The ability to identify psychological problems is an indicator of the high qualification of a manager. A prerequisite for the formation of this useful skill is the understanding that it is necessary to highlight two features of the decision-making process. First, decision making is not an irrational process. Logic, argumentation and realism - important elements this process. Careful analysis, development and evaluation of alternatives is also important for him. Second, managers should never consider their decisions to be completely rational. Personal factors and character are also elements of decision making. Knowing how behavioral factors affect the whole process and each of its stages separately, helps to understand how administrative decisions are made. It is also important because there are several types of decisions that managers have to make, which we will discuss in the next section. J. March proposed to group the psychological problems of individual decision-making as follows.

• 1. Attention problems. A person cannot pay attention to many objects at the same time. Therefore, the psychological theory of decision-making considers as the main thing how a limited resource is spent - attention.
• 2. Memory problems. The ability of individuals to store information is limited: memory fails, records and files are lost, the sequence of events is erased or distorted. The ability to search for information in various databases is also limited. The knowledge accumulated by some members of the organization is often difficult to access for other members.
• 3. Problems of understanding. Decision makers have limited understanding abilities. They have difficulty using and summarizing information to establish causal relationships between events, often drawing the wrong conclusions from the information they have, or being unable to combine different pieces of that information to give a coherent interpretation.
• 4. Communication problems. The ability of people to exchange information is also limited. Communication is difficult not only between different cultures, different generations, but also between professionals of different specialties. Different groups of people use different theoretical models (paradigms) to simplify the real world.

Finally, the same people accept different solutions, depending on whether they act alone or in a group. Such phenomena are called "phenomena of collective decisions" (O. A. Kulagin). The following phenomena of collective decisions stand out:

• groupthink;
• polarization effect;
• the effect of "social facilitation";
• the phenomenon of "learned dissonance";
• effects of volume and composition;
• the effect of "asymmetry in the quality of decisions";
• the phenomenon of idiosyncratic credit;
• the phenomenon of false consciousness;
• the phenomenon of the virtual solver;
• conformity phenomenon.

groupthink causes unintentional suppression critical thinking due to the individual's assimilation of group norms. In other words, the individual unconsciously sacrifices his ability to critically evaluate alternatives for fear of causing discontent among other members of the group. The tighter the group, the stronger desire each of its members to avoid a split, which makes the hundred inclined to believe that any proposal supported by the leader or the majority of the group members is the right one.

In a cohesive group, the main danger lies not in the fact that each member hides his objections to the proposals of its other members, but in the fact that he is inclined to believe in the correctness of such a proposal without carefully weighing the pros and cons. The dominance of groupthink is manifested not in the suppression of dissent, but in the voluntary rejection of doubt in the name of group consensus.

Exploring the causes of groupthink, the English researcher I. Janis identified eight causes of groupthink:

• 1. Illusion of Invulnerability Most or all members of the group share the illusion of their own invulnerability, which prevents them from objectively assessing even quite obvious dangers and turns them into "over-optimists" who are inclined to make very risky decisions. This illusion also makes them unable to see clear signs danger.
• 2. False rationality. Victims of groupthink not only tend to ignore danger warnings, but also collectively invent rationalizations for downplaying the warning signs, as well as other messages that, if taken seriously, would force the group to critically examine the assumptions used by the group in making decisions.
• 3. group morality. Victims of groupthink blindly believe in the ultimate justice of their group's goals, and this belief leads them to ignore the ethical or moral implications of their decisions. In practice, this is manifested in the fact that such issues are not raised at all at group meetings.
• 4. Stereotypes. Victims of groupthink hold stereotypical views of the leaders of hostile groups. The latter are considered villains, with whom honest attempts at negotiation to resolve differences are pointless, or too weak or stupid to effectively counter any measures taken by the group to defeat them, however risky these measures may be.
• 5. Pressure. Victims of groupthink put direct pressure on any individual who expresses doubts about any of the group's delusions or makes arguments in favor of an alternative course of action to that approved by the majority of the group. These features are a consequence of the norm of consent-seeking, which is expected from loyal members of the group.
• 6. Self-censorship. Victims of groupthink avoid deviating from what might be called group consensus; they keep their doubts to themselves and even involuntarily downplay their own doubts.
• 7. Unanimity. Victims of groupthink share the illusion that the group is unanimous in accepting nearly all the arguments made by groupthink in favor of the majority view. This symptom is partly a consequence of the symptom described above. The silence of any of the participants in the meeting (actually holding back their objections) is misinterpreted as their complete agreement with what other participants in the meeting are saying.

When a group of people who respect the opinions of their colleagues comes to an agreement on any issue, each of its members is inclined to believe in the group's correctness. Thus, in a group where there are no clearly expressed disagreements between members, consensus (often false) begins to be perceived as proof of the correctness of the decision made and replaces critical understanding of reality.

8. Gatekeepers. Victims of groupthink assume the role of gatekeepers, protecting their leaders and groupmates from unpleasant information that could destroy the group's previously shared belief in efficiency and morality. decisions taken. If there is any doubt about the correctness of the decisions made, the members of the group say that the time for discussion has passed, the decision has been made, and now the duty of the group is to provide all support to the leader who has assumed the burden of responsibility. I. Janis gives the following example of "gatekeeping": at a big reception in honor of his wife's birthday, US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, who constantly received information about the plan to invade Cuba, took the then Secretary of Defense A. Schlesinger aside and asked why he objected to the invasion plan. After hearing his answer coldly, Kennedy said, "You may or may not be right, but the president has already made up his mind. Don't try to change his mind. Now is the time for all of us to help him in any way we can."

