicated. Higher insects (bees, ants) have olfactory, gustatory, tactile and visual sensations.
Have vertebrates animals appear new type nervous system - central, which is characterized by the allocation of the spinal cord and brain. The development of the central nervous system is expressed in a gradual corticalization, that is, an increase in the volume and role of the cerebral cortex.
The development of the central nervous system in different animals is uneven and uneven. It is due to the lifestyle of the species, the characteristics of the habitat.
For birds vision is of decisive importance, and the visual area of the cortex has received the greatest development in them. Have monkeys and visual sensations play a leading role in humans. Their visual cortex is much better developed than, for example, the olfactory area. With the advent of the central nervous system, a new form of mental reflection appears - the perceptual stage of the development of the psyche. At this stage, animals can simultaneously reflect several stimuli and synthesize them into the image of an object. Thanks to this, an objective reflection is created.
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From the book Developmental Psychology and age-related psychology: lecture notes author Karatyan TVLECTURE № 3. Development: stages, theories, laws and patterns. Prenatal and perinatal development Human life begins from the moment of fertilization. This is confirmed by numerous studies. From the moment of fertilization in a woman's body, the embryo lives its own
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Introduction ……………………………………………………………… ..… .3
1. Development of the psyche of animals ……………………………… ... ………… ..4
2. The stage of elementary sensory sensitivity ………………… ... 5
3. Stage of object perception ……………………………………… 6
3. Conclusion …………………………………………………………… ..9
4. Test ……………………………………………………………………… .10
Literature ……………………………………………………………… ..11
Introduction
The psyche of animals [Greek. psychikos - mental] - the inner world of the animal, covering the entire complex of supposed subjectively experienced processes and states: perception, memory, thinking, intentions, dreams, etc., and includes such elements of mental experience as sensations, images, representations and emotions.
Since ancient times, the psyche of animals aroused deep interest among philosophers and naturalists, but its systematic purposeful study began in late XIX v. with the advent of zoopsychology. The debate about the possibility of studying the psyche of animals, which is fundamentally inaccessible to observation, divided zoopsychologists into two opposite scientific camps. Supporters scientific study the psyche of animals stated that it is quite possible to draw conclusions about it on the basis of observations of the behavior of animals and data on their physiology. Their opponents - adherents of the objectivist approach - rejected any variants of anthropomorphism, considering the psyche of animals inaccessible for truly scientific research. They called for the study of only objectively observed phenomena of behavior and physiology. By the mid-30s. XX century the objectivist direction became dominant, the study of the psyche of animals, with some exceptions, practically stopped and resumed only at the turn of the 70s.
At present, the study of the psyche of animals has become a new actively developing scientific direction, which is most often called cognitive ethology, less often psychoetology or cognitive comparative psychology. Within the framework of cognitive ethology, the problem of the psyche of animals is considered simultaneously in the natural science, psychological and philosophical terms.
1. Development of the psyche of animals
From time immemorial, man noticed differences in the structure and behavior of animals, knew how to distinguish them from their own kind. He noticed that animals live a completely different life, they do not look like people both in appearance and in their behavior. Probably, based on this, scientists until the middle of the 17th century completely denied the commonality of man and animal. With the development of medicine and anatomy in the 18th century, the common anatomical structure was recognized. The commonality of the psyche was denied until the 19th century.
The psyche is a property of highly organized brain matter to subjectively reflect reality.
Like any phenomenon in nature, the psyche has its own history of development and the laws by which this development took place. Development was long, it came a long way from the lowest and, therefore, primitive forms to the highest perfect. There are 2 histories of the development of the psyche:
1) phylogenesis - historical development(covers the entire process of species evaluation, more global);
2) ontogeny - development from birth to death of a species, more specific and shorter for a particular individual);
The psyche develops according to biological laws, i.e. development proceeds in stages of improvement.
The source of the development of the psyche is the contradiction between the actions of the subject and his reflection of the external environment.
There is sensory reflection (with the help of the senses) in 2 forms:
1) sensation as a reflection of properties,
2) perception as a reflection of objects, the unit is an image.
