The term “process” (from the Latin processus - advancement) usually characterizes a certain movement, a course, an order of movement that has its own direction; sequential change of states, stages, evolution; a set of sequential actions to achieve a result.

Political process is a consistent, internally connected chain of political events and phenomena, as well as a set of sequential actions of various political subjects aimed at gaining, retaining, strengthening and using political power in society. The political process is the cumulative and consistent activity of social communities, socio-political organizations and groups, individuals pursuing certain political goals.

The political process as a whole: the course of development of political phenomena, the totality of actions of various political forces (subjects of politics), movements seeking the implementation of certain political goals; the form of functioning of a certain political system of society, evolving in space and time; one of the social processes, as opposed to legal, economic, etc.; designation of a specific process with the end result of a certain scale (revolution, reform of society, formation of a political party, movement, progress of a strike, election campaign, etc.).

In relation to society as a whole, the political process reveals the interaction of social and political structures and relations, that is, it shows how society forms its statehood, and the state, in turn, “conquers society. From the point of view of internal content, the political process expresses a kind of technology for the exercise of power, representing a set of relatively independent, local interactions of subjects, structures and institutions connected by certain goals and interests in maintaining (or changing) the system of government.

The structure of the political process includes three main elements.

1) Policy subjects are those who take an active, conscious part in political activity: individuals and their groups implementing independently developed programs of action, realizing their conscious goal and having the ability to manifest themselves as collective subjects. Any actions of political subjects ultimately pursue one goal: to influence decisions made by government authorities. The political process itself begins with identifying a problem, searching for its solution in the interaction of all interested political forces and ends with one or another result, which is expressed in the actions of the authorities.

2) The object must be created or achieved as a goal of the political process.

3) The means, methods, and resources of the process performers connect the subject and the object-goal. The resources of the political process can be its ideal and material foundations - science, knowledge, technical and financial means, the mood of the masses, participants in the process, ideology and other factors.

Political processes can be systemic (global) or private.

System process involves the combined actions of political subjects that ensure the formation, functioning and development of the entire political system.

Private trials represent activities political subjects, embodied in the development of individual elements and aspects of the political system: political-ideological, political-legal, etc.

The systemic political process in development goes through a number of stages:

1. Constitution of the political system. At this stage, new political institutions are created, the constitutional foundations of a new political system, its legal legitimation is carried out, mass organizations are expanded and approved, including international recognition and support for the new political system.

2. Operation . At this stage, the political institutions and features characteristic of a given political system are reproduced. Reproduction of representative bodies of power is carried out through elections, and executive bodies - through rotations, competitions, and elections. The main task ruling forces at this stage is to ensure the stability of the socio-political system, ridding it of conflicts and crises. Stability is maintained through violence, satisfying the interests of individual community groups, ideological influence on the consciousness and behavior of citizens. An effective form of maintaining stability is not the conservation of the political system, but the change of political institutions, their adaptation to changed conditions.

3. Development. At the development stage, the activities of government bodies are reformed, the programs and tactics of political parties are adjusted and public organizations. Reforms are carried out through the adoption and implementation of political decisions.

4. Degradation and collapse of the system . If political decisions do not ensure stability in society and socio-political contradictions begin to escalate in it, a stage of degradation and collapse of the political system begins. At this stage, some political forces are forced to give up their leading place to others seeking to carry out revolutionary changes in the political system.

Political processes unfold both on a global scale and within the political system of society, a separate region, or a local territory. They can be classified by scale, nature of transformations, composition of participants, time duration, etc. Political processes act as global and national, national and regional (local), as interclass, intergroup, and within classes, social and other groups, outside or within political parties and movements.

Political processes are divided into domestic political and foreign policy. Internal political process flows between political subjects (classes, other social groups, nations, parties, social movements, political leaders), the core of whose activities is the conquest, retention and use of political power. The internal political process covers various areas life of society - political, legal, economic, social, environmental, demographic, cultural and military. Internal political goals can be achieved by both peaceful and violent methods. Foreign policy process extends to relations with other states as the art of conducting international affairs. It has a number of features due to the existence in the world of many states with divergent interests and programs in various areas. IN modern conditions The foreign policy process is increasingly becoming the art of negotiations and achieving reasonable, mutually acceptable political compromises.

