The concept of "political system" is volumetric in content. The political system can be defined as a set of political institutions, social structures, norms and values, their interactions, in which political power is exercised and political influence is exercised.

A political system is a set of state, political and public organizations, forms and interactions between them, through which the implementation of common interests is carried out using political power.

The theory of the political system.

Topic 5. The political system of society and the problem of power.

1. The theory of the political system.

2. The structure and functions of the political system.

3. Types of political system.

4. The political system of the Soviet type.

Necessity of creation a holistic view of the processes in the political sphere, its interconnections with the outside world determined development of a systems approach in political science.

The term "political system" was introduced into political science in the 50-60s. XX century American political scientist D. Easton, who created the theory of the political system. Then this theory was developed in the works of G. Almond, W. Mitchell, K. Deutsch. and others. This was due to the need to consider politics as a system. This concept was intended to reflect 2 points: 1) the integrity of politics, as an independent sphere of society, representing a set of interacting elements (parties of the state, leaders, law ...); 2) the nature of the relationship between politics and the external environment (econ-th, ..). The concept of a political system for d / b helps to identify the factors that ensure the stability and development of society, to reveal the mechanism for coordinating the interests of various groups.

Therefore, the political system includes not only political institutions involved in politics (state, parties, leaders, etc.), but also economic, social, cultural institutions, traditions and values, norms that have political significance and affect the political process. The purpose of all these political and social institutions is to distribute resources (economic, monetary, material, technological, etc.) and encourage the population to accept this distribution as binding on all.

Previously, politics was reduced to the activities of state structures, highlighting them as the main subjects of power relations. Until a certain point, this explanation reflected reality. However, the development of civil society, the emergence of a free individual with its rights and freedoms led to the fact that the citizen began not only to obey, but also to influence the state through political organizations. Power has ceased to be a monopoly (prerogative) of the state, and power relations have become complex, since non-governmental organizations began to participate in them. The complexity of power relations led to a revision of the institutional and behaviourist approaches to explaining politics that were prevalent at the time. Politics had to solve a more complex problem: the search for universal patterns and mechanisms that would ensure society's stability and survival in an unfavorable external environment..

Systems theory originated in biology in the 1920s.

The concept of "system" was introduced into scientific circulation by a German biologist L. von Bertalanffy(1901-1972). He investigated the cell as a "set of interdependent elements", that is, as a system associated with the external environment. These elements are so interconnected that if you change even one element of the system, then all the rest, the whole set, will change. The system develops due to the fact that it reacts to signals from the outside and to the requirements of its internal elements.

The concept of "system" was transferred to society T. Parsons... He political system considers as specific element of the social system... That. Talcott, Parsons views society as a social system consisting of four subsystems that interact - economic, political, social and spiritual. Each of the subsystems performs its functions, responds to requirements that come from within or from the outside, and together they provide the vital activity of society as a whole. Defining collective goals, mobilizing resources to achieve them, making decisions, constitute functions political subsystem. Social subsystem ensures the maintenance of an established way of life, transfers to new members of society norms, traditions, customs, values ​​(which constitute the motivational structure of a person.) And, finally, the integration of society, the establishment and maintenance of ties of solidarity between its elements spiritual subsystem.

However, T. Parsons' model is too abstract to explain all processes in the political sphere; it does not include cases of conflicts, such tensions. Nonetheless, Parsons' theoretical model has had a noticeable impact on research in sociology and political science.

D. Easton's theory of political system. (systemic analysis)

Systems theory Introduced into political science by an American political scientist D. Easton, who defined politics as "volitional distribution of values." ( Easton's main contribution to political science application of methods systems analysis to the study of political systems, as well as with the study of the problems of political socialization). Hence, politic system, according to D. Eastonue set of political interactions in this society ... Its main purpose consists in the distribution of resources and values. The systematic approach made it possible to more clearly define the place of politics in the life of society and identify the mechanism of social changes in it.

So with one side,politics advocate as an independent sphere, the main purpose of which – resource allocation , on the other hand, politics there is part of society, it must respond to impulses entering the system, prevent conflicts arising over the distribution of values ​​between individuals and groups. That. a political system can exist with the ability to respond to impulses from the external environment and adapt to external conditions of functioning.