3) rational knowledge - thinking, unit - concept, generalized image.
2. Stage of elementary sensory sensitivity
This first stage in the development of the psyche was presented by the Russian psychologist A. N. Leontiev. We see the world, as a collection of various objects and their relationship to each other. And animals with an elementary sensory psyche represent the world only in the form of such and only such properties and elements, on which the satisfaction of their vital needs directly depends.
Irritability is the ability of living organisms to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by increasing the level of their activity, changing the direction and speed of movement.
Sensitivity is the ability of some living organisms to perceive stimuli that have a signaling function in relation to stimuli that have direct biological significance.
At the lowest stage of evolution, to such a level of reflection of reality, there is a network-like (like in coelenterates) nervous system, and at a higher stage, a ganglion (nodal, like in insects). As an example, consider the behavior of a spider. At first glance, it seems to the observer so meaningful and perfect (the spider weaves a web, patiently waits for the victim, entangles it and then eats it) that one has only to admire its abilities. But this point of view is easy to refute. Let's throw a small pebble into the web. The spider, sensing the vibration of the net, immediately goes to the "victim", entangles it with a web and tries to eat it. This experience can be continued indefinitely - while pebbles or something else causes the web to vibrate, the spider will each time look for a "victim" and try to deal with it. We observe absolutely meaningless behavior of the spider. Those. the spider's psyche works according to an elementary scheme: in response to a specific stimulus, a specific reaction immediately follows, specially "programmed" to respond to this stimulus. Here we are dealing with instinctive behavior, which originated at this stage of development and is basic for it.
3. Stage of object perception
Perceptual (perceiving) psyche. At this stage, animals see the world in the form of images of integral things and their relationships to each other. This level of development requires sufficient development of the central nervous system.
Along with instincts, certain skills learned during the life of an individual begin to play the main role. At the highest stages of development, we can already talk about the simplest intellect.
Instincts. At this and the previous stage, they play a decisive role in the behavior of the animal. No matter how complex instincts may seem to us, their main and irreparable drawback is that they work only when all external conditions are met in a certain order. Animals cannot consider and react to an integral situation; they are able to perform an elementary analysis of its individual elements. Depending on the result, instincts are activated.
Instinct - congenital forms behavior, automatic behavior, appropriate in certain conditions. Instinct is a unit of specific motor experience. Instinct is a rather tough program, a sequence of movements, each of which arises in response to external influence. The connection between the stimulus and the response - it can be performed only when each link of this sequence is fulfilled. Instinct contains a key stimulus (for example, movement, instinct - the need to follow a moving object).
Imprinting - "imprinting" - a form of the final consolidation of the instinct. The end result is rigidly fixed in the instinct, and the way to achieve it can vary and depends on the conditions at hand. Instinct approaches skill.
Skills. It is known that instincts are based on unconditioned reflexes.
Skills, on the other hand, are based on acquired, conditioned reflexes. The environment constantly presents the animal with various unexpected tasks. To solve them, it is necessary to add to the “built-in” “programs” in the psyche new, learned ones, based on their own life experience. Skills can significantly expand the range of situations to which an animal can more or less respond successfully. But skills are not without drawbacks. Animals acquire them too slowly, during this time the situation can change many times and the animals will have to retrain. And if such an opportunity does not present itself, death.
What the intellectual behavior of monkeys looks like was very clearly described by the German scientist W. Kehler. The experiments carried out by him were repeatedly repeated, refined and improved, therefore their results are quite accurate and do not cause serious doubts.
So, on the ceiling of the cage with the chimpanzee, a banana is suspended so that the chimpanzee cannot reach or jump to the banana in any way. She pretty quickly stops fruitless attempts and tries to find another way to solve the problem. There is a box in the cage. After thinking, the monkey rearranges the box under the banana, climbs on it and easily gets food. Carried out a large number of similar experiences, in all cases we observe the same concept of rational behavior:
1) the absence of long-term ineffective actions;
2) after finding the correct solution, the entire operation takes place as a single integral act;
3) the found solution is then always applied in similar cases;
4) animals act in a similar way not only in experiments, but also in their natural conditions;
Leontiev called such an activity two-fold: first, there is a process of preparation (phase 1), then the process of implementation (phase 2). This confirms the conclusion of Leontiev and Fabrin that the level of development of the psyche can be determined by the level of development of organs for manipulating objects. Naturally, chimpanzees with more developed forelimbs will think of using an object to achieve their goal much faster than a gopher, dog or horse.