According to the importance for society of certain forms of political regulation of social relations, political processes are divided into basic and peripheral. Basic political process characterize various ways of including broad social strata in relations with the state, forms of transforming the interests and demands of the population into management decisions, typical methods of forming political elites, etc. In this sense, we can talk about processes of political participation in public administration(in decision making, legislative process, etc.). Peripheral political processes reveal the dynamics of the formation of individual political associations (parties, pressure groups, etc.), the development local government, other connections and relationships in the political system that do not have a fundamental impact on the dominant forms and methods of exercising power.

According to the nature of the participation of the masses in political life can be distinguished democratic, where they combine various shapes direct and representative democracy and undemocratic, the internal content of which is determined by the presence of totalitarian or authoritarian regimes.

They also distinguish open and hidden political processes. Open political process characterized, first of all, by the fact that the political interests of groups and citizens are systematically revealed in electoral preferences, programs of parties and movements, as well as in other forms of public claims of people to government power. Hidden (shadow) process is based on publicly unformed political institutions and centers of power, as well as on such power claims that, for various reasons, do not involve appeal to official bearers of power. The centers of power to which citizens then appeal can be prohibited, illegal and not recognized by society structures (for example, mafia clans), operating in a given political space.

There are also revolutionary and evolutionary political processes. Revolutionary type of political process develops in an environment of a revolutionary situation or close to it (according to V.I. Lenin: the “tops” cannot, and the “bottoms” do not want to live in the old way, high political activity of the masses). This type is characterized by fast qualitative change power, a complete revision of the state constitution; the use of both peaceful and violent means to overthrow the previous regime; the declining role of advisory and expert bodies, the increasing responsibility of political leaders; increasing conflict between the traditional and new elites. Evolutionary type of political process characterized by a gradual resolution of accumulated contradictions and problems; stability of the formed decision-making mechanisms; joint activities the elite and the electorate, mutually controlling each other and having freedom of action within the framework of their acquired statuses; legitimacy of power; consensus and the presence of constructive opposition; a combination of management with self-government and self-organization of political life.

From the point of view of the stability of the main forms of interrelation of social and political structures, the certainty of functions and relationships of subjects of power, stable and unstable political processes can be distinguished. Stable political process characterized by stable institutionalized forms of political mobilization and behavior of citizens, as well as functionally developed mechanisms for making political decisions. This process is based on a legitimate regime of government, appropriate social structure, high efficiency prevailing legal and cultural norms in society. Unstable political process usually arises in times of crisis as a manifestation of the need to change the political course. This can lead to whole line factors: decline in production, social conflicts caused by changed conditions of vertical and horizontal mobility, complications international relations.

Political participation

One of the most important characteristics political process is political participation. It serves as the material from which the real political process is formed.

Political participationis an action taken by private individuals to influence public policy or the selection of political leaders. Political participation, unlike political activity, has only one subject - the individual. Political participation happens permanent And episodic, organized And unorganized. The degree of its organization largely depends on the political regime. Under authoritarian and totalitarian regimes it most often forced or forced, with a democratic - free and conscious.

Forms of political participation are varied, for example, participation:

In the exercise of power or opposition to its exercise (examples of participation - the activities of representative bodies, deputy commissions, examples of opposition - civil disobedience, sabotage, armed opposition);

In the activities of formal public organizations (parties, youth political organizations, etc.);

In the activities of informal organizations and movements (popular fronts, etc.);

In elections and conduct of election campaigns and referendums;

In public manifestations with the aim of influencing public opinion, political institutions or leading political groups, influencing other people. Manifestation of views can be carried out at meetings, rallies, demonstrations, through the media, in political conversations, discussions, through various appeals to government bodies, political organizations, through orders from voters, etc.

The most common form of participation in political life is reading political periodicals and literature, listening and watching political radio and television programs, followed by discussion. This form of participation is, as it were, transitional from “open” political behavior to “closed” - political inaction, or, as it is also called in political literature, immobility.

Political inaction can manifest itself in:

Non-participation in political activities due to low level social development;

Political exclusion due to the overorganization of the political system, low efficiency of political activity, disappointment in it;

Political apathy as a form of rejection of the political system;

Political boycott as an expression of hostility towards the political system and its institutions.