The mechanism of functioning of the political system.

The exchange of resources and the interaction of the political system with the external environment is carried out according to the principle "Entrance" and "Exit».

"Entrance" Are the ways

the influence of the external environment on the political system.

"Output"- This is a response, (backward impact) of the system on the external environment, acting in the form of decisions developed by the political system, its institutions.

D. Easton distinguishes 2 types of input: demand and support ... Requirement can be defined as an appeal to the authorities about the distribution of values ​​and resources in society. For example, workers' demands for an increase in the minimum wage. or teachers' demands for an increase in education spending. Demands tend to weaken the political system. They are a consequence of the lack of attention of the authorities to the changing interests and needs of social groups.

Support, on the other hand, means strengthening the half-system, and is an expression of a devoted, benevolent attitude towards the regime. Forms of support can be considered the correct payment of taxes, the fulfillment of military duty, respect for the institutions of power, and loyalty to the ruling leadership.

As a result, the impact on "Entrance" cause a reaction to "Exit". On "Exit»Appear political decisions and political action... They come in the form of new laws, policy and statements, court decisions, subsidies, etc.

(Consequently, the political system and the external environment are deeply interconnected).

In turn, decisions and actions affect the environment, resulting in new requirements. " Entrance and exit"systems constantly interact with each other. This continuous cycle is called feedback loop ... In political life Feedback is of fundamental importance to check the correctness of the decisions made, correcting them, eliminating errors, organizing support. Feedback is also important for a possible reorientation, a departure from the given direction and the choice of new goals and ways to achieve them.

Politic system, ignoring feedback is ineffective because it is unable to assess the level of support, mobilize resources and organize collective action in accordance with public goals. Ultimately it turns around political crisis and loss of political stability.

That. the political process shows how social requirements arise, how they turn into generally significant problems, and then into the subject of the action of political institutions aimed at shaping public policy, at the desired solution of problems. A systematic approach helps to understand the mechanism for the formation of new political strategies, the role and interaction of various elements of the system in the political process.

However, D. Easton focused on interaction with the external environment and ignored internal structure of the complete system , which allows you to maintain balance in society.

The theory of the political system of G. Almond. (functional analysis by P.S.)

A different approach to the analysis of political interactions was proposed by the American political scientist G. Almond.(specialist in the field of general theoretical and comparative political science). He proceeded from the premise that the ability of a political system to carry out transformations and maintain stability depends on the functions and roles of political institutions. Almond spent comparative analysis different political systems, in order to identify the main functions that contributed to effective social development. Comparative analysis of P.S. suggested a transition from the study of formal institutions to the consideration of specific manifestations of political behavior. Based on this, G. Almond and G. Powell identified political system how set of roles and their interactions carried out not only by government institutions, but also by all structures of society. The political system should perform three groups of functions: Functions of interaction with the external environment ;

· Functions of interconnection within the political sphere;

· Functions ensuring the preservation and adaptation of the system.

Communicative theory of the political system of K. Deutsch.

The transition of developed countries to information technology, the introduction of computer technology, allowed to consider the political system how mechanical model. The first to liken the political system cybernetic machine American political scientist K. Deutsch(b.1912). He viewed the political system in the context of a "communication approach", in which politics was understood as the process of managing and coordinating the efforts of people to achieve their goals. Of particular importance in political communication is the exchange of information between managers and governed in order to achieve agreement. Therefore, the formulation of goals is carried out by the political system based on information about the position of society and its relationship to these goals. The functioning of a political system depends on the quality and volume of information coming from the external environment, and information about its own movement. Political decisions are made on the basis of two streams of information.

Model K. Deutsch draws attention to the importance of information in my life half-oh and

social system but omits the value of other variables: gender will, ideology, which can also influence the selection of information.

The political system consists of subsystems that are interconnected and ensure the functioning of public authority. Changing one leads to a change in the functioning of the entire system.