The main differences between even the smartest monkeys from primitive people is as follows:
1) animals use tools that accidentally caught their eye;
2) they do not foresee and do not plan to use them in the future;
3) the tool used in the given position loses all significance in any other situation;
4) animals do not keep used tools, they only accumulate skills in using them;
It can be concluded that even the most intelligent monkey will never (at least in the foreseeable future) make a knife for himself, carry it with him and build a house. Those. not a single monkey will become a man and, due to imperfect development of the nervous system and psyche, will not approach the level of human development in any noticeable way. This could call into question Darwin's theory of the origin of man from ape.
We see, therefore, that the development of the psyche is determined by the need to adapt animals to the environment and that psychic reflection is a function of the corresponding organs that are formed in them in the course of this adaptation. It should be especially emphasized that psychic reflection is by no means only a "purely subjective", side phenomenon that has no real meaning in the life of animals, in their struggle for existence.
Conclusion
Thus, the development of the psyche is determined by the need for animals to adapt to the environment and that mental reflection is a function of the corresponding organs that are formed in them in the course of this adaptation. It should be especially emphasized that psychic reflection is by no means only a "purely subjective", side phenomenon that has no real meaning in the life of animals, in their struggle for existence.
The relationship of animals to their own kind is fundamentally the same as their relationship to other external objects, i.e. also belong exclusively to the circle of their instinctive biological relationships. This is due to the fact that animals do not have a society. One can observe the activity of several, sometimes many, animals together, but they never observe joint activity, joint activity in the sense of the word in which they speak about the activity of people.
So, the development of life leads to such a change in the physical organization of animals, to the emergence in them of such organs - sense organs. The organs of action and the nervous system, the function of which is to reflect the reality around them.
Thus, the material basis of the complex process of development of the psyche of animals is the formation of "natural tools" of their activity - their organs and the functions inherent in these organs. The evolution of organs and the corresponding functions of the brain, occurring within each of the stages of development of the activity and psyche of animals, gradually prepares the possibility of transition to a new, more high structure their activities in general. The change arising during this transition general structure activity of animals, in turn, creates the need for further evolution of individual organs and functions.
Test
1. Indicate the nature of the animal's relationship with the environment at the stage of elementary sensory sensitivity.
2. Indicate the nature of the animal's relationship with the environment at the stage of object perception.
A) The ability to establish connections between objects.
B) Reality is reflected in the form of holistic images.
C) The animal reacts only to certain properties of objects in the external world.
3. Indicate the nature of the animal's relationship with the environment at the stage of reflection of intersubject connections.
A) The ability to establish connections between objects.
B) Reality is reflected in the form of holistic images.
C) The animal reacts only to certain properties of objects in the external world.
4. The skill is based on:
A) Conditioned reflex
B) Unconditioned reflex
C) Instinctive behavior.
5. Imprinting is ...
6. Instinct is ...
A) - congenital forms of behavior, automatic behavior, expedient under certain conditions.
B) - acquired, conditioned reflexes.
B) - the form of the final consolidation of the instinct.
7. Skill is ...
A) - congenital forms of behavior, automatic behavior, expedient under certain conditions.
B) - acquired, conditioned reflexes.
B) - the form of the final consolidation of the instinct.
8. The source of the development of the psyche is ...
A) - consistency between the actions of the subject and his reflection of the external environment.
B) - the contradiction between the actions of the subject and his reflection of the external environment.
B) - a link between stimulus and response.
9. Irritability is ...
B) - the form of the final consolidation of the instinct.
10. Sensitivity is ...
A) - the ability of living organisms to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by increasing the level of their activity, changing the direction and speed of movement.
B) - the ability of some living organisms to perceive stimuli that have a signal function in relation to stimuli that have direct biological significance.