Motives for political participation are different: for some it is an improvement in their financial situation, receiving certain privileges, promotion social status; for others it is a desire to relieve psychological tension and a sense of uncertainty in difficult situations, appealing to a specific political group; for others it is the satisfaction of power needs, the desire to command others.

Having studied the material in this chapter, the bachelor must:

know

• definitions of the concepts “political process”, “development”, “change”, “sustainability”, “stability”;
• the main subjects of the modern political process;
• structure and classification of political processes;
• character traits political process in transitional societies;

be able to

• correctly determine the vector of development of the world political process;
• substantiate the contradictions in the political process of modern Russia;

own

Methodology for determining the main trends in the political process.

The concept of “political process” and its interpretation in domestic and foreign political science

The global economic crisis has seriously affected the processes of democratization, forcing politicians and scientists to pay attention to the quality of democracy in different regions peace. A special place in modern political science research is occupied by the study of transition processes, deep internal political transformations in countries former USSR And of Eastern Europe, successes and failures on the path of democracy, the state of political governance, the ability of states to carry out political reforms, and political leaders to make competent decisions. All this is aimed at improving the political processes taking place today.

"Political Process"– one of the main categories of modern political science, reflecting changes in the political life of society, primarily in the activities of public authorities and government agencies to achieve sustainable development for all.

Already known to us, the French thinker O. Comte , characterizing society, pointed out that society is characterized by two states - dynamic and static. Politics as a social phenomenon also represents the unity of dynamics and statics. Dynamics is expressed by the categories “change” and “development”, and statics – “stability” and “sustainability”.

Dynamics political phenomena involves movement, mobility of political systems, active participation in politics of individuals, social groups and organizations. In this case, new signs and properties accumulate, movement can be carried out in one or in different directions.

Statics means the relative stability of political systems, established relationships inside and outside these systems, the distribution of political roles among political subjects.

Political processes are the dynamic side of politics, presented in the form of systemic and non-systemic changes, the source of which is the activity of people seeking to realize their needs and interests in these processes.

The complexity of political processes is reflected in the many definitions of this phenomenon.

They are considered as a property of political systems and their individual elements, as their functioning and development, the interaction of political subjects, the totality of these interactions that ensure a certain state of the system and political order. At the same time, the concept of “political process” is interpreted either broadly - as the entire political life of society (a kaleidoscope of events, actions and reactions within the political system of society, the activities of ordinary politicians, leaders, elites), or narrowly - as the functioning of political systems.

From the point of view of systems theory and the structural-functional approach , the political process is one of the self-structuring mechanisms political system, as well as political socialization people through their active participation in the political life of society, including in decision-making processes.

According to the systems approach, the political process becomes a system when it is composed of stable elements, the interaction and functions of which become sustainable. This occurs due to the hierarchical arrangement of its elements and the presence of basic elements that hold this hierarchy together. Such a basic element in the political process is the state, to which society delegates powers for management and regulation. public relations and which has the appropriate financial, political, legal and spiritual resources for this.

American scientists Gabriel Almond And J. Bingham Powell identified internal interactions in the political system, and their compatriot David Easton - many external interactions, which gave rise to the idea of ​​the political process as the functioning of political systems, ensuring their dynamic balance with society.

For G. Almond and J. Powell, the functions of the political process are the functions of political systems: the articulation and aggregation of the interests of subjects, the development and implementation of a political course, the making of judicial decisions.

D. Easton viewed the political process as functioning of the political system by transforming information coming from the controlled environment. At the same time, he pointed out, the interaction of the formed political system with the external environment is ensured, the behavior of political subjects is coordinated, resources are withdrawn from the environment, their distribution and response to signals from external environment, which is realized through the actions of authorities. By making decisions that meet the requirements emanating from the external environment and available resources, political power contributes to the effective functioning of the political system and its relative stabilization.

From the perspective of the communicative approach The political process is the process of directing and coordinating human efforts to achieve specific goals. German political scientist and sociologist Karl Deutsch wrote that the political process is full and prompt exchange of information between all participants in political life , the transfer of politically significant information both within the political system itself and between the political and social systems. Technologically, this process is ensured by the media, meetings of political leaders, actions of parties, socio-political associations, pressure groups, etc.