Institutional subsystem includes the state, political parties, public organizations and movements, pressure groups, media, church, etc. The central place is given to the state, which represents the whole of society. It has sovereignty within state borders and independence beyond them. (By concentrating most of the resources in its hands, possessing a monopoly on legal violence, the state has great opportunities to influence various aspects of public life). The maturity of this subsystem determines the degree of specialization of the roles and functions of its structures. Thanks to specialization, this subsystem can quickly and efficiently respond to new needs and requirements of the population..

Regulatory includes legal, political, moral norms, values, traditions, customs. Through them, the political system has a regulatory impact on the activities of institutions, citizens.

Functional - these are methods of political activity, means and methods of exercising power (consent, coercion, violence, authority, etc.). The predominance of certain methods (coercion or coordination) determines the character of the relationship between the authorities and the civil society, the ways of integration and achieving integrity ..

Communicative includes all forms of political interaction between the authorities, society, and the individual (press conferences, meetings with the population, television appearances, etc.). Communication system characterizes the openness of power, its ability to enter into dialogue, strive for agreement, respond to the needs of various groups, exchange information with society.

Cultural – includes a system of values, religion, mentality (a set of ideas about society, image, character and way of thinking). The higher the degree of cultural homogeneity, the higher the efficiency of the activities of half of the institutions.

Functions of the political system.

Interacting with each other, the subsystems ensure the life of the PS, contribute to the effective implementation of its functions in society. One of the most complete classifications of P.S. were given by G. Almond and D. Powell.

. Political socialization function.

1. Regulatory function... It is expressed in the regulation of the behavior of groups, individuals, communities on the basis of the introduction of political and legal norms, the observance of which is ensured by the executive and judicial authorities.

2. Extraction function... Its essence lies in the ability of the system to draw resources from the external and internal environment for its functioning. Any system needs material, financial resources, political support.

3. Distribution (distributive)function... P.S. distributes the received resources, statuses, privileges social institutions, individuals and groups to ensure integration within society. Thus, education, administration, and the army require centralized financing. These resources are drawn from the external environment, for example, from the economic sphere, through taxes.

4. Response function... It is expressed in the ability of the political system to be receptive to (impulses), the requirements of various groups of the population. The quick response of the system determines its effectiveness.

5. The function of political socialization... It means the process of assimilation by a person of half values, ideals, knowledge, feelings, experience, allowing him to fulfill various political roles.

The political system is extremely complex. Its structure is made up of organizations, associations that are directly or indirectly related to the implementation of politics, to political activity. The structuring of a political system depends on the approach to the study of the structure and functions of the political system - either on the basis of a systematic approach, or from a structural-functional approach.

The political system as an integrity functions due to the interaction of its constituent elements, but it is not reducible to their sum. In order to understand the meaning of each element of integrity, the system is theoretically split, structured on various grounds.

A political system can be structured on the basis of its role-based understanding, and then it is considered from the point of view of the types of interaction of subjects performing different political roles and focusing on specific patterns of political behavior. Thus, the interaction between the governed and the governors can be based on consent based on the recognition of formal rules for the formation and functioning of power as fair (for example, free elections, the principle of separation of powers), or on the preference in public consciousness of certain values ​​and standards of behavior (for example, law-abidingness, political activity etc.) .

In addition, the elements of the political system can be isolated on the basis of an institutional approach. Each institution of the political system serves certain groups of needs and performs certain political functions. Thus, the state expresses common interests; parties seek to represent persistent group needs; pressure groups lobby for opportunistic interests that arise in a certain situation, etc.

The structure of the political system can be differentiated by following the principle of political stratification, that is, the order according to which certain groups take a real part in the exercise of power. Political elites directly make political decisions; bureaucracy is called upon to fulfill the decisions of the elite, citizens form the institutions of representative power.

The possibility of using various grounds for structuring the elements of a political system reflects the hierarchical nature of its components, which are themselves organized according to a systemic principle. Consequently, the political system consists of subsystems, the interaction of which forms a political integrity.