B) - the form of the final consolidation of the instinct.
Key to the test:
1 - c; 2 - b; 3 - a; 4 - b; 5 - c; 6 - a; 7 - b; 8 - b; 9 - a; 10 - b.
Literature
1. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of Psychology. - M., Eksmo - Press, 2003 - 368.
2. Nemov R.S. Psychology. - M., Series "Masters of Psychology", Book. 1.2001 - 428s
3. Krutetskiy V.A. Psychology. - M., Phoenix, 2005 - 385s.
4. Dubrovina I.V. and other Psychology. - M., 2002 - 346s.
5. Workshop on general psychology. Ed. Shcherbakova A.I. - M., 2004 - 472s.
Problem mental development has three aspects of study: the emergence and development of the psyche in the animal world; the emergence and development of human consciousness; development of the psyche in human ontogenesis, i.e. from birth to the end of life.
The development of the psyche in the animal kingdom closely associated with the emergence and development of the nervous system, especially the brain. The literature sets out different options solving the question of the characteristic features of the mental and of the hierarchy of properties, the sequence of which reflects the complication of the level of mental organization.
So, from the point of view of K.K. Platonov, the sequence of jumps corresponding to the process of the emergence of psychic reality and its subsequent development is as follows: from the physical to the physiological (irritability); from physiological irritability to experiencing (subjectivity), i.e. to the mental; from emotions to sensations (from experience to sensitivity); from a complex complex of sensations to operating with concepts - to the simplest thinking; from thinking to will.
Such developmental sequence repeated in ontogeny. Moreover, both in phylo- and ontogenesis, each stage of development of the psyche has undergone and continues to undergo its own changes, going along two lines. Along one line, each stage, colliding with the environment, ends with a jump, providing the appearance next stage... On another line of development, it differentiates and complicates its own form, which enters into new structural relationships with other forms of mental reflection.
The specificity of a living being (which can naturally be characterized by physical parameters such as mass, body size, habitat, duration of existence in environments with different physicochemical properties and others) is found primarily in the following features:
- self-replication- the ability to actively extract from environment substances that make up the body itself, and to reflect the substances that interfere with its life;
- reproducibility - the ability to reproduce, the generation of new individuals, similar to the parent;
- homeostatism- the ability to maintain unchanged parameters physiological functions in certain ranges of changes in the conditions of existence;
- adaptability - the ability to actively regulate its composition and functions in the direction of adaptation to changing conditions of existence;
- regeneration- the ability of the body to restore lost or damaged organs and tissues;
- immunity - immunity of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances of an antigenic nature,
- reflexivity - the ability to respond through stereotyped holistic acts - reflexes - in response to certain classes of external influences-stimuli;
- cyclical development in time, those. passing within the boundaries from birth to death of many cycles (daily, seasonal), within which there is a natural change in the functions performed;
- sensitivity- the ability of a living organism to transform physical and biological influences into the phenomena of psychic reality;
- susceptibility- the ability to display external influences and construct oneself due to this as a subject of mental reflection;
- learnability - the ability of a living creature to modify its own behavior in the direction of expanding the range of available reactions, expanding its adaptive capabilities due to the accumulation of life experience;
- learnability— the orientation of a living creature towards reproducing in its own behavior individual variants of activity developed by other individuals.
The main stages of the development of the psyche in the animal world e: I (lowest) - elementary sensitivity. II - subject perception. III (higher) - a reflection of intersubject connections.
Stage 1 – this is the stage of the elementary, sensory psyche... For animals with such a psyche, the world around is presented in the form of such separate properties, elements on which the satisfaction of basic vital needs depends. Here instincts are leading. Instinct is the complex innate actions of animals with the help of which an animal satisfies its needs.
Stage 2 – perceptual psyche... Animals that are at this stage reflect the world around them no longer in the form of separate elements, but in the form of images of integral things and their relationships to each other. At this stage, the animals develop skills. A skill is a way of behavior acquired in an individual life and consolidated as a result of exercises.
Stage 3 – intellectual behavior- the simplest forms of mental activity based on the establishment of connections between objects.