From the perspective of the institutional approach the political process is seen as formation and functioning of political institutions , during which the political process acquires a constitutional and unconstitutional, controlled and uncontrollable, rational and irrational character. American economist Douglas North characterizes an institution as rules, the observance of which by imperious coercion mobilizes groups and society as a whole. These rules are fixed in organizations, which are represented by D. North in the form of players - groups of people who comply with their goals. There are formal and informal institutions (“informal practices”). Examples of formal institutions are party factions in parliament, agreements between party leaders to create government coalitions or joint actions in parliament, procedural rules, etc. Informal institutions include unorganized but more or less stable associations of deputies, political movements, political networks based on coordinated interaction and exchange of resources between interested parties, and behind-the-scenes deals in parliament.

In the 20th century the strong influence of destructive factors on all areas began to be revealed public life. The destruction of traditional social and political structures began, which in previous periods of human history were more or less stable, as were the political processes that formed it. Representatives of the philosophy of postmodernism, as well as the domestic philosopher, paid attention to this A. S. Panarin.

Being a social phenomenon, the political process is subject to economic, social, cultural, national and religious influences, which determine the nature of the political process, its development in time and space.

Being essentially political changes, political processes have certain pace , rhythm , configuration, sequence of its implementation . Signals coming from the external environment, in the form of social demands, the degree of satisfaction of which varies in different societies and at different stages of their development, create tension in the process, the resolution of which is possible in the form of increasing the effectiveness of the power decision under the influence of pressure on power, as well as a change in the power subject or changes in the type of government.

In general, the concept of “political process” covers spatiotemporal changes occurring in the political life of society, the possibility of renewal and movement from one stage of development to another, the functioning of political systems, interactions within and outside political systems, the formation, development and functioning of political institutions, distribution and redistribution of the roles of political subjects, the dynamics of norms and values, changes in the quality of political subjects, their activity, and political professionalism.

The political process, the result of which is the formation of a political system, also represents movement within this system and its interaction with the external (social) environment, the functioning of the elements of the system. At the same time, at different stages of development, it includes extra-systemic and non-institutional political phenomena.

the totality of actions of political subjects, their interaction in using political power to implement their political ideas, interests and concepts.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

POLITICAL PROCESS

a set of activities of political subjects, guaranteed by law and included in the dynamics of practical political relations, which cover all stages of the development and functioning of the political system of society. The political process is continuous and complex. It can develop in different directions, superimpose one activity on another, stage on stage, be the unity of diversity and the diversity of unity.

The political process has the following stages: identification and coordination of interests, formation of goals and program of activities; discussion and adoption of a political program; implementation of the program in the activities of socio-political communities and individuals; control over its implementation; evaluation of the result, determination of types of responsibility for its implementation, success or failure.

The political process also has a number of its own characteristics. Firstly, the main importance in determining the political process is the analysis of the subjects of political activity, finding out who exactly is the initiator of this process, in whose interests it is carried out, and who is able to ensure its consistent development. Secondly, the actual political process is always influenced by various political efforts. “Right” and “left”, conservatives and radicals, reactionaries and liberals - all of them, each in their own way, influence the specific course of political events. A lot in understanding the changes taking place depends on a correct assessment of the alignment of forces in the political process. The analysis of the alignment of political forces in the process should not, however, be limited only to the characteristics of the political parties or movements themselves. They themselves are in many ways only a reflection of deeper phenomena observed in society. Ultimately, what social stratum is at the center of events, what group or class of society objectively dominates them, depends general form and the direction of the changes taking place. Third, important takes into account the peculiarities of external influence on the course of events in the political process. If we are talking about the process of political development on a societal scale, then it is appropriate to talk about the peculiarities of the international situation. However, in all cases, the living connections of the process under study with the political environment should not be disrupted.

The main characteristics of the political process can be classified as external and internal. The first will include temporal characteristics (i.e., the time of emergence and development of political systems, parties, organizations, movements; the degree of constancy or frequency of their functioning; protracted or fleeting nature of existence), as well as spatial ones (central or peripheral; national, national or local; in certain spheres of society or in certain political organizations). Internal characteristics will concern the quality of communication between participants in the political process (cooperation or confrontation); direction of development of the political process (progressive, regressive); the role of objective conditions and subjective factors; spontaneity or consciousness of occurring events.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Political process

Political process is a certain sequence of actions and interactions between political factors that occurs at a certain time and in a certain space.