The main element of the political system is the institutional subsystem, that is, a set of institutions (state, party, socio-political) that express and represent interests of different importance - from generally significant to group and private. The most important instrument for realizing public interests is the state. By concentrating power and resources in its hands as much as possible, the state distributes values ​​and encourages the population to comply with their decisions. In addition to the state, the institutional subsystem includes both political (parties, pressure groups, clientele) and non-political, but organizations that have significant opportunities to influence the government and society - the media, the church. The maturity of the institutional subsystem is determined by the degree of differentiation and specialization of the roles and functions of its structures.

Institutions of power and influence fulfill their roles on the basis of various norms (political, legal, moral, etc.). The whole set of norms governing political relations constitutes a normative subsystem. Norms play the role of rules on the basis of which political interactions take place. The rules themselves can be fixed (in the constitution, legal acts), or they can be passed down from generation to generation in the form of traditions, customs, symbols.

Following these formalized and non-formalized rules, political actors interact. The forms of such interactions based on agreement or conflict, their intensity and direction constitute the communicative subsystem. The communication system characterizes the openness of the government, its ability to enter into a dialogue, strive for agreement, respond to the current demands of various groups, and exchange information with society.

Political interactions are determined by the nature of the cultural and religious environment, its homogeneity. A set of subcultures, a confessional system that determines priority values, beliefs, standards of political behavior, political mentality constitute a cultural subsystem. It gives universally significant meanings to political actions, relations of various subjects, stabilizes society and acts as a matrix of mutual understanding and harmony. The higher the degree of cultural homogeneity, the higher the efficiency of the activities of political institutions. The basic element of the cultural subsystem is the dominant religion in society, which determines the models of interaction and individual behavior.

The desired models of society, reflected in the system of cultural values ​​and ideals, determine the totality of ways and methods of exercising power. This set of political technologies constitutes a functional subsystem. The prevalence of methods of coercion or consent in the implementation of power relations determines the nature of the relationship between the authorities and civil society, the ways of its integration and achieving integrity.

All subsystems of the political system are interdependent. Interacting with each other, they ensure the vital activity of the political system, contribute to the effective implementation of its functions in society. One of the most complete classifications of the functions of a political system was given by G. Upmond and D. Powell. They used a tiered approach when considering the interaction of the political system with the external environment (economic, social, etc.), then within the political system itself, and finally, analyzed its overall ability to preserve and adapt. Each of the functions fulfills a certain need of the system, and taken together they provide "the preservation of the system through its change" (D. Easton).

The systematic approach was initiated by D. Easton, who clearly defined the boundaries of the political system and applied the concept of "entry" and "exit" into the political system. At the "input" it defines two elements - requirements and support, at the "output" - the decision and actions.

The structural-functional approach apparently gives more scope for the structure of the political system of society. In the literature, there are different opinions of the authors, but the criteria for all are almost the same and cover the same elements, for a small and insignificant difference for this course work. The constituent elements are called dialectical sides, and the political system is presented as a dialectical unity of these sides. Some authors believe that a political system is composed of subsystems or elements.

Below we have made a modest attempt to present the structure of the political system of society in a generalized form from several options that have become known to us. Considering that each constituent part of a political system, in turn, can represent a set of complex relationships of its own elements or components, it seems to us the most appropriate to designate the constituent elements of a political system as subsystems.

So, the political system of society consists of the following main subsystems:

• 1) institutional - the state, political parties, socio-economic and other organizations (and their relationships), which together form the political organization of society and are associated with the functioning of political power. The central place in it belongs to the state.
• 2) regulatory or normative - law, political norms and traditions, some moral norms, etc., that determine and regulate the political life of society;
• 3) functional - the methods and methods of political activity that form the basis of the political regime, i.e. a set of methods and ways of exercising power.
• 4) ideological - political consciousness, first of all, the dominant ideology in a given society, i.e. a set of political views, ideas, perceptions, feelings of participants in the political life of society, different in their content.

Some authors also distinguish cultural and communicative subsystems. The cultural subsystem includes a complex of political orientations, attitudes, values ​​and models of political behavior typical for a particular society. Political culture ensures the stability of the political system of society and the reproduction of political life on the basis of continuity and is an integrating factor of the political system. The communicative subsystem includes all channels of political interaction and is a set of relations and forms of interactions that develop between classes, social groups, nations, individuals about their participation in the organization, implementation and development of political power in connection with the formulation and implementation of a certain policy.