When a decision-making group exhibits all or most of these symptoms, a careful analysis of its work reveals a number of typical shortcomings. It is these shortcomings that lead to the adoption of poor-quality decisions for the following reasons:

first, from the outset, the group avoids a general overview of all available alternatives and is limited to discussing a small number (usually two) of alternative courses of action;

secondly, the group does not re-discuss the course of action that was originally approved by the majority after risks and obstacles that were not discussed before are identified;

third, members of the group spend little time discussing the non-obvious benefits of alternative courses of action or previously unnoticed ways to reduce costs, due to the excessiveness of which alternative courses were rejected at the first stage of decision-making;

fourthly, members of the group pay little attention to obtaining information from experts in their own organizations, which could help to more accurately assess potential costs and benefits;

fifth, members of the group are interested in facts and opinions that can be interpreted as confirming the correctness of the chosen policy, and tend to ignore other facts and opinions.

polarization effect. In the process of making collective decisions, when members of the group directly interact with each other, the so-called polarization of risk takes place. This phenomenon consists in the fact that the decision made by the group turns out to be more or less risky, depending on what, on average, the risk attitude of the group was before the discussion of the problem. If initially the group was more conservative than risk-averse, then as a result of the collective decision it becomes even more conservative and cautious. In this case, there is a "shift to caution" effect. If the group was initially more risky than cautious, then after discussion its propensity to take risks increases, and the group makes an even more risky decision. In this case, the opposite phenomenon is observed - the effect of "shift to risk". Thus, a polarization effect occurs: after the discussion, the group's opinion "shifts" towards one of the poles - extreme risk or extreme caution.

Previously, it was believed that collective decisions are always less risky than individual ones. The discovery of the "shift to risk" effect was quite unexpected for researchers, since this phenomenon contradicted the prevailing ideas that collective decisions, unlike individual ones, should be more accurate, balanced, rational, and therefore less risky.

However, experiments have shown that in many cases the group demonstrates a greater propensity to take risks than each of the participants individually. A. V. Karpov offered several explanations for this phenomenon:

Firstly, in the conditions of collective problem solving, the so-called diffusion of responsibility takes place. The overall responsibility for the final result is distributed among the members of the group, and, as a result, for each of them it becomes less, which encourages them to make more risky decisions;

secondly, the risk in the minds of people has a positive value. Therefore, risky behavior is more highly valued by others than cautious behavior, which is usually associated with indecision. Since any person wants to be valued more highly, it is in a group that he begins to demonstrate risky behavior to a greater extent than in solitude. As a result, the participants in the discussion, as it were, begin to compete "who is more risky", which directly affects the overall risk of a collective decision.

Subsequently, the researchers clarified that the group makes a riskier decision if the initial group assessment was already biased towards risk. Otherwise, there is a "shift to caution." On this basis, O. A. Kulagin comes to the conclusion that the most reasonable explanation for the polarization effect is information influence hypothesis. During the discussion, group members listen to the opinions of other participants, who, in order to confirm their position, can bring new and sometimes unexpected arguments, which their colleagues did not even think about. If the group as a whole is conservative, then when discussing the problem, each of its participants receives new information for themselves, which only reinforces their cautious position. Naturally, in this case the collective decision turns out to be even more cautious and conservative. On the other hand, if before the discussion the group was radical and optimistic, then in the course of the discussion the members of the group once again become convinced of "their rightness" by listening to the opinions of other participants. As a result, a collective decision turns out to be even more risky.

The effect of "social facilitation". The term "facilitation" is derived from the English verb facilitate- facilitate, assist, promote. The fact is that the presence of other people or even one observer in a number of cases increases the activity of people, has a "facilitating" effect on the performance of individual actions and the adoption of individual decisions. In other words, it is easier to work and make decisions in a group than alone. However, later it was found that this is only half true. As experiments have shown, the behavior of people in the presence of observers becomes more confident and accurate only when solving relatively simple and familiar problems. When do you need to decide difficult task, then the presence of other people "fetters" and interferes. Thus, the group facilitates the correct solution of simple problems and makes it more difficult to correctly solve complex problems.

However, further research has shown that social facilitation can lead to the opposite phenomenon - the so-called the Ringelmann effect. It consists in the fact that in conditions of collective activity, the personal efforts and productivity of each member of the group decrease. Probably main reason"social laziness" is the division of responsibility for the final result among all members of the group. In addition, under these conditions, people do not so clearly feel and understand the connection between their individual efforts and the overall result of their activity, which leads to a decrease in their activity.

The phenomenon of "learned dissonance". This phenomenon arises from the fact that many members of the group, even before the start of the discussion or during the collective solution of the problem, understand the impossibility of influencing the final group decision. Therefore, they seem to foresee in advance that the final decision of the group will not take into account their individual preferences and, as a result, this decision will be contrary to their personal interests.

Such a psychological attitude is further fixed in the minds of people ("learned"), which leads to a noticeable decrease in their creative activity in the process of making collective decisions.

Effects of volume and composition. In the process of collective decision-making, there is often a volume effect, which consists in the fact that groups that are too large and too small in volume (number of participants) take less effective solutions than groups having some optimal size. As studies show, the size of this optimal volume is not constant, but usually lies in the range of four to eight people. Thus, the quality of collective decisions has non-linear dependence on the number of persons involved in its preparation and adoption: with an increase in the size of the group, the quality of decisions increases, reaches a maximum value, and then begins to decline.

The reason for this is that groups that are too small tend not to have enough information and the necessary diversity of opinion to make quality decisions. On the contrary, in groups that are too large, negative effects are very pronounced. interpersonal interaction, such as risk polarization, social laziness, learned dissonance, and others that reduce the quality of collective decisions.

At the same time, it was found that the effectiveness of the decision-making process strongly depends not only on the number of participants, but also on the composition of the group. As you know, decision-making groups can be "equal" or differ in certain characteristics - age, gender, professional experience, education, cultural level, official position, etc. The totality of these differences is described as the "homogeneity-heterogeneity" of the group. As a result, it often appears composition effect, which lies in the fact that groups that are too homogeneous and too heterogeneous tend to take less good decisions than groups that have some "optimal" degree of homogeneity. This is explained by the fact that in extremely heterogeneous groups it is very difficult to combine or even harmonize the positions of participants due to their strong differences.