The political process unfolds in each country within the political system of society, as well as on a regional and global scale. In society, it is carried out at the state level, in administrative-territorial regions, in cities and villages. In addition, it operates within various nations, classes, socio-demographic groups, political parties and social movements. Thus, the political process reveals superficial or deep changes in the political system, characterizes its transition from one state to another. Therefore, in general, the political process in relation to the political system reveals movement, dynamics, evolution, change in time and space.

The main stages of the political process express the dynamics of the development of the political system, starting with its constitution and subsequent reform. Its main content is related to the preparation, acceptance and registration of appropriate level, execution of political and management decisions, their necessary correction, social and other control during practical implementation.

The process of developing political decisions makes it possible to identify structural links in the content of the political process that reveal its internal structure and nature:

• representing the political interests of groups and citizens to political decision-making institutions;
• development and adoption of political decisions;
• implementation of political decisions.

The political process is inherently intertwined and interconnected:

• revolutionary and reform principles;
• conscious, ordered and spontaneous, spontaneous actions of the masses;
• ascending and descending development trends.

Individuals and social groups within a particular political system are far from equally involved in the political process. Some are indifferent to politics, others participate in it from time to time, and others are passionate about political struggle. Even among those who play an active role in political events, only a few passionately strive for power.

The following groups can be distinguished according to the degree of increasing activity of participation in the political process: 1) apolitical group, 2) voters in elections, 3) those participating in the activities of political parties and other political organizations and the campaigns they conduct, 4) political career seekers and political leaders.

Typology of the political process

Based on the objects of political influence, political processes are divided into foreign policy and domestic policy. Foreign policy regulates the state’s relations with other subjects of foreign policy activities. The content of internal political processes varies significantly in many countries. It depends on the forms of government and forms government structure specific states, democratic or non-democratic political regimes existing there, the qualities of the ruling elite and other factors. The foundation of the internal political process of any country is the relationship between socio-economic structures, the existing social structure of society, and the degree of satisfaction of the population with their situation.

We can talk about evolutionary and revolutionary political processes. During the revolutionary process, both peaceful and non-peaceful means, violence, are used. Transformations are carried out in a relatively short time, are often of a landslide nature and do not always achieve the results for which they were designed.

The basis of evolutionary development is the legitimacy of the authorities, common sociocultural values ​​of the elite and the masses, the ethics of consent, the presence of constructive opposition.

From the point of view of the publicity of the ruling circles exercising their powers of power and decision-making, open and hidden (shadow) political processes are distinguished.

In an open political process, the interests of groups and citizens are identified in the programs of parties and movements, in voting in elections, through discussion of problems in the media, through contacts of citizens with government institutions, and through taking into account public opinion. This practice has developed in democratic states.

Shadowy, hidden political structures located at the highest and middle levels of government. It's about about the hidden actions of government institutions, secret documents, orders, the existence of bodies with secret functions (security agencies) and completely secret institutions (intelligence, counterintelligence, etc.). Illegal activities and corruption of officials and authorities may occur. Under certain conditions, illegal (shadow) structures of a non-political nature are formed (parallel economy, black market, underworld organizations, mafias and mafia corporations of various kinds). They tend to merge with legal government structures and can have a serious influence on them, even to the point of hidden participation in the political life of individual regions. They promote their representatives to deputies, to positions in the state apparatus, etc.

This situation can arise if the state transfers power functions to its individual structural units, for example, political investigation bodies, secret police, party formations. This was the case in the USSR in the 20-50s, when revolutionary tribunals, troikas, and state security agencies had power that was not controlled by the population.

From the point of view of the stability of the political system, we can talk about stable and unstable political processes. A stable process is based on a stable social structure, an increasing standard of living of the population, and the legitimacy of the regime. Citizens support the rules of the game and trust the authorities. All participants in the political process are committed to cooperation, searching for compromise solutions, and are united by a commitment to democratic values. People are confident in their ability to influence the government, because the government takes public opinion into account in its decisions.

An unstable political process often arises in conditions of a crisis of power and its loss of legitimacy. The reasons for instability can be very different: a decline in production, social conflicts, discrimination against certain social groups, their dissatisfaction with their social status, etc. Instability is manifested in sharp fluctuations in electoral preferences, opposition activity, criticism of the government, and policy distortions. An unstable political process is characteristic of many CIS countries, where instability appears to be becoming chronic.

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Concept of political process

Definition 1

The political process is understood as a special way of functioning of the political system of society, which changes in space and time and is ensured through the functioning of the political system.

The essence of any political processes is determined based on the framework within which political system they operate and which political regime they correspond to. For example, a democratic regime of government is characterized by the following features: citizens have broad administrative and electoral rights, human and civil rights and freedoms are widely ensured and fully respected, state interference in the affairs of citizens is excluded except in cases stipulated by Federal Law.

Like any process, the political process is represented by an object and a subject. In particular, the object refers to the goal that must be achieved by the policy. The subjects are the bearers of certain political actions. In addition, the political process is implemented through certain methods, these can be either dispositive methods or imperative ones, that is, those provided by the state with coercive power.

The political process within a particular state may also use resources, e.g. monetary resources, human resources and so on. In addition, the political process has executors, that is, those individuals who directly implement the policy.

Various policy actors make conscious efforts, resulting in certain policy outcomes. Subjects can be represented by individuals, various social groups, political parties, government agencies, and so on.

Note 1

Each subject has its own role and tasks that it implements during the political process. At the same time, subjects of the political process are able to reproduce, develop, destroy, and change specific elements of political life and the system. All changes that occur in the political system inevitably affect its subjects.

Stages of the political process

The political process, like any phenomenon, has certain stages of its development. In particular, the following main stages can be distinguished: formation of a political system, reproduction of the political system, its components and features, implementation of management decisions in the field of politics, control over the implementation of the political system.

The most interesting is the stage of reproduction of the political system, since it is here that the system is modified and updated, its views change. Participants in political systems can also change their points of view and views.

At each stage, monitoring is carried out to monitor how it develops and functions. politic system. This control is achieved both through public surveillance and through control by the state, state and municipal bodies. It also establishes certain standards for political activity, its conduct, and the procedure for holding elections. In particular, in Russian Federation the main provisions in this area are established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as federal legislation.

The result of a particular political process depends on the goals that the subjects entering into political relations set for themselves. It may depend on favorable and unfavorable factors that influence the development of individual phenomena. These factors can be either accidental or intentionally created by human forces. Other factors, for example, the forces of nature, may have a certain influence. Interaction within the framework of political processes occurs not only within one state, but also in the international arena.

Signs of the political process

The political process consists of a set of features that characterize a given phenomenon. The term “process” itself was borrowed by political scientists from cybernetics, where it is understood as a series of relationships that leads to a certain result.

Accordingly, from the very definition of the political process, some of its characteristics can be identified:

• The subjects' actions take place in the political sphere. The political process is often identified with the word “politics,” but these phenomena differ.
• Participation in the political activities of various subjects. Subjects here are understood as political parties, associations, citizens and so on.
• A certain procedure. The process does not consist of systematic actions of people, but of a set of actions that constitute a system, that is, they have a certain basis and are regularly replenished.
• Having a specific goal. The goal is political, since each participant in the political process pursues specific goal in the field of politics. Other purposes may also be affected.
• Using various resources. Resources can be knowledge, science, technology, financial resources, the presence of a certain ideology, the formation of a certain public opinion, and so on.
• The influence of legislation on the functioning of politics. Yes, laws regulate separate spheres policy, the procedure for its implementation.

Thus, the political process is characterized by the presence of various features that characterize it as a political phenomenon. As part of the implementation of any political activity in Russia, it is necessary to take into account that all power is divided into three branches: legislative, executive, judicial. Therefore, any principles for the implementation of power are built taking into account this division, as well as a system of checks and balances for these branches of government.

Note 2

The core of any political process is the adoption of a specific political decision, which can be made both collectively and individually. This solution has certain goals and objectives, methods and ways to achieve them. Goals are set by the leaders of parties determined government agencies, public associations and so on. All of them must have appropriate design.