A.I.Demidov notes that organizational relations in the sphere of politics are endowed with some characteristic features:

a common goal for all members of the organization;

hierarchical structure of relations within the organization;

differentiation of norms for leaders and supervised, which contains a very dangerous and often realized in politics possibility of increasing the distance between the leaders and the bulk of the organization's participants and leads to oligarchization - the emergence of interests of leaders that do not correspond in any way and even contradict the interests of their followers.

Political movements are also included in the structure of the political system, in which, as a rule, there is no rigid centralized organization, there is no fixed membership, and the program and doctrine are replaced by the goal or system of political goals.

The structure of the political system also includes such organizations that, strictly speaking, cannot be classified as political. Since the main thing in their activity is the expression not of political, but of economic or other interests. Such organizations include trade unions, cooperatives and other organizations. For example, trade unions are formed to protect the interests of their members in matters related to labor relations. However, trade unions have ample opportunity to influence the activities of the state. So, they participate in the development of state employment programs, have the right to participate in the settlement of issues related to the strike, participate in the privatization of state and municipal property, etc.

There are some controversial points in the issue of attributing some public education to the structure of the political system.

So, the question of attributing the church to the elements of the political system is controversial. It is obvious that in societies where there is a state religion, the church has the right to participate in the political life of the state. In a secular state, where the church is separated from the state, religious organizations do not belong to the components of the political system. Although in public life she can play an active role - to engage in charity work, education, etc., the church cannot pursue political goals.

Sometimes the mass media (mass media) are referred to as elements of the political system. The media to a large extent contribute to the formation of politics, participate in the preparation, adoption and implementation of political decisions, in the activities of state bodies, actively participate in ensuring the success of a particular party in elections, and shape the image of a politician. At the same time, they are scattered and often change their political orientation. In this regard, it is hardly possible to unconditionally refer the media to the main elements of the political system of society. In an extreme case, they can be recognized as tools, means of carrying out the activities of the main structural elements of the political system.

And in terms of information, it is also necessary to note the division of the political system into subsystems of three levels of power and political relations: two institutional - higher or upper (megolevel), middle or intermediate (mesolevel), and non-institutional - lower, mass (microlevel). In turn, they are divided into parallel, usually competing structures (at the same levels): legal and shadow. This division requires a more detailed study, which is an impossible task within the framework of this course work.

The political system, as a stable form of human relations, has its own functions that allow these decisions to be made and implemented, and to implement complex relationships between its subsystems. Before proceeding with the coverage of functions, we consider it necessary to understand what the term "function" means.

A function is any action aimed at maintaining a system in a stable state. It represents ways of responding to changes in its internal state and external environment. In modern political science, there are the following main classifications of the functions of the political system.

Interacting with the external environment, the political system acts as a component of a broader integrity - society. She strives to ensure the stability and development of society. The solution to this problem presupposes the performance of a number of functions by the political system:

• 1) regulatory function. It is expressed in the coordination of the behavior of groups, individuals, communities on the basis of the introduction of political and legal norms, the observance of which is ensured by the executive and judicial authorities;
• 2) extraction function. Its essence lies in the ability of the system to draw from the external or internal environment the resources necessary for its functioning. Any system needs material, financial resources, political support;
• 3) distributive function. It involves the distribution of goods, statuses, privileges by the political system to social institutions, individuals and groups. Thus, education, administration, and the army require centralized funding. These funds are drawn from the external environment, for example, from the economic sphere, through taxation. The resources received in the form of taxes make it possible to finance budgetary spheres and maintain state bodies;
• 4) response functions. It is expressed in the ability of the political system to be receptive to impulses from the external environment. These impulses take the form of demands placed on the authorities by various groups of the population. The developed responsiveness of the system determines its efficiency and effectiveness.

The political system maintains a state of dynamic equilibrium with the help of adequate transmission of impulses arriving at the "entrance" and balanced political decisions and actions at the "exit". Functions to ensure its internal development are associated with the effective conversion of signals at the "input-output". G. Almond and D. Powell distinguish six functions:

• 1) the function of articulation (expression) of interests. These interests are limited in importance, and interest groups represent their authorities in the form of demands;
• 2) the function of aggregation of interests. The range of interests of various groups and individuals is significant, which requires their generalization, distribution by degree of importance, translation of requirements into the language of programs and bringing them to power. This function is carried out mainly by political parties.

G. Almond and D. Powell called the following three functions "government functions", since they correspond to the activities of the three branches of government - legislative, executive and judicial. As for the legislature, it is the function of developing rules and regulations; executive - the function of applying the rules; judicial - a function of control over the application of rules. The effectiveness of the implementation of these functions largely depends on the degree of specialization and structural differentiation of the roles of political institutions, strict adherence to the principles of separation of powers and their interaction.

The last function that ensures the internal development of the political system is the function of political communication. It involves different forms of interaction and exchange of information between different structures of the political system, leaders and citizens.

Any government needs support from citizens and society. Without the support of the main element of political life - the individual, the political system cannot operate effectively, ensure its own viability. The political system operates in so far as it is able to create and maintain the belief of individuals in its legitimacy and justice. That is why it is important for the political system to form positive attitudes of the individual towards the system, to promote the voluntary acceptance by people of the political goals that it offers. In this regard, the functions through which it helps self-preservation and self-adaptation represent another level of functional policy analysis. The ability of a political system to preserve and adapt in a changing reality is provided through the function of political socialization and political recruitment.

Naturally, a person is not born with political experience, certain social qualities and culture, he acquires them throughout his life. In order to live within a particular society or group, he must assimilate the existing values, guidelines, positions that allow him to adapt to the social environment. Political socialization means the process of assimilation by an individual of political values, ideals, knowledge, feelings, experience, allowing him to successfully perform different political roles.

The willingness to act this way, and not otherwise, presupposes the formation of an individual's political culture, which is expressed primarily in a set of political positions in relation to power, the political system. On the whole, political culture is a very complex and multi-component phenomenon. It is most difficult to form stable patterns of political behavior in societies where political culture is characterized by heterogeneity, the interaction of political subcultures, as, for example, in the countries of Western Europe.

The ability of a political system to adapt largely depends on the quality of political personnel performing various political roles. In industrially developed countries there is a stable system of recruiting (training and selection) of political functionaries. The selection of the elite, leaders, managers is carried out purposefully with an emphasis on the professional qualities of the applicants, the mental traits of their character, general culture and personal charm.

As you know, the functions of a political system, as well as the structure of a political system, is determined either on the basis of a systemic approach, or from a structural-functional approach.

Applying a systematic approach to defining the functions of the political system, G. Almond and G. Powell developed a classification of the functions of the political system, based on their idea of ​​its main qualities that ensure the interaction of the political system with the external environment. The political system must have, first, a regulatory capacity, that is, ensure the coordination of the behavior of individuals and groups. Secondly, the distributive ability associated with the provision of individuals and groups of social benefits. Third, the extractive ability, which consists in extracting the resources necessary for the functioning of the external environment. Fourth, reactive ability, characterized by the ability to respond to influences coming from outside. In accordance with this, G. Almond and G. Powell distinguish two groups of functions:

transformations,

adaptation and preservation of the system.

The first group, conversions, includes six functions, differentiated according to "input" and "output". Two functions are distinguished at the "input":

• 1) articulation (expression) of interests;
• 2) aggregation (generalization and hierarchization) of interests.

There are four functions at the "output":

• 3) development of norms,
• 4) application of norms,
• 5) control over the application of norms,
• 6) political communication.

The second group of adaptation and preservation of the system includes two main functions - political recruiting and political socialization.

Political recruiting is the process of recruiting and training personnel for the political system.

The function of political socialization means the impact of the political system on the process of assimilation by the individual of the norms of political culture.

D. Epter proposed a classification of functions similar in meaning. At the "entrance" he considers four functions: political recruitment and socialization, articulation of interests, aggregation of interests, political communication. At the “exit” there are three - the adoption of the rules, the application of the rules, and legal proceedings.

Political leadership of society (management of public affairs). The management function presupposes, first of all, the definition of strategic goals and prospects for social development. Therefore, the corresponding activity is sometimes called the function of goal-setting.

Consolidation of the socio-political system, ensuring the existence of society as a whole (integrative function). It is objectively conditioned by the existence of multidirectional political processes, behind which are various political forces, the struggle of which among themselves is always fraught with the most dire consequences for society, i.e. coordination of various interests of social communities and the state, ensuring internal and external security and stability of the political system.

Regulatory function. It is connected with the needs of ordering and regulation of political behavior and political relations in a state-organized society. This function is associated with a system of values, in which the most essential and widespread in society ideas, views and views, uniting and linking together more or less scattered parts of it, find their expression. So, the regulatory function is manifested not only in the creation of a special subsystem of socio-political norms of law and morality, but also in the development of stereotypes of behavior, the adherence to which is recognized as the standard of socially acceptable and reasonable behavior.

A mobilization function that ensures the maximum use of society's resources.

Distribution function aimed at the distribution of material resources and spiritual values ​​among its members.

Legitimation. This function is understood as the achievement of the minimum necessary degree of compliance of real political life with generally accepted legal and political norms.

In states where the political system is in a transitional state, the stage of formation, such as the current Russian, Kyrgyz and other post-Soviet states, it will be characterized by some other functions, in particular, the function of overcoming crises, especially political crises.

In the literature there is a variety of ideas and views on the definition of the functions of the political system of society. And each of them is of a certain value and interest in studying the topic of this course work. However, due to known limitations, we are forced to limit ourselves to the above.

At the end of the question about the functions of the political system, we consider it possible to dwell briefly on an integral part of the functions - the functional crisis of the system. The life of a political system proceeds as a constant change of equilibrium states and crises of various kinds - from private crises of individual subsystems and structures (government, party, parliamentary, etc.) to general crises of the system, which are usually associated with a crisis of its social environment and merge into the aggregate. political, economic (raw materials, resource), national, legal and other crises, which is accompanied by an exacerbation of social contradictions and class, political, ideological struggle, the struggle for civil rights and other conflicts. A functional crisis of a system, or a crisis of overload, occurs when it is forced to solve problems that it cannot solve. At the same time, a crisis can be procedural, which is resolved by a partial or complete restructuring of the system (change of leadership, power structures, ruling forces, leaders, political course, etc. restructuring). Such a crisis is associated with antagonistic conflicts in society, which give rise to new forms of the existing social system and preserve its political system. Deeper crises, the so-called development crises, are associated with a change in the political system and the type of society or its essential characteristics (forms of ownership, economic relations, etc.) and can be accompanied by more or less serious revolutionary transformations.

Thus, the inability of the political system to implement its most important functions causes a crisis of the political system:

• - when the norms for regulating political relations established in society are not accepted by its members as authoritative;
• - the activity of the state apparatus, closed by the framework of its specific interest, does not contribute to the improvement of the state of the social organism, and the structure of state institutions is created contrary to the traditions and historical experience of the people.

It works as a whole due to the fact that the elements that make it up constantly interact with each other. But at the same time, it is not just their sum. The concept and structure of a political system are inseparable from the concept of the meaning of each individual element. Therefore, theoretically, it splits into its component parts for various reasons.

Can be based on an understanding of its role. Then it is considered from the standpoint of what type of interaction occurs between subjects playing certain roles and relying on certain patterns.

In addition, the structure of the political system can be based on an institutional approach. This is due to the fact that servicing specific needs and performing functions is assigned to each institution.

Also, the structure of the political system can be delineated according to the principle of stratification. In this case, it is based on the order according to which some groups participate in the government. As a rule, decisions are made by the elite, the bureaucracy is executing them, and citizens are already forming their own institutions of power that represent their interests.

The fact that the system is based on different foundations indicates the hierarchical nature of its elements. That is, its components are also organized according to the same principle as the whole of it. And from this it follows that the political system always consists of several subsystems. Interacting with each other, they form integrity.

1. Institutional subsystem. It looks like a complex of political, state and other institutions that express the interests of various groups and individuals. The most global needs of society are met with the help of the state. The degree of specialization and differentiation of functions and roles within this structural element determines its maturity.

2. Regulatory subsystem. It is made up of a set of all norms on the basis of which the authorities fulfill their roles. These are a kind of rules that can be orally passed on to future generations (customs, traditions, symbols), or they can be fixed (legal acts, constitutions).

3. Communicative subsystem. It looks like the interaction of political actors who follow the above-mentioned fixed and non-fixed rules. Relationships can be built on the basis of conflict or agreement. They can also have different focus and intensity. The better the communication system is organized, the more power is open to citizens. Then she enters into a dialogue with the public, exchanges information with her, reacts to the demands of the people.

4. Cultural subsystem. It is made up of the priority values ​​of the main confession, subcultures in society, patterns of behavior, mentality and beliefs. This subsystem between citizens and politicians gives their actions a meaningful meaning, leads to agreement, mutual understanding, and stabilizes society as a whole. The level of cultural homogeneity is of great importance. The higher it is, the more efficiently the main element of the cultural subsystem - religion, which dominates in a particular society, functions. It determines the behavior of individuals, the forms of interaction between them.

5. Functional subsystem. It is a set of technologies used in politics to exercise power.

The structure and not only its components are inseparable from each other. The fact is that the function of each element implements one specific need. And all together they ensure the full-fledged work of the political system as a whole.

political system russia

The concept of "political system" was deeply substantiated and widespread only in the middle of the 20th century, which was generated by the logic of the development of political science, which led to the need to describe political life from a systemic standpoint.

The political system is a complex of institutional formations that identify the needs and interests of social groups, form and organize the interaction of people to exercise public power in the relevant territory.

The political system is a universal governing system of society, the components of which are linked by political relations and which ultimately regulates the relationship between social groups, ensuring the stability of society and a certain social order based on the use of state power.

The political system acts as a means of social integration, restraining the destructive influence of social differences on the functioning of the constituent parts of the social organism.

The concept of a political system expresses the unity of the two sides of politics: organization and activity, action and structure.

In Russian political literature, there are four main groups of elements of the political system:

• - political organization;
• - political relations;
• - political and legal norms;
• - political consciousness and political culture.

The political organization of a society is a collection of specific organizations and institutions performing certain functions. As a result of their interaction, political power is exercised in a given society. Political organization includes: the state, parties, mass public organizations and movements, the media and the church. The state and parties are actually political organizations, that is, they directly and directly exercise political power in full or strive for it. The exercise of power or the struggle for power is the main thing in their activities.

Political relations are varieties of social relations that reflect the connections that arise about political power, its conquest, organization and use. In the process of the functioning of society, political relations are very mobile and dynamic. In essence, they determine the content and nature of the functioning of a given political system.

The development of political relations depends on and is determined by the social-class structure of society, the political regime, the level of political consciousness, ideology and other factors. At the same time, political relations are a form of preserving and consolidating political experience, traditions, and a certain level of political culture. The nature of the interaction of the subjects of the political process determines the forms of political relations. They can take the form of coercion, conflict or cooperation, consensus.

In terms of social orientation, they distinguish between political relations aimed at strengthening the existing political system, and relations expressing the interests of the opposition forces.

Political and legal norms are an essential element of the political system. They constitute the normative basis of social life. The norms regulate the activity of the political system and the nature of political relations, giving them orderliness and focus on stability. Through political norms, certain social interests and political foundations are officially recognized and consolidated. At the same time, with the help of these norms, political and power structures solve the problem of ensuring social dynamics within the framework of the rule of law, communicate their goals to society, and determine a kind of behavior model for participants in political life.

Political consciousness and political culture are also among the elements of the political system. Reflection of political relations and interests, people's assessment of political phenomena are expressed in the form of certain concepts, ideas, views and theories, which in their totality form political consciousness. Being formed primarily under the influence of specific socio-political practice, ideas, value orientations and attitudes of participants in political life, their emotions and prejudices have a strong influence on their behavior and all political development.

A political system is a set of interactions between subsystems. The number of subsystems is not the same for different researchers. There are three main subsystems in the structure of the political system:

• - