The action includes as a necessary component the act of consciousness v the form of goal setting, and in at the same time, action is at the same time an act of behavior, it is realized through external actions in indissoluble unity with consciousness. Through actions, a person shows his activity, trying to achieve the set goal with taking into account external conditions.

An action has a structure similar to that of an activity: a goal is a motive, a method is a result. There are actions: sensory(actions to perceive the object), motor(motor actions), volitional, mental, mnemonic(memory actions), external subject(actions

Fundamentals of Psychology

aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world) and mental(actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness). The following components of action are distinguished: sensory (sensory), central (mental) and motor (motor) (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6. Action components and their function

Every action is a complex system consisting of several parts: indicative (managing), executive (working) and control and correction. The tentative part of the action provides a reflection of the set of objective conditions necessary for the successful implementation of this action. The executive part carries out the specified transformations in the action object. The control part monitors the progress of the action, compares the results obtained with the given samples and, if necessary, provides correction for both the approximate and executive parts of the action.

An operation is a specific way of performing an action. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed and the experience of the person. Operations are usually little understood or are not realized at all by a person, that is, this is the level of automatic skills.

Speaking about the fact that a person performs some kind of activity, one must not forget that a person is an organism with a highly organized nervous system, developed sense organs, and a complex musculoskeletal system.

Introduction to Psychology

apparatus, psychophysiological functions, which are both prerequisites and means of activity.

For example, when a person sets a goal to remember something, he can use different actions and memorization techniques, but this activity relies on the existing mnemonic psychophysiological function: none of the memorization actions would lead to the desired result if the person did not have a mnemonic function. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of activity processes.

Sensorimotor processes- these are the processes in which the communication of perception is carried out and movement. In these processes, four mental acts are distinguished: 1) the sensory moment of reaction - the process of perception; 2) the central moment of the reaction - more or less complex processes associated with the processing of the perceived, sometimes difference, recognition, assessment and choice; 3) motor moment of reaction - the processes that determine the beginning and course of movement; 4) sensory motion corrections (feedback).

Ideomotor processes associate the idea of movement with the execution of the movement. The problem of the image and its role in the regulation of motor acts is the central problem of the psychology of correct human movements.

Emotional-motor processes are the processes that connect the execution of movements with emotions, feelings, mental states experienced by a person.

Interiorization is a process of transition from external, material action to internal, ideal action.

Exteriorization is a process of transformation of an internal mental action into an external action.

The main types of activity that ensure the existence of a person and the formation of him as a person are communication, play, learning and work.

It has already been noted that our needs push us to action, to activity. Need is a state of need experienced by a person. States of the body's objective need for something that lies outside of it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning, and are called needs. Hunger, thirst, or the need for oxygen are primary needs, the satisfaction of which is vital for all living things. Any violation in the balance of sugar, water, oxygen or any other component necessary for the body automatically leads to the appearance of a corresponding

hychology

a growing need and to the emergence of a biological impulse, which, as it were, pushes a person to his satisfaction. The resulting primary impulse triggers a series of coordinated actions aimed at restoring balance.

Maintaining balance in which the body does not experience any needs is called homeostasis. From here homeostatic behavior- this is a behavior that is aimed at eliminating motivation by satisfying the need that caused it. Often human behavior is caused by the perception of certain external objects, the action of any external stimuli. The perception of certain external objects plays the role of a stimulus, which can be as strong and significant as the inner urge itself. The need for movement, for receiving new information, new stimuli (cognitive need), new emotions allows the body to maintain an optimal level of activation, which allows it to function most effectively. This need for stimuli changes depending on the physiological and mental state of the person.

The need for social contacts, for communicating with people is one of the leading in a person, only with the course of life does it change its forms.

People are constantly busy with something, and in most cases they decide for themselves what they will do. People use the process of thinking to make choices. Can be considered motivation as a "selection mechanism" of some form of behavior. This mechanism, if necessary, responds to external stimuli, but most often it chooses the opportunity that at the moment best corresponds to the physiological state, emotion, memory or thought that came to mind, or unconscious attraction, or innate characteristics. The choice of our immediate actions is guided by our goals and plans for the future. The more important these goals are to the naga, the more powerfully they guide our choices.

Thus, there is a hierarchy of different needs from the most primitive to the most sophisticated. The hierarchical pyramid of needs was developed by the well-known psychologist Maslow: from innate physiological needs (the need for food, drink, sex, the desire to avoid pain, parental instinct, the need to explore the world and etc.) - to the needs

Introduction to Psychology

in safety, then to the needs for affection, love, then to the needs for respect, approval, recognition, competence, then to the cognitive and aesthetic needs (order, beauty, justice, symmetry) - and, finally, the need to understand the meaning of one's life , in self-improvement, in self-development, self-realization.

But one and the same need can be satisfied with the help of different objects, with the help of different actions, that is, in a different way objectified. In the process of objectifying the need, two important features of the need are revealed: 1) initially there is a fairly wide range of objects capable of satisfying this need; 2) there is a quick fixation of the need on the first object that satisfied it. In the act of objectification, is born motive as an object of need. Motive- it is an objectified need, it is a need for a given object that prompts a person to take active action. One and the same motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions, and on the other hand, the same action can be prompted by different motives. Motives give rise to actions, that is, they lead to the formation of goals. These are motives-goals. But there are also unconscious motives that can manifest themselves in the form of emotions and personal meanings. Emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. The leading main motive determines the personal meaning - the experience of the increased subjective significance of an object or event that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive.

A set of actions that are caused by one motive is called a special type of activity (play, educational or work).

CONTROL QUESTIONS

1. What is the subject of psychology as a science?

2. List and briefly describe the main views on the psyche and its role.

3. What are the main functions and manifestations of the psyche?

4. How is the development of forms of behavior and reflective function interconnected in the process of evolution? Is this related to the development of the nervous system?

Fundamentals of Psychology

5. Why can't the complex behavior of ants be called labor? What are the characteristic features of labor that played an important role in the formation of human consciousness?

6. What circles of influence of nature on the psyche exist?

7. What research methods are used in psychology?

8. What connection exists between the psyche and the organism, between the psyche and the brain?

LITERATURE

1. Hegel. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 3.M., Thought, 1977.

2. Vygotsky L. S. The history of the development of higher mental functions. Sobr. Op. T. 3.M., Pedagogy, 1983.

3. Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M., 1987.

4. Godefroy J. What is psychology. In 2 volumes, M., Mir, 1992.

5. Jarvilekto T. Brain and psyche. M., Progress, 1992.

6. Platonov K.K. Entertaining psychology. M., 1990.

7. Shertok L. Unknown in the human psyche. M., 1982.

8. Galperin P. Ya. Introduction to psychology M., 1976.

9. Silent R.S. Psychology of the book. 1.M., 1997.

10. Military psychology and pedagogy. M., 1998.

11. Diligensky G.G. Socio-political psychology. M., 1996.

12. T.V. Kornilova Introduction to Psychological Experiment. M., 1997.

13. Fundamentals of psychophysiology. M., 1997.

14. Psychological science in Russia of the XX century. M., 1997.

15. Psychology and Pedagogy (edited by Radugin). M., 1996.

16. Rozin V.M. Psychology: theory and practice. M., 1997.

17. Rudensky U.V. Social psychology, M., 1997.

18. Shibutani T. Social Psychology. Rostov n / a, 1998.

19. V. V. Romanov

20. Research methods in psychoology: quasi-experiment. M., 1998.

21. Chufarovsky Yu.V. Legal psychology. M., 1998.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

CONCEPTS

1. A brief excursion into the history of psychology

In order to more clearly understand the path of development of psychology as a science, we will briefly consider its main stages. and directions.

1. The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (from the Latin anima - spirit, soul) - by the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body that controls all living things. and inanimate objects.

2. Later, in the philosophical teachings of antiquity, psychological aspects were touched upon, which were solved in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. Thus, the materialist philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation, consisting of spherical, small and the most mobile atoms.

3. According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), who was a disciple and follower of Socrates, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and the soul in a person exists before it enters into union with the body. She is the image and the outflow of the world soul. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. Soul and the body is in a complex relationship with each other. By its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, to direct the life of a person. However, sometimes the body takes the soul in its fetters. The body is torn apart by various desires and passions, it takes care of food, supports

Fundamentals of Psychology

devoted to illness, fear, temptation. Mental phenomena are subdivided by Plato into reason, courage (in the modern sense - will) and lust (motivation).

Mind is in the head, courage in the chest, lust in the abdomen. The harmonious unity of the rational principle, noble aspirations and lust gives the integrity of the mental life of a person. The soul dwells in the human body and guides it throughout his life, and after death leaves him and enters the divine "world of ideas." Since the soul is the highest thing in a person, he should take care of its health more than the health of the body. Depending on the way of life a person led, after his death his soul will have a different fate: it will either wander near the earth, burdened by bodily elements, or fly off the earth into an ideal world, into the world of ideas, which exists outside matter and outside the individual. consciousness. "Is it not a shame for people to care about money, about fame and honors, and not to care about reason, about truth and about their soul and not to think that it would be better?" - Ask Socrates and Plato.

4. Great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of area of knowledge and first nominated the idea of the indivisibility of the soul and a living body. Aristotle denied the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies). The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal, it is the form of a living body, the cause and purpose of all its vital functions. Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some phenomenon external to it. The soul, or "psyche", is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself. If the eye were a living being, then sight would be its soul. So the human soul is the essence of a living body, this is the realization of his being, Aristotle believed. The main function of the soul, according to Aristotle, is the realization of the biological existence of the organism. The center, "psyche," is in the heart, where impressions from the senses are received. These impressions form the source of ideas, which, combined with each other as a result of rational thinking, subjugate behavior. The driving force of human behavior is striving (internal activity of the body), coupled with a feeling of pleasure or displeasure. Sensory perceptions constitute the beginning of cognition. Save and play

Psychological

concepts

sensory guidance gives memory. Thinking is characterized by the compilation of general concepts, judgments and inferences. A special form of intellectual activity is nous (intelligence), brought in from the outside in the form of divine intelligence. Thus, the soul manifests itself in various capacities for activity: nourishing, feeling, intelligent. Higher abilities arise from the lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive ability of a person is sensation, it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just like "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena. Aristotle believed that the knowledge of man- "century is possible only through the knowledge of the Universe and existence

the order in it. Thus, at the first stage psychology acted as the science of the soul.

5. In the Middle Ages, the notion that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle was established, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology.

Human judgment can only yield to the outer side of the soul, which is turned to the material

the world. The greatest mysteries of the soul are available only v religious (mystical) experience.

6. Since the 17th century. a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge. V links with the development of natural

science with the help of experimental methods

began to study the laws of human consciousness. The ability to think and feel was called consciousness. Psychology began to develop as a science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the human mental world mainly from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental base. R. Descartes(1596-1650) comes to the conclusion about the difference between the human soul and his body: "the body by its nature is always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible." However, the soul is capable of making movements in the body. This contradictory dualistic doctrine gave rise to a problem called psychophysical: how are bodily (physiological) and mental (mental) processes in a person? Descartes created a theory that explains behavior on the basis of mechanics

Fundamentals of Psychology

the static model. According to this model, information delivered by the senses is directed along sensory nerves to openings in the brain, which these nerves expand, which allows the "animal souls" in the brain to flow through the thinnest tubes - motor nerves - into muscles that inflate. which leads to the withdrawal of the limb, which has been subjected to irritation, or forces one to perform one or another action. Thus, there was no need to resort to To soul to explain how simple behavioral acts arise. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic (causal) concept of behavior with its central idea of the reflex as a natural motor response of the body to external physical stimulation. This Cartesian dualism - the body, acting mechanically, and the "intelligent soul" that controls it, localized in the brain. Thus, the concept of "Soul" began to turn into the concept of "Mind", and later - into the concept of "Consciousness". The famous Cartesian phrase "I think, so I exist" became the basis of the postulate that the first thing that a person discovers in himself is his own consciousness. The existence of consciousness is the main and an unconditional fact, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. On the basis of this postulate, psychology began to develop - it made its subject consciousness.

7. Attempting to reconnect the body and the soul of man, divided by the teachings of Descartes, was undertaken by the Dutch philosopher Spinoza(1632 -1677). There is no special spiritual principle, it is always one of the manifestations of extended substance (matter).

Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Spinoza believed that this approach makes it possible to consider the phenomena of the psyche with the same accuracy. and objectivity, how lines and surfaces are viewed in geometry.

Thinking is an eternal property of substance (matter, nature), therefore, to a certain extent, thinking is also inherent in stone, and animals, and is largely inherent in humans, manifesting itself in the form of intelligence and will at the human level.

8. German philosopher G. Leibniz(1646-1716), rejecting the equality of psyche and consciousness established by Descartes, introduced the concept O unconscious psyche. V the soul of a person is constantly undergoing the hidden work of mental

Psychological concepts

forces - countless "small perceptions" (perceptions). Conscious desires and passions arise from them.

9. The term "empirical psychology" was introduced by the German philosopher of the 18th century X. Wolf to designate a direction in psychological science, the main principle of which is to observe specific mental phenomena, their classification and the establishment of a regular connection between them verified by experience. English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704) considers the human soul as passive, but capable To perception of the environment, comparing it to a blank board on which nothing is written. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the human soul, awakening, is filled with simple ideas, begins to think, that is, to form complex ideas. In the language of psychology, Locke introduced the concept of "association" - a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. So psychology began to study how, by association of ideas, a person is aware of the world around him. At the same time, the study of the relationship between the soul and the body finally gives way to the study of mental activity and consciousness.

Locke believed that there are two sources of all human knowledge: the first source is objects of the external world, the second is the activity of a person's own mind. The activity of the mind, thinking is cognized with the help of a special inner feeling - reflection. Reflection - according to Lock-ku - is "observation to which the mind subjects its activity", it is the focus of a person's attention on the activity of his own soul. Mental activity can proceed, as it were, on two levels: processes of the first level - perception, thought, desire (every person and child has them); processes of the second level - observation or "contemplation" of these perceptions, thoughts, desires (this is only for mature people who reflect on themselves, cognize their emotional experiences and states). This method of introspection is becoming an important means of studying the mental activity and consciousness of people.

10. Separation of psychology into an independent science occurred in the 60s XIX century. It was connected with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as the introduction of an experiment for the study of mental phenomena. The first version of experimental psychology as an independent

Fundamentals of Psychology

physiological psychology of the German scientist W. Wundt (1832-1920).In 1879, Wundt opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig.

Soon, in 1885, V.M.Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

In the field of consciousness, Wundt believed, there is a special psychic causality that is subject to scientific objective research. Consciousness was divided into mental structures, the simplest elements: sensations, images and the senses. The role of psychology, according to Wundt, is to provide as detailed a description of these elements as possible. "Psychology- this is the science of the structures of consciousness "- this direction was named structuralist approach. We used the method of introspection, self-observation.

One psychologist compared the picture of consciousness with a flowering meadow: visual images, auditory impressions, emotional states and thoughts, memories, desires - all this can be in consciousness at the same time. A particularly clear and distinct area stands out in the field of consciousness - the "field of attention", the "focus of consciousness"; outside of it there is a region, the contents of which are indistinct, vague, undivided - this is the "periphery of consciousness." The contents of consciousness filling both described areas of consciousness are in continuous motion. Wundt's experiments with the metronome showed that the monotonous clicks of the metronome in a person's perception are involuntarily rhythmic, that is, consciousness is rhythmic in nature, and the organization of the rhythm can be either arbitrary or and involuntary. Wundt tried to study such a characteristic of consciousness as its volume. The experiment showed that a series of eight double beats of the metronome (or of 16 separate sounds) is a measure of the volume of consciousness. Wundt believed that psychology must find the elements of consciousness, decompose the complex dynamic picture of consciousness into simple, then indivisible parts. Wundt declared individual impressions or sensations to be the simplest elements of consciousness. Feelings are objective elements of consciousness. There are also subjective elements of consciousness, or feeling. Wundt proposed 3 pairs of subjective elements: pleasure - displeasure, arousal - tranquility, tension - discharge. All feelings of a person are formed from a combination of subjective elements, for example, joy is pleasure and

Psychological

concepts

excitement, hope - pleasure and tension, fear - displeasure and tension.

But the idea of decomposing the psyche into the simplest elements turned out to be false, it was impossible to assemble complex states of consciousness from simple elements. Therefore, by the 20s of the XX century. this psychology of consciousness has practically ceased to exist.

11. Functionalist approach. American psychologist W. James proposed to study the functions of consciousness and its role in human survival. He hypothesized that the role of consciousness is to enable a person to adapt to various situations, either repeating already developed forms of behavior, or changing them depending on the circumstances, or mastering new actions, if the situation requires it. "Psychology- this is the science of the functions of consciousness ", according to functionalists. They used the methods of introspection, self-observation, fixing the time of solving problems.

James reflected in the concept of "stream of consciousness" - the process of movement of consciousness, a continuous change in its contents and states. Consciousness processes are divided into two large classes: some of them occur as if by themselves, others are organized and guided by man. The first processes are called involuntary, the second - voluntary.

12. I.M.Sechenov is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology. (1829-1905). In his book "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), the basic psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation. Their scheme is the same as that of reflexes: they originate in external influence, continue with central nervous activity and end in response activity - movement, deed, speech. With this interpretation, Sechenov attempted to "wrestle" psychology from the circle of a person's inner world. However, at the same time, the specificity of mental reality was underestimated in comparison with its physiological basis, the role of cultural and historical factors in the formation and development of the human psyche was not taken into account.

13. An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs G. I. Chelpanov(1862 -1936). His main merit is to create v Russian Psychological Institute (1912). The experimental direction in psychology using objective research methods was developed by V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927). Efforts I. P. Pavlova (1849-1936) were directed to study conditionally

Fundamentals of Psychology

reflex connections in the activity of the body. His work fruitfully influenced the understanding of the physiological foundations of mental activity.

Behavioral approach.

American psychologist Watson proclaimed in 1913 that psychology would acquire the right to be called a science when it applied objective experimental methods of study. Objectively, you can only study human behavior that occurs in a given situation. Each situation corresponds to a certain behavior, which should be objectively recorded. "Psychology- this is the science of behavior ", and all concepts related to consciousness should be banished from scientific psychology. “The expression“ a child is afraid of a dog ”scientifically does not mean anything, objective descriptions are needed:“ the child's tears and trembling intensify when a dog approaches him. ”New forms of behavior appear as a result of the formation of conditioned reflexes (conditioning) (Watson). Any behavior is determined by its consequences. (Skinner). Human actions are formed under the influence of the social environment, a person is completely dependent on it. A person also tends to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation can be for himself. (Bandura). The main ideas of behaviorism will be discussed in the following sections.

Introduction

Man is by nature active. He is a creator and creator regardless of what kind of work he does.

Without activity, expressed in activity, it is impossible to reveal the wealth of a person's spiritual life: the depths of the mind and feelings, the power of imagination and will, abilities and character traits. Activity is a very complex and multidimensional phenomenon. The activity is based on a system of movements and objective actions, integrated into a single complex necessary for labor in any area of social production. Human actions are subtle, they realize social, physiological and cultural goals.

Any type of activity is associated with movements, regardless of whether it is a muscular-muscle movement of the hand when writing, when a machine operator performs a labor operation, or the movement of the speech apparatus when pronouncing words. Movement is a physiological function of a living organism. Human movements are the implementation of an action aimed at solving a specific task. The nature or content of the task determines the movement. Our task in this work is to highlight the main characteristics of action and movement, to consider in detail their types, structure, as well as ways of implementing actions and movements.

Characterization of actions

Action- a structural unit of activity, which is determined by the direction to achieve the goal. Actions are movements directed at an object and pursuing a specific goal. The totality of actions, united by a common goal and performing a specific social function, constitutes an activity.

Types of action. Human activity is carried out through actions of various types and levels. Usually distinguish between reflex, instinctive, impulsive and volitional actions.

Reflex actions outside of instinctive ones do not exist: only movements that are included in various actions are actually reflexive.

Instinctive actions in the proper sense of the word (not only emanating from organic impulses, but also carried out independently of conscious control) are observed only in early childhood (for example, sucking); in the life of an adult, they do not play a role. Thus, in essence, when studying human behavior, one has to deal with two types of actual actions (as opposed to movements) - volitional and impulsive.

According to the degree of awareness of goals ("why am I doing this") and consequences ("what this can lead to") actions are divided into impulsive and volitional.

The main difference between impulsive action and volitional action is the absence in the first and the presence in the second of conscious control. Impulsive action arises mainly when the drive is turned off from the instinctive action, and the volitional action is not yet organized or is already disorganized. Impulsive actions are characterized by a low degree of awareness of goals and possible consequences. An image or a word that has arisen in the mind, a command immediately triggers an action. Volitional actions involve thoughtfulness of goals and possible consequences.

Dynamic relationships play an essential role in impulsive action. Impulsive action is affective discharge. It is associated with affective experience. An impulsive-affective action is a passionate outburst of an enthusiastic person or an affective attack of an irritated person who is unable to subject his act to control; in the most pure, naked, impulsive actions are observed in pathological cases or conditions in which normal volitional action is impossible.

Volitional actions are experienced by the subject as requiring an internal effort. They are characterized by the subordination of one motive to another, while these two motives have opposite signs.

Each action consists of a system of movements or operations, which are divided into external (objective) and internal (mental, mental). Depending on the mental acts that dominate in the modes of action, the following are distinguished action components: sensory (sensory), central (mental) and motor (motor) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

External actions include motor (motor) actions of a person, actions to move objects, movements of speech organs, facial expressions and pantomime, internal ones include perceptual actions, through which a holistic image of objects and phenomena is formed, mnemonic movements that are part of the activity of memorizing some or information and its subsequent recollection, mental actions.

Sensory actions are actions to perceive an object, for example, determining the size of an object, its location and movement in space, and its state. Sensory actions include assessing a person's mood by his facial expressions. Motor actions are actions aimed at changing the position of an object in space by moving it directly (with hands, feet) or directly using tools (switching speed while driving). Motor and sensory actions are most often combined in work activity into a sensorimotor action, but for the purposes of learning (in particular, exercises) they are distinguished as separate types of actions. Sensomotor action aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world is called objective action. Any objective action consists of certain movements connected in space and time. Mental actions are various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness. It has been experimentally established that the mental action necessarily includes motor motor components. ...

The studies of Soviet psychologists have shown that mental actions are formed at first as external, objective ones and are gradually transferred to the internal plane. The translation of an external action into an internal plan is called interiorization.

The mastery of mental activity leads to the fact that, before embarking on external activities aimed at achieving the desired goal, a person performs an action in his mind, operating with images and speech symbols. External activity in this case is prepared and proceeds on the basis of the completed mental activity. The realization of mental action outside, in the form of actions with objects, is called exteriorization.

Action is the main unit of activity analysis and has similar activities structure: the goal is the motive, the method is the result. Action is a process aimed at realizing a goal, where the goal is a conscious image of the desired result. We can say that an action is a process of solving a problem, which includes the processes of targeting, the processes of searching for means. Action differs from activity in that the object to which it is directed does not coincide with its motive. Motives give rise to actions. The perceived relation of the object of activity to its motive is the meaning of the action; the form of experiencing the meaning of an action is the awareness of its goal. An action, in contrast to a habitual or impulsive behavioral act directly determined by an objective situation, is always realized indirectly. Various signs, roles, values, norms, etc., can act as means; applying them, the subject takes possession of the action, transforms it into a personal one, belonging to him.

By the way they function, actions can be arbitrary and deliberate. The intentionality of an action arises due to the subject's making a decision that the image of the future result of an action corresponds to the motive of his activity; then this mode of action acquires a personal meaning for him and acts as the goal of the action. If there is an intention, the subject develops an attitude towards achieving the anticipated result of the action. It is associated with the image of the foreseeable goal, which sets only the general direction of the construction of the action, while the executive part of the action is determined by the specific conditions of the situation.

There are the following the constituent parts of the action:

· decision-making

Implementation

· Control and correction.

At the same time, in making a decision, there is a linking of the image of the situation, the mode of action, integral and differential programs. Implementation and control are carried out cyclically. In each of them, both learned and individually worked out means and tools are used.

Thus, any action is a complex system, consisting of several parts: indicative (managing), executive (working) and control and corrective. The tentative part of the action provides a reflection of the set of objective conditions necessary for the successful implementation of this action. The executive part carries out the specified transformations in the action object. The control part monitors the progress of the action, compares the results obtained with the given samples and, if necessary, provides correction for both the approximate and executive parts of the action.

Ways to perform an action. Action is an arbitrary deliberate activity aimed at achieving a perceived goal. The action is carried out by a person using certain methods and techniques, correlated with the specific situation of the activity and the conditions in which it is carried out.

An operation is a specific way of performing an action. As there are different ways of performing an action, as many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operation depends on the conditions for performing the action, on the skills and abilities available to the person, on the available tools and means of performing the action. Operations characterize a partial side of the performance of actions, they are little or not realized by a person at all, that is, this is the level of automatic skills. Operations can arise from adaptation, direct imitation, or automation of actions.

An operation differs from an action in that it is determined not by the goal, but by the conditions in which the goal is given. Methods of distinguishing between actions and operations - awareness and the use of objective behavioral and physiological indicators.

Depending on the degree of awareness, such methods of action as skills and abilities are distinguished.

A skill is an action formed by repetition and making it automatic. Any new mode of action, proceeding initially as some independent, developed and conscious action, then, as a result of multiple repetitions, can be carried out already as an automatically performed component of the action.

In each specific type of activity, some common structural components can be distinguished. These are, first of all, goals, motives and actions. The goal acts as an image of the final result of the activity. The motive encourages a person to act and gives meaning to his activity. Action- a relatively complete element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate perceived goal.

In the process of human development, activity becomes more complex, and its structure changes: previously independent activity can turn into action and act as a structural element of more complex activity. And vice versa - individual actions can unfold and turn into independent activities (for example, calculations in solving various problems - into the activity of a calculator).

The mechanisms of planning, control and regulation of actions were investigated by P.K. Anokhin, N.A. Bernshtein, E.A.Asratyan, B.G. on a kind of neuropsychic model. Feedback - information about the results of the performed action and their comparison with a given model - ensures the correction of the action along the way

its implementation. Anokhin called this mechanism an action acceptor.

Any activity can be done in different ways. The methods of performing the actions that make up this type of activity are usually called methods of action. Each action, as a rule, consists of a system of movements, or operations, subordinate to the task being solved in certain specific conditions.

Actions aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world are called subject... They consist of certain movements, in most cases - of three relatively simple: take (raise), move, lower. In addition, in psychology, it is customary to single out other types of movements: speech, somatic, expressive, locomotor, etc. In all cases, coordination of movements and their consistency with each other are necessary.

Various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness are called mental.

It has been experimentally established that mental actions necessarily include motor motor components.

There are four types of mental activity:

Perceptual, through which it is formed;

a holistic image of perception of objects and phenomena;

Mnemonic, which is part of the activity of memorizing, holding and recalling any material;

Thinking, with the help of which the solution of mental tasks occurs;

Imagative - the activity of the imagination in the process of creativity.

Every activity includes an internal and an external component. By its origin, internal (mental, mental) activity is derived from external (objective). Initially, objective actions are performed, and only then, as experience is accumulated, the ability to perform the same actions in the mind is acquired (interiorization).

General characteristics. Activity- specifically human, consciousness-regulated activity, generated by needs and aimed at cognition and transformation of the external world and the person himself, which is of a social nature, largely determined by the goals and requirements of society. This is an active and consciously regulated process of human interaction with the outside world. A person in any activity is aware of the purpose of his actions, imagines the expected result, thinks over the sequence of operations and observes the progress of the activity and the result.

The structure of human activity... In any kind of activity, common structural components can be distinguished - goals, motives and actions. The goal acts as an image of the final result of the activity. The motive encourages a person to act and gives meaning to his activity. Action is a relatively complete element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate perceived goal.

In the process of human development, activity becomes more complex, independent activity can turn into action, and individual actions can turn into independent activity.

P.K.Anokhin, N.A. Bernshtein, E.A.Asratyap, B.G. Ananiev and others, exploring the mechanisms of planning, control and regulation of actions, found that the goal of any action is presented in the mind in the form of a mental image, based on a kind of neuropsychic model. Feedback - information about the results of the performed action and their comparison with a given model - provides for the correction of the action in the course of its execution. This mechanism was called an action acceptor.

The methods of performing the actions that make up this type of activity are usually called methods of action. Each action consists, as a rule, of a system of movements, or operations, subordinate to the task being solved in certain specific conditions.

Actions aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world are called objective. They consist of certain movements, in most cases - of relatively simple sins: take (raise), move, lower. Other types of movements are also distinguished: speech, somatic, expressive, locomotor, etc. In all cases, coordination and consistency of movements are necessary.

Various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness are called mental. It has been experimentally established that mental actions necessarily include motor motor components.

There are four types of mental activity: perceptual, mnemonic. mental and imaginative.

Every activity includes an internal and an external component. By its origin, the internal (mental, mental) activity is produced from the external (objective). As experience accumulates, the ability to perform the same actions in the mind is acquired (interiorization, thanks to which the human psyche is able to perform operations with images of objects that are out of sight). Then the actions in the mind, directed towards the transformation of object-related activity, are themselves subjected to the reverse transformation (keterization, which is realized in the form of movements, actions on objects, manipulation with them).

Introduction

Characterization of actions

Characteristic of movements

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Man is by nature active. He is a creator and creator regardless of what kind of work he does.

Any type of activity is associated with movements, regardless of whether it is a muscular-muscular movement of the hand when writing, when performing a labor operation by a machine operator, or movement of the speech apparatus when pronouncing words. Movement is a physiological function of a living organism. Human movements are the implementation of an action aimed at solving a specific task. The nature or content of the task determines the movement. Our task in this work is to highlight the main characteristics of action and movement, to consider in detail their types, structure, as well as ways of implementing actions and movements.

Characterization of actions

Action is a structural unit of activity, which is determined by the direction towards achieving the goal. Actions are movements directed at an object and pursuing a specific goal. The totality of actions, united by a common goal and performing a specific social function, constitutes an activity.

Types of action. Human activity is carried out through actions of various types and levels. Usually distinguish between reflex, instinctive, impulsive and volitional actions.

Reflex actions outside of instinctive ones do not exist: only movements that are included in various actions are actually reflexive.

According to the degree of awareness of goals ("why am I doing this") and consequences ("what this can lead to") actions are divided into impulsive and volitional.

Volitional actions are experienced by the subject as requiring an internal effort. They are characterized by the subordination of one motive to another, while these two motives have opposite signs.

Each action consists of a system of movements or operations, which are divided into external (objective) and internal (mental, mental). Depending on the mental acts that dominate in the modes of action, the following components of the action are distinguished: sensory (sensory), central (mental) and motor (motor) (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 Action Components and Their Functions

Sensory actions are actions to perceive an object, for example, determining the size of an object, its location and movement in space, and its state. Sensory actions include assessing a person's mood by his facial expressions. Motor actions are actions aimed at changing the position of an object in space by moving it directly (with hands, feet) or directly using tools (switching speed while driving). Motor and sensory actions are most often combined in work activity into a sensorimotor action, but for the purposes of learning (in particular, exercises) they are distinguished as separate types of actions. Sensomotor action aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world is called objective action. Any objective action is made up of certain movements connected in space and time. Mental actions are various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness. It has been experimentally established that the mental action necessarily includes motor motor components. ...

Action is the main unit of activity analysis and has a structure similar to activity: goal - motive, method - result. Action is a process aimed at realizing a goal, where the goal is a conscious image of the desired result. We can say that an action is a process of solving a problem, which includes the processes of targeting, the processes of searching for means. Action differs from activity in that the object to which it is directed does not coincide with its motive. Motives give rise to actions. The perceived relation of the object of activity to its motive is the meaning of the action; the form of experiencing the meaning of an action is the awareness of its goal. An action, in contrast to a habitual or impulsive behavioral act directly determined by an objective situation, is always realized indirectly. Various signs, roles, values, norms, etc., can act as means; applying them, the subject takes possession of the action, transforms it into a personal one, belonging to him.

The following components of the action are distinguished:

· decision-making

Implementation

· Control and correction.

Ways to perform an action. Action is an arbitrary deliberate activity aimed at achieving a perceived goal. The action is carried out by a person using certain methods and techniques, correlated with the specific situation of the activity and the conditions in which it is carried out.

Depending on the degree of awareness, such methods of action as skills and abilities are distinguished.

Differing skills are perceptual, intellectual and motor skills.

A motor skill is an automated action on an external object with the help of movements in order to transform it, which has been repeatedly carried out earlier. Intellectual skill - automated techniques, methods of solving previously encountered mental tasks. Perceptual skill - automated sensory reflections of the properties and characteristics of well-known, previously perceived objects.

There are three main stages in the formation of a skill: analytical, synthetic, and the stage of automation.

To preserve the skill, they should be used systematically, otherwise de-automation occurs, when speed, lightness, smoothness and other qualities characteristic of automated actions are lost. And a person again has to turn his attention to his every movement, consciously control the way it is performed.

The question of their interaction is very essential for the correct understanding and rational organization of the development of skills. It includes two questions - about interference and transfer. Interference is an inhibitory interaction of skills, in which already established skills make it difficult to learn new skills, or reduce their effectiveness. Transfer - the spread and use of skills formed as a result of performing some actions and activities to others. In order for such a transfer to be carried out normally, it is necessary that the skill becomes generalized, universal, consistent with other skills, actions and activities, brought to automatism.

Skills are a way of performing an action mastered by a subject, which is provided by a set of acquired knowledge and skills. Skills - the ability to effectively perform an action (activity) in accordance with the goals and conditions in which you have to act. Skills presuppose, first of all, exteriorization. Skills are formed through exercise and create the ability to perform an action not only in familiar, but also in changed conditions. The key to skill management is to ensure that every action is infallible and flexible enough. One of the main qualities related to skills is that a person is able to change the structure of skills - skills, operations and actions that make up the skills, the sequence of their implementation, while keeping the final result unchanged.

Skills and skills are divided into several types: motor, cognitive, theoretical and practical. Motor movements include a variety of movements, complex and simple, that make up the external, motor aspects of activity. Cognitive skills include abilities related to searching, perceiving, remembering and processing information. They correlate with the main mental processes and involve the formation of knowledge. Theoretical skills and abilities are associated with abstract intelligence. They are expressed in a person's ability to analyze, generalize material, build hypotheses, theories, translate information from one sign system to another.

Characteristic of movements

The movement of a person outside of action can only be the subject of study of the physiology of the locomotor apparatus. Movements, especially so-called voluntary movements, usually serve to express actions through which behavior is carried out; therefore, the properties of movements can for the most part be understood only on the basis of these actions. As components of actions, movements become a function of very complex mental processes - perception of a situation, comprehension of an action, anticipation of its results, etc. - and a dependent component of an action directed at an object and conditioned by it.

Distinguish between involuntary and voluntary movements. The question of the principles of such a classification of movements was subjected to in-depth analysis by I.M. Sechenov. Sechenov summarizes his physiological analysis of voluntary movements in the following positions: “All elementary forms of movements of the arms, legs, head and trunk, as well as all combined movements learned in childhood, walking, running, speaking, eye movements when looking, etc., become subordinate to the will after they have been memorized. The more learned the movement, the easier it obeys the will, and vice versa (the extreme case is the complete powerlessness of the will over the muscles, for which practical life does not provide conditions for exercise).

But its power in all cases concerns only the beginning or impulse to the act and its end, as well as the strengthening or weakening of the movement; the movement itself takes place without any further intervention of the will, being in reality a repetition of what has already been done thousands of times in childhood, when there can be no question of the interference of the will in the act. "

The main properties of movements are: speed (speed of trajectory passing); force; pace (the number of movements for a certain period of time, depending not only on speed, but also on the intervals between movements); rhythm (temporal, spatial and power); coordination; accuracy and accuracy; plasticity and dexterity

The nature of the movements is determined, on the one hand, by the objects to which the actions are directed, in which they are part, in particular by the spatial arrangement of objects, their shape, size and other properties (weight, fragility, etc.), on the other, by attitudes subject, in particular, attitudes towards accuracy, speed. In the temporary organization of movements, there is often a tendency towards their rhythmization, which contributes to automation and - with correct rhythmization - facilitates movement.

The main types of movement are: posture movements - movements of the muscular apparatus (the so-called static reflexes), which maintain and change the body posture, which is achieved by active tonic muscle tension; locomotion - movements associated with movement; their features are expressed in gait, posture, which clearly reflects the mental appearance of a person; expressive movements of the face and the whole body (facial expressions and pantomime), direct manifestations of emotions, more or less subtly and vividly, expressively reflecting their complex and intense play. Actually expressive movements in humans represent the unity and interpenetration of movements of the organic and semantic type in the above sense of the word.

Outgrowing direct expressive movements, semantic movements, are carriers of a certain meaning, which at every step are woven into our life, such as: an affirmative or negative gesture of the head, a bow, a nod of the head and taking off a hat, a handshake, raising a hand when voting, applause, etc. n. In these movements, the connection of movements with the most complex and highest manifestations of the mental, mental life of a person appears especially demonstratively.

Speech as a motor function in its dynamic aspect, which is both a carrier and, ultimately, also a component of its semantics. The dynamic side of speech, its rhythm, intonation play, voice emphasis, stress, reinforcement, reflecting the feelings and thoughts of the speaker, play an often underestimated role in the impact that speech has on the listener.

Labor movements, various in different types of labor operations and professional activities, including especially delicate and perfect, virtuoso movements - pianist, violinist, cellist, etc. Accuracy, speed, coordination of labor movements, their adaptation to specific conditions in which the labor process proceeds, accuracy, dexterity are more or less essential for the efficiency of labor activity - not only for maximum savings in the cost of effort, that is, to achieve the maximum effect with the least expenditure of effort, but also for the most perfect, precise implementation of the plan, plan ...

There is a certain scheme for the implementation of movement mechanisms. She was named N.A. Bernstein with the scheme of a reflex ring (Fig. 2). This scheme is based on the principle of sensory corrections and is its further development.

Fig. 2 Scheme of a reflex ring according to N.A. Bernstein

The main levels of the formation of movements. Among the allocated levels of building movement N.A. Bernstein describes the following.

Synergy level. In humans, it is localized in the system of the visual hillock (center of sensory synthesis) and pallidum (effector center). This level is the leading one for mimic, plastic, etc. movements, which are afferent by proprioceptive sensitivity. He answers, therefore, tasks, the content of which does not go beyond the control of the position of his own body and its limbs (for example, movement in the so-called free gymnastics). Like other levels, this level is involved in the implementation of movements of higher levels, in which it enters as their "background" component.

Spatial field level. This level is localized in the sensory centers of the cortex and in the striatum, or pyramidal cortical fields. He is the leader for targeted displacement movements. Coordination of movement is carried out at this level on the basis of the synthesis of sensations that reflect space in assessments of its length.

The level of substantive actions. It is localized in the cerebral cortex and is especially closely associated with its left inferior parietal region. He carries out semantic object-related actions, typical representatives of which are labor processes and, in general, processes leading to an active deliberate change of objects. At this level, the construction (coordination) of the actual motor side of oral and written speech also takes place.

The highest level is the level of intellectual motor acts. This level includes: speech movements, writing movements, movements of symbolic or coded speech. The movements of this level are determined not by objective, but by abstract, verbal meaning.

Thus, in the organization of movements, as a rule, several levels are involved at once - the one on which the movement and all the lower levels are built. Formally, one and the same movement can be built on different leading levels. The level of construction of movement is determined by the meaning, or task, of the movement.

Various processes are involved in the implementation of movements:

· Sensomotor processes are processes in which the connection between perception and movement is carried out. Four mental acts are distinguished in them: 1) the sensory moment of reaction - the process of perception; 2) the central moment of the reaction - more or less complex processes associated with the processing of the perceived, sometimes difference, recognition, assessment and choice; 3) motor moment of reaction - the processes that determine the beginning and course of movement; 4) sensory motion corrections (feedback).

· Ideomotor processes connect the idea of movement with the execution of the movement. The problem of the image and its role in the regulation of motor acts is the central problem of the psychology of correct human movements.

· Emotional-motor processes are processes that connect the performance of movements with emotions, feelings, mental states experienced by a person.

Conclusion

Summing up, it can be argued that an action is a system of movements aimed at an object with the aim of assigning or changing it. Actions are characterized by a number of features: the first feature is that actions, as a necessary component, include an act of consciousness in the form of setting and holding a goal. The second feature of action is at the same time an act of behavior, and external actions are inextricably linked with consciousness. The third feature is that through the concept of "action" the principle of activity is affirmed. The fourth feature - actions can be external attracted and internal mental. Unlike movements, which depend only on the motor function of the body, actions are of a social nature: they depend on objects created by the previous generation and surrounding a person. Every simplest human action - a real physical action of a person - is inevitably a psychological act, more or less intense experience, expressing the attitude of the actor to other people, to those around him.

Movements serve to express actions through which behavior is carried out; therefore, the properties of movements can for the most part be understood only on the basis of these actions. Serving for influencing the objective objective world, for changing it, human movements themselves change in the process of this impact.

The lifetime opportunities for the development of human movements are enormous. They are included in various types of work, serve interpersonal relationships. There is no doubt that a person's movements acquire their perfection and their actual characteristics only from a meaningful action in which they are included.

Bibliography

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3. Krysko V.G. Psychology and pedagogy. Lecture course. 4th edition, revised. OMEGA-L M., 2006

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Introduction

Characterization of actions

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