On the other hand, in completely homogeneous groups, the quality of decisions is negatively affected by the very similarity of positions, views, attitudes and attitudes. personal qualities their members. Therefore, such groups lose the necessary diversity of ideas and opinions. In addition, it is the homogeneity of the group that creates the prerequisites for the emergence of groupthink.

The effect of "asymmetry in the quality of solutions". This phenomenon describes the differences in the influence that a group can have on the quality of people's individual decisions, depending on their status within this group. As O. L. Kulagin points out, the effect of "asymmetry in the quality of solutions" has a twofold manifestation:

First, the group has more possibilities in order to influence the quality of individual decisions of its ordinary participants, rather than the quality of decisions of the leader. Due to his status, the leader is less influenced by the group and less likely to change his decisions;

secondly, the group has less opportunity to change the leader's bad decision, compared to how the leader himself can convince or force the group to make a different decision. This phenomenon clearly shows that the influence of the group on the individual decisions of individual subjects depends on their hierarchical status and position in the group, even if formally it is considered that all participants in the discussion have "equal" rights.

The phenomenon of idiosyncratic credit. This phenomenon is a kind of group permission for deviant behavior, i.e. behavior that deviates from accepted norms. At the same time, different members of the group may be allowed different deviations from group norms. The magnitude of this deviation usually depends on the status of the members of the group and their past contribution to the achievement of group goals: the higher the position of the individual within the group, the greater the freedom of behavior and statements he has.

The phenomenon intensifies in new or unique conditions, as well as in situations of innovation that require fresh and original solutions. Thus, it is obvious that the phenomenon of "idiosyncratic credit" manifests itself primarily in the activities of the leader (due to his special position and highest status in the group), as well as in non-standard situations that require solutions that go beyond the prevailing stereotypes. The amount of such credit determines the "degree of freedom" of a member of the group. Therefore, the very phenomenon of "idiosyncratic credit" should be considered not only as a psychological effect, but also as a real mechanism for making collective decisions.

The phenomenon of false consent. It consists in the fact that during the discussion, some members of the group may take a kind of position of conciliation with the leader or with the majority. However, this is not due to the fact that their views really coincide, but to completely different reasons: lack of competence, weakness of character, lack of personal views, unwillingness to think and spend energy on solving the problem. Taking this position, the subject is not included in the group discussion, but only actively emphasizes his agreement with other participants who, as a rule, have a higher status. Moreover, this agreement is not supported by any arguments at all. Moreover, it may not even coincide with the personal beliefs and preferences of the subject. At the same time, in the processes of making collective decisions, another behavioral attitude is also clearly manifested - the desire to "stand out", to emphasize one's significance and a special role in the group.

This setup usually results in the opposite phenomenon - the phenomenon of demonstrative disagreement. In this case individual members groups formally behave "exactly the opposite": they actively deny any opinions that do not coincide with their "point of view", and deliberately oppose themselves to the group. However, but in essence, their behavior is also not based on any meaningful and noteworthy arguments and aims to attract the attention of more authoritative members of the group.

The "virtual solver" phenomenon. Here the "virtual solver" is a person who is not really in the group, but who, according to the group's opinion, "should appear and solve the problem" (A. V. Karpov). Usually this phenomenon is perceived and evaluated by people negatively, as it leads to the fact that decision-making is delayed or postponed indefinitely. However, the "virtual solver" phenomenon has one positive trait: in the process of waiting for the "virtual solver", the group involuntarily prolongs the preparation of the decision and therefore, in some cases, increases its validity.

"Mirror" in relation to this phenomenon is the phenomenon of "expansion of the solution area". It has two main features:

• the group has an illusory idea of ​​its high role in solving certain tasks that are really within its competence, i.e. that no one but this group will solve them;
• in the group there is a tendency to unreasonably expand their powers. This leads to the fact that the decisions of higher bodies are replaced by their own. group decisions, and, thus, the area of ​​tasks to be solved, included in the competence of this group, spontaneously expands.

The phenomenon of conformism. This well-known socio-psychological effect is often observed in the processes of collective decision-making and consists in the fact that many people make decisions and make judgments only on the basis of the opinions of others, even if it contradicts their own. Numerous experiments have been conducted to investigate this effect, which have shown that people tend to conform when they are opposed by even a small majority of the group. Thus, this phenomenon can be called differently effect of agreement with the majority. It has several characteristic features:

firstly, as the majority increases, the tendency to conformism in the rest of the group increases, but it does not grow above a certain level. In other words, the influence of the majority on the minority is not unlimited, but has some reasonable limits. So, in one of the experiments, with an increase in the number of figureheads playing the role of the majority, the subjects agreed with their incorrect opinion in 33% of the answers, and the consent of the minority did not rise above this level;

secondly, it was found that agreement with the majority increases with an increase in the size of the group, i.e. in large groups, the majority has a stronger influence on the minority than in small ones;

thirdly, the majority significant influence to the minority only if it is unanimous in its assessments. If "dissenting" or "doubting" appear among the majority, then this influence sharply weakens. In particular, in one of the experiments, a participant was introduced into the majority, who, unlike the others, gave correct answers to control questions. This led to a surprising effect: the number of cases when the subjects agreed with the incorrect answers of the majority was reduced by four times, i.e. conformism has become four times less than before.

In the future, the researchers went even further. They posed the question: How does the minority of a group influence the behavior of the majority? To answer it, experiments were conducted in which the subjects were in the majority, and the nominees who deliberately gave incorrect answers were a clear minority of the group. It turned out that the minority is also capable of influencing the majority and forcing it to agree with itself. However, one important condition must be fulfilled for this - the minority must take firm, consistent and coordinated positions. Only in this case can it have an influence on the opinion of the majority. So, in the next experiment, the group consisted of four subjects and two "dummy". If the nominees unanimously gave incorrect answers, it was found that, on average, in 8% of cases, the subjects agreed with them. If the minority began to hesitate, then the majority of the group agreed with him only 1% of the time. This phenomenon is called effect of minority influence, must be taken into account in collective decision-making processes, when a minority of the group hopes to change the balance of power and tilt the discussion in their favor.

Results and conclusions

Such psychological factors as mood, emotions, sympathies, desires actively influence the decision-making process. They operate at both the individual and group levels. Therefore, there are personal and group psychological factors.

Personal factors are characterized by the peculiarities of individual perception of problems, the influence of stereotypes in the assessment of people and situations, the phenomenon of a halo. Thus, rational thinking in decision-making always appears in the form of subjective rationalism.

Another psychological factor is defined as the adoption of "adequate" decisions, which are not the best, but satisfactory, corresponding to the accepted criteria. The reasons for making adequate decisions are determined by the short time frame for making a decision, the desire to solve this problem and move on to other issues, the unwillingness to engage in detailed analysis, which requires more experience and high qualifications, as well as limited rationalism, i.e. incomplete, inconsistent rationalism, due to handicapped human intelligence in information processing.

Methods that facilitate decision making are called heuristics. The following types of heuristic approaches are distinguished: decomposition or decomposition of the problem, framing or consideration of the problem from a certain angle, "simplification" of the problem.

To determine the individual psychological problems of decision-making, it is advisable to identify the difficulties arising from the limited concentration of attention, memory, human ability to process information, problems of understanding and communication.

Collective decision making is often limited to groupthink, a way of thinking in group decision making where the desire for agreement becomes so strong that it makes it impossible to realistically evaluate alternative courses of action.

Psychological problems are "internal" problems that a person cannot rationally explain.

And if there is no explanation, then it is quite difficult to solve such a problem on your own.

For example, such a problem as unreasonable jealousy.

Often a person understands that in this case there is no reason for jealousy, but he cannot help himself, he is overwhelmed by emotions and he makes a scandal from scratch.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

There are an innumerable number of problems associated with psychology, but there are also those that at certain moments of life, in one form or another, are present in almost everyone:

• lack of confidence and low self-esteem

• anxiety, uncontrollable obsessive fears and phobias

• problems in communication and relationships with others

• harmful addictions and sick attachments

• depression, age-related personality crises

• psychological complexes

• dissatisfaction with oneself, one's appearance or character traits

IS THERE A PROBLEM?

It happens that a psychological problem is obvious, but a person does not notice it at point-blank range or, on the contrary, sees it where it does not even exist. In the first case, the problem situation is said to be latent.

On the one hand, if the situation is not perceived as problematic, then there is no problem at all.

On the other hand, although the problem is not visible, it is still there. Such an invisible problem can greatly complicate life, and also, over time, turn into a foundation for other psychological problems.

The second case is even more interesting. There seems to be no problem, but a person creates it in his mind, and therefore in reality. Making up problems can be a serious psychological problem in itself.

WHAT IS THE ESSENCE, EVERYTHING?

Most psychological problems arise from unmet needs.

A psychological problem is always a conflict between the desired and the real state of affairs.

You do not have what you would like to have, or, conversely, you have what is not desirable for you. It can be anything from any character trait to a very real thing, such as a car.

Here are some examples of psychological problems:

• Dmitry wants to easily make new acquaintances, but in fact he is very shy, it is difficult for him to start and maintain a conversation with a stranger. Constant thoughts "I'm not like everyone else, something is wrong with me!" do not give rest and the situation is aggravated every day

• Alexander dreams of having a car of a certain brand, but in reality he does not have a car at all and he considers himself a complete loser, unable to achieve his goal

• Veronica has always wanted to be a good wife and mother, but she has a nervous job and when she comes home after a hard day, she often takes out her anger on loved ones, and then tirelessly blames herself

• Lydia considers herself ugly, so she perceives compliments as flattery or ridicule and, of course, reacts aggressively to them, which surprises and scares off boyfriends a lot

HOW TO GET RID OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEM?

The first thing that can be advised is to contact a specialist. The option is correct, but, unfortunately, for various reasons, it is not available to everyone. A competent psychologist may not be around, and services of this kind are not cheap.

You can try to resolve the internal conflict on your own. If you decide to go this route, then following tips will come in handy:

- be aware of the fact that no matter what specific problem you have, it is not unique. There are thousands of people in the world in the same situation.

If you are pessimistic, then every little thing turns into global problem so it is very important to have a positive attitude

It is necessary to fight not with the consequences, but with the cause. Otherwise, the spiritual conflict will inevitably arise again over time.

You may not be seeing the problem where it really is! For example, if you often conflict with relatives, you can blame yourself for incontinence and bad character, but in reality you simply lack attention, care, love, etc.

Internal conflicts are rooted in the area of ​​the unconscious. The subconscious directs all our actions, but we do not even notice it.

Throughout life, we accumulate tons of negativity in the subconscious and this gives impetus to the development of serious psychological problems.

Year of publication and journal number:

annotation

The article analyzes the essence of the psychological problem, its main characteristics, concepts related to psychological problems. An attempt is made to determine the types of psychological problems and build a model of the classification system of psychological problems based on their content. It is proposed to create a working group to develop a diagnostic system for psychological problems.

Keywords: psychological problem, psychological problems of personality, analysis of psychological problems, solution of psychological problems, classification of psychological problems.

The work of a practical psychologist can be conditionally divided into two main parts or stages - the diagnosis of a psychological problem and its solution. If numerous methodological systems and techniques have been created to solve psychological problems, then there are no special generally accepted approaches, diagnostic systems, such as DSM or ICD, for diagnosing psychological problems. Each specialist, on the basis of his own knowledge, experience and psychotherapeutic orientation, determines the client's problem himself. As a result, as practical work, and in the training of specialists, the process of orientation in psychological problems becomes subjective, intuitive, and if a specialist strictly follows a certain psychotherapeutic direction, then it becomes one-sided. In our opinion, the lack of a unified theory and classification system of psychological problems, as well as criteria for their diagnosis, significantly complicates not only work, but also training. practical psychologists. The solution of this, in our opinion, fundamental problem of practical psychology is possible only on a collective basis, but here we will try to outline the contours of the problem and our vision of the principles for its solution. First of all, let's try to define the concept of "psychological problem". In psychological dictionaries, in scientific and educational literature, this concept is rarely defined and differentiated. We were able to find two definitions. So, according to T. D’ Zurilla and co-authors, “A problem (or problem situation) ... is a life situation or task (in the present or future) that requires a response for adaptive functioning, however positive result this reaction is not obvious or impossible due to the presence of one or more obstacles” (D’Zurilla et al., 2004, p.12-13). A. Blaser and co-authors define a psychological problem as "...excessive requirements for the patient's adaptive capabilities" (Blazer et al., 1998, p. 55).

Various definitions of a psychological problem can also be found in the popular psychological literature. So, in the encyclopedia of practical psychology N.I. Kozlov, psychological problems are defined as "... internal problems that do not have a clear rational basis" (Kozlov, 2015, p. 637).

Our understanding of psychological problems in methodological terms is based on the so-called problem approach, according to which any process can be considered as a movement aimed at solving a specific problem. From this position, psychological, socio-psychological, pathopsychological processes, behavioral reactions and personality activities can be considered as forms of solving psychological problems. BUT joint work the psychologist and the client can be seen as a process aimed at diagnosing, understanding and solving the psychological problems of the individual. We define a psychological problem as an actualized psychological contradiction within a person or group, which manifests itself within the framework of the mental norm, but creates discomfort, tension, and hinders the normal development, functioning and adaptation of the person or group. Let's try to expand this definition. First, we consider the problem as a contradiction, since any obstacle, difficulty, conflict reflects a contradiction between opposing tendencies. We can say that any problem is based on a contradiction, and any problem, including a psychological one, can be characterized through this basis. For example, fear can be characterized as a contradiction between the desire to live, or to maintain self-esteem, and a situation that threatens these desires. At the same time, one can speak of the presence of a psychological problem if the contradictions are relevant. The latter may exist in a latent form, potentially not bothering the subject, not perceived as a problem. Discomfort, tension, and generally negative emotions usually accompany actualized problems, although sometimes, for example, with intellectual problems, tension can have a positive connotation (for example, during creative work). In our opinion, psychological problems are a kind of barriers to adaptation, development and normal functioning of the individual. Features of overcoming these barriers determine the options for personality development (progressive, regressive, pathological development).

IN this definition we tried to differentiate between psychological (normal) and so-called "psychiatric" problems, i.e. mental disorders (in English literature, these concepts are usually treated as synonyms). In fact, mental disorders are also psychological problems, but within the pathology, not the norm. Consequently, two types of psychological problems can be distinguished - pathological problems (symptoms of diseases) resulting from mental disorders and the so-called "normal" problems, reflecting the contradictions of a normally functioning psyche. It should be noted that the line between these types of problems is very thin, difficult to distinguish, not stable and is often determined not by the problem itself, but by the characteristics of the person who has this problem, her attitude to this problem. At the same time, pathological problems very often arise as a result of deepening and sharpening of normal psychological problems, their inadequate solution. Classification mental disorders is known to be present in DSM and ICD systems. In the classification system of psychological problems, pathological problems, in our opinion, can also be represented as a separate subgroup in the section of psychological problems of the substructure of the psyche where they manifest themselves (this is, of course, a very debatable issue). For example, in the section on psychological problems of thinking, in a separate subgroup, one can present thinking disorders (for example, delirium, disorder of the associative process, etc.).

Let's try to present some characteristics of psychological problems that are important in practical work. First of all, this is the dynamics of psychological problems, i.e. the process of formation, development, actualization / de-actualization, exacerbation / weakening of problems in different periods of a person's life or under different circumstances. Another characteristic of psychological problems is the level of their awareness and critical attitude towards them. In practical work, a specialist often encounters a lack of awareness or denial of their own psychological problems. The position of explaining psychological problems is also important. Patients often explain psychological problems not by psychological, but by objective, independent circumstances. Here an important role is played by the so-called deterministic system of personality, i.e. a system of ideas on the basis of which a person explains the causes of various phenomena, including his own problems. Based on the research of clients who applied to psychological services, we identified biological, socio-economic, mystical and psychological determination systems. These studies also showed that in order to understand and accept their own psychological problems and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, it is very important for the patient to switch to a psychological determination system.

Duration of existence, severity are also characteristics of psychological problems. There are chronic psychological problems with which a person lives for a long time and acute problems.

Psychological problems also have individual manifestations, i.e. the same problem different people differently perceived, evaluated and experienced. At the same time, in practical work, a specialist usually encounters not one isolated psychological problem, but a system of interrelated, interdependent problems, and the effectiveness of work largely depends on a systematic approach to solving problems, and not a separate problem of the individual. In this regard, we consider it important to introduce into practical psychology such a concept as “psychological problems of personality” or “system of psychological problems of personality”. Like any system, psychological problems also have a hierarchical structure, consisting of central, initial and derivative, or actual and secondary problems. To study the problems of personality means to systematize, to compile a hierarchy (for example, causal) of psychological problems.

The next important issue related to the psychological problems of the individual concerns the strategies for their analysis. Each psychotherapeutic school and even each specialist has its own principles, approaches and traditions of studying psychological problems. The following main approaches can be distinguished: a) analysis of the mechanisms of manifestation of psychological problems; b) analysis of the origin and dynamics of problems; c) analysis of cause-and-effect relationships of problems; d) analysis of the phenomenal characteristics of psychological problems, etc.

The concept of “solution of a psychological problem” also needs clarification. In practical psychology, methods and techniques for solving psychological problems are usually described, but the solution of the problem itself, as a result of psychological work, is rarely analyzed. Meanwhile, it is very important to understand not only the essence of the psychological problem, but also the essence of its solution. In this regard, when working with psychological problems (also in the training of practical psychologists), it is necessary to clarify: a) how do the patient and the psychologist imagine the process of solving the problem, to what extent do these ideas coincide with each other and are realistic? b) What are the patient's strategies for solving (coping strategies) of his psychological problems? c) What options, levels, types, forms, ways of solving psychological problems exist? d) What should be the sequence and time frame for solving problems? e) What will be the consequences of solving problems?

It is possible to single out various forms of solving psychological problems, such as: a) adequate / inadequate; b) everyday / professional; c) neurotic, psychotic, healthy; d) psychological, social, economic, biological, etc. It is possible to distinguish levels of problem solving: a) partial/full; b) solving the problem at the levels of causes, effects, etc. Options for solving a psychological problem can be: a) deactualization of the problem (for example, through its rethinking); b) elimination of factors contributing to the emergence of a problem or interfering with its solution, etc. Ways to solve psychological problems can be identified on the basis of those general strategies that are used in practical psychology, for example: a) awareness; b) reflection/rethinking; c) suggestion/programming; d) catharsis; e) training; f) desensitization, etc.

Now let's move on to the issue of classification of psychological problems. In the literature on practical psychology, it is difficult to find systematic, holistic studies specifically devoted to psychological problems and their classification. In psychotherapy, sometimes psychological problems are classified on the basis of psychotherapeutic areas, for example, you can find such expressions as “psychoanalytic problems” [McWilliams, 2001], “existential problems” [Grishina, 2011]. Often there are such concepts as “behavioral problems” (usually, they mean such disorders as hyperactivity and attention deficit, destructive behavior, etc.), “emotional problems” (anxiety, depression). N. D. Linde classifies psychological problems on the basis of "... the difficulty of their solution and in terms of the depth of their rootedness in the personality" [Linde, 2001, p. 26]. The author distinguishes seven levels of psychological problems, for example, the “supernormal level”, “the level of neurosis”, “psychosis” [Linde, 2001, p. 27-30].

Based years of experience psychotherapeutic work, we have developed a model of the classification system of psychological problems [Khudoyan, 2014], which we will try to present below.

Psychological problems can be grouped on the basis of their form and content. In terms of form, psychological problems can be classified according to different criteria. So, according to the criterion of awareness, one can distinguish conscious, poorly conscious and unconscious (usually, deep problems that determine external clearly perceived problems, about which the patient turns to a psychologist, are not recognized). It is possible to distinguish between causal (reflecting the causes of other problems) and investigative (resulting from other problems, for example, anxiety may be the result of an intrapersonal conflict) psychological problems.

In the literature, there is a division of psychological problems into external (for example, negative emotions) and deep (for example, intrapersonal conflicts)

By temporal characteristics, severity and significance for the subject, one can distinguish between old (for example, old grievances) and new, chronic (problems with which a person lives for a long time) and acute, relevant and irrelevant psychological problems.

One can also distinguish between primary and secondary, complex and simple problems, overt/hidden, real and fictitious, solvable/insoluble, problems accepted and not accepted by the patient, problems presented by the patient and problems attributed to the patient by relatives or specialists, etc. Psychological problems can also be intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup (the latter can be considered as socio-psychological problems).

Practical psychology most urgently needs to classify psychological problems on the basis of their content, to single out, group and describe the problems of different personality substructures. It is on this classification that a diagnostic system of psychological problems should be built. Naturally, the construction of such a classification system is possible only through the joint efforts of numerous specialists, but here we will try to present a hypothetical model for constructing such a system.

To classify psychological problems, it is first necessary to identify the areas of their manifestation. We have identified four such areas.

1. Mental sphere of personality.

2. Biological substructure of personality.

3. Personal development, her life path, present and future.

4. The system of relationships personality - environment.

Below we will schematically present the main groups of psychological problems in the selected areas of personality. At the same time, we want to note that both the identified areas and the groups of psychological problems included in these areas are relative, and the model itself does not claim to be complete and accurate.

Problems associated with the mental subsystem of personality

1. Problems of the I system - problems associated with self-awareness, I-concept, attitude towards oneself, with a sense of I, with the integrity of I (inadequate I-concept, narcissism, inferiority complex, depersonalization, dysmorphophobia, split personality, etc.). Problems associated with the substructures of the Self (for example, a weak ego, a strong superego or id), with defense mechanisms (inadequate, immature defense mechanisms, etc.). intrapersonal conflicts. Problems associated with introspection and reflection, with the awareness and verbalization of one's own experiences.
2. Problems with awareness and critical assessment of reality (disorientation in time, space, low level introspection, intrapunitiveness, etc.).
3. Problems associated with the need-motivational sphere of the individual - loss of the meaning of life, decreased motivation, inadequate needs, frustration of needs, inadequate forms of meeting needs, etc.
4. Problems associated with the volitional sphere of the personality - weak will, abulia, problems with self-control, impulsiveness, underdevelopment volitional qualities personalities, etc.
5. Problems associated with the emotional sphere - increased anxiety, apathy, aggressiveness, depression, inadequate emotions, over-emotionality, emotional immaturity, emotional coldness, etc.
6. Problems associated with the cognitive sphere of the individual - problems and disorders of sensations (for example, poor vision, hearing, senestopathies, etc.), perception (for example, problems with the perception of time, speech, hallucinations, etc.), attention (for example, absent-mindedness), memory (eg, stress amnesia), thinking, and intelligence (eg, comprehension problems, delusional disorders, mental retardation)․ In this category, in our opinion, one can also include such problems as the cognitive dissonance, lack of information, etc.
7. Problems related to speech - stuttering, speech disorders (aphasia, dysarthria, oligophasia, schizophasia, etc.), tachilalia, delayed speech development, dyslexia, dysgraphia, etc.
8. Problems associated with the sexual sphere of personality - frigidity, impotence , lack of sexual satisfaction, sexual perversion, problems related to gender identity, etc.
9. Behavioral problems - addictions, impulsive, irrational, inappropriate behavior, enuresis, tic disorders, hyperactivity, aggressive behavior, obsessions, deceit, sleep disorders, problems related to food, sexual, behavior, etc.
10. Problems related to temperament and character - character accentuations, psychopathy, sociopathy, negative character traits, etc.
11. Problems related to perception, reactions to stress and coping - inadequate reactions to stress and coping strategies, post-traumatic stress disorders, reduced stress tolerance, etc.
12. Problems of the spiritual, moral and religious spheres of the individual - guilt, moral decline, moral conflict, spiritual crisis, value conflict, fanaticism, problems associated with sects, etc.

Psychological problems associated with the biological subsystem of personality

1. Psychological problems associated with somatic diseases (for example, fear of death due to myocardial infarction, depression in cancer patients, emotional problems with hormonal disorders, etc.),
2. Psychological problems associated with normative stressful biological processes (menstruation, childbirth, menopause, etc.).
3. Psychological problems that contribute to the occurrence of somatic diseases (for example, alexithymia).
4. Somatized psychological problems (eg, somatized depression, conversion disorders).
5. Psychological problems associated with cosmetic surgery, organ transplants, surgical changes in appearance.
6. Psychological problems associated with bodily injuries and deformities, brain poisoning, etc.

Psychological problems associated with the development of the individual, with her life path, present and future

1. Problems associated with deviations of the normative mental and social development(underdevelopment or delayed development of cognitive functions, emotional immaturity, etc.).
2. Problems associated with normative involutionary processes (normative changes in appearance, decreased sexual activity, etc.)
3. Problems associated with non-normative personality development (problems arising in the process of personal growth, fall, degradation of personality, etc.).
4. Normative and non-normative crises of personality development, crises associated with normative life events (birth of a child, retirement, death of parents, etc.).
5. Problems associated with solving age-related developmental tasks (for example, with the assimilation of speech).
6. Problems related to vocational guidance, career, professional development, etc.
7. Specific problems of certain age periods (teenage problems, problems of late age, etc.), etc.

Psychological problems associated with interpersonal, intergroup relationships and personal living space

1. Psychological problems associated with interpersonal relationships (interpersonal conflicts, rivalry, mutual hostility, love problems, cooling of relationships, specific, problems caused by the interruption of interpersonal relationships, for example, death of loved ones, separation of couples, problems associated with relationships of opposite sexes, friends, relatives, neighbors, etc.).
2. Intra-group psychological problems (problems between the individual and the group, problems between groupings within the group, alienation from the group, etc.)
3. Psychological problems associated with intergroup relationships (ethnic conflicts, rivalry between groups, etc.).
4. Psychological problems individual areas life of the individual (family, work, educational psychological problems, specific problems associated with individual specialties, for example, problems in sports, diplomacy, police, etc.).
5. Transgenerational problems (identifications with relatives that make life difficult for a person, anniversary syndrome, etc.).
6. Psychological problems associated with the living space of the individual - lack of housing, poor living conditions, psychological problems associated with the physical effects of the environment (heat, cold, radiation, lack of oxygen, etc.)

Concluding this article, we note that the proposed theoretical model and scheme of the classification system of psychological problems are only an attempt to raise the problem and outline our vision of the contours of its solution. In the future, in our opinion, it is necessary to create a working group of practical psychologists and researchers and develop a general theory and diagnostic system of psychological problems.

Abstract

The Psychological Problems: an Essence, Types, Characteristics

The essence of the psychological problems, their main characteristics, concepts related to psychological problems is analyzed in the article. An attempt to classify the psychological problems and to build a model of the classification system of psychological problems on the basis of their content is made. The author suggested establishing a working group for the elaboration of a diagnostic system of psychological problems.

keywords: psychological, psychological problematic of personality, analysis of psychological problems, solution of problem psychological problems classification of psychological problems.

Literature:

1. Blaser A., ​​Heim E., Ringer H., Tommen M. Problem-oriented psychotherapy: an integrative approach: transl. with him. M.: "Class", 1998. Grishina N.V. Existential problems of a person as a life challenge. // Sociology. 2011. No. 4. S. 109-116.
2. Kozlov N.I. Psychologos. Encyclopedia of practical psychology. M.: Ed. Eksmo, 2015.
3. Linde N.D. Fundamentals of modern psychotherapy: textbook. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. M.: Publishing Center "Academy". 2002.
4. McWilliams N. Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. M.: Independent firm "Class", 2001.
5. Khudoyan S.S. On methodological issues of research and teaching of psychological problems of personality // Problems of Pedagogy and Psychology, 2014, No. 3, p. 99-104.
6. D'Zurilla, T. J., Nezu, A. M., & Maydeu-Olivares, A. (2004). Social problem solving: theory and assessment. In E. C. Chang, T. J. D'Zurilla, & L. J. Sanna (Eds.). Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 11-27.
7. Khudoyan S.S. The Effectiveness of Medical Suggestion in Active Conscious State. // The 12th European Congress of Psychology. Istanbul, 2011, 4-8 July. P. 238.

Psychological problems- these are “internal” conflicts and tensions that a person cannot explain from a rational point of view. And since there is no explanation, then it turns out to be quite difficult to solve the problem situation on your own. For example, such a problem as unreasonable jealousy. Often a person understands that in this case there is no reason for jealousy, but he cannot help himself, he is overwhelmed by emotions and he makes a scandal from scratch.

Rice. Psychological problems - find and neutralize!

Types of psychological problems

There are an innumerable number of problems associated with psychology, but there are also those that at certain moments of life, in one form or another, are present in almost everyone:

• lack of confidence and
• anxiety, uncontrollable obsessive fears and phobias
• Difficulties in communication and relationships with others
• harmful addictions and sick attachments
• depression, age-related personality crises
• psychological complexes
• dissatisfaction with oneself, one's appearance or character traits

Is there a problem?

It happens that a psychological problem is obvious, but a person does not notice it at point-blank range or, on the contrary, sees it where it does not even exist. In the first case, the problem situation is said to be latent. On the one hand, if the situation is not perceived as problematic, then there is no problem at all. On the other hand, although the problem is not visible, it is still there. Such an invisible problem can greatly complicate life, and also, over time, turn into a foundation for other psychological difficulties.

The second case is even more interesting. There seems to be no internal conflict, but a person creates it in his mind, and therefore in reality. Making up problems can be a serious psychological problem in itself.

And yet, what is the point?

Most psychological tensions arise from unmet needs. A psychological problem is always a conflict between the desired and the real state of affairs. You do not have what you would like to have, or, conversely, you have what is not desirable for you. It can be anything from any character trait to a very real thing, such as a car. Here are some examples of psychological difficulties:

• Dmitry wants to easily make new acquaintances, but in fact he is very shy, it is difficult for him to start and maintain a conversation with a stranger. Constant thoughts "I'm not like everyone else, something is wrong with me!" do not give rest and the situation is aggravated every day
• Alexander dreams of having a car of a certain brand, but in reality he does not have a car at all and he considers himself a complete loser, unable to achieve his goal
• Veronica has always wanted to be a good wife and mother, but she has a nervous job and when she comes home after a hard day, she often takes out her anger on loved ones, and then tirelessly blames herself
• Lydia considers herself ugly, so she perceives compliments as flattery or ridicule and, of course, reacts aggressively to them, which surprises and scares off boyfriends a lot

How to get rid of a psychological problem?

The first thing that can be advised is to contact a specialist. The option is correct, but, unfortunately, for various reasons, it is not available to everyone. A competent psychologist may not be around, and services of this kind are not cheap.

You can try to resolve the internal conflict on your own. If you decide to go this route, then the following tips will come in handy:

1. Be aware of the fact that no matter what specific situation you have, it is not unique. There are thousands of people in the world in the same situation.
2. if you are pessimistic, then any little thing turns into a global problem, therefore
3. It is necessary to fight not with the consequences, but with the cause. Otherwise, the spiritual conflict will inevitably arise again over time.
4. You may not be seeing the problem where it really is! For example, if you often conflict with relatives, you can blame yourself for incontinence and bad character, but in reality you simply lack attention, care, love, etc.

Internal conflicts are rooted in the area of ​​the unconscious. The subconscious directs all our actions, but we do not even notice it. Throughout life, we accumulate tons of negativity in the subconscious and this gives impetus to the development of serious psychological problems.

The team of our site since 2006 has been successfully developing audiovisual programs for the positive tuning of the subconscious. With us you will find. Tens of thousands of people around the world use these high-tech tools to combat their psychological problems.

06.05.2015 25831 +37

A problem that is psychological in nature, that is, "internal" for a person, associated with his picture of the world, value sphere, conflicting needs, confusing interpersonal relationships, etc.

It is difficult to divide psychological problems into subtypes, since any internal conflict, any internal confusion tends to expand: family problems very quickly become personal, personal - spiritual, etc. Since psychological problems are closely related to human needs, it is easier to classify them (problems) in relation to the concept of "need".

1. Individual psychological problems. Problems related to the biological essence of a person: problems in the sexual sphere, various kinds of uncontrollable fears and anxiety, psychological disorders, dissatisfaction with one's own appearance, physical data, worries about lost youth, etc.

2. Subjective psychological problems. Problems associated with the performance of a purposeful activity by the subject: lack of will, knowledge, skills, insufficient level of intelligence and other abilities, confusion in the goals of the activity, lack of energy, irrationality, etc. Very often, subjective psychological problems are disguised as problems of a different kind. Few people, for example, enjoy feeling stupid; instead, a person begins to literally look for problems in interpersonal relationships, for example, he may decide that others are biased towards him or build intrigues.

3. Personal psychological problems. Problems related to a person's place in society: lack of status, inferiority complex, image problems, problems in relations with a sexual partner, children and other family members (family problems), colleagues, friends and enemies, problems in a team, role problems and etc.

4. Individual problems. Problems associated with self-realization and the achievement of long-term goals: a feeling of emptiness of being, loss of meaning in usual activities, feelings of lack of time, existential fears, loss of self-esteem, experiencing insurmountable obstacles that stand in the way of achieving long-term goals, sudden crises (death of a loved one, loss of important property ), problems at work and in business, in hobbies, etc.

57. Conversation with an aggressive subscriber on td.

Aggressive subscribers

Makhovikov identifies two areas of aggression: benign aggression that occurs in a person in response to a threat to his life, well-being, etc.; and malignant aggression, which is a manifestation of destructiveness and cruelty towards others. When a telephone aggressor calls a consultant, he needs a release and tries to violate the consultant's personal boundaries.

The consultant cannot defend his boundaries in the usual way for him, and the aggressor hears this very well, because. the tone changes, the pause increases, etc. Such dialogues, as a rule, become unfinished. This leads to feelings of guilt, anxiety, confusion, annoyance, a state of frustration for the consultant, and emotional burnout.

The destruction of an aggressive subscriber is due exclusively to verbal aggression, which leaves no visible traces behind, it is easy and accessible for the subscriber and extremely sensitive for the consultant. One of the constructive ways to solve this problem is to end the dialogue or establish some kind of framework, which already leads to a decrease in the counselor's anxious state of health and with the help of this, one can move towards a constructive relationship. If the consultant realizes that he does not have the ability and strength to work with such a subscriber, if the life of the subscriber is not in danger, then it is advisable to end this dialogue and ask the client to call back another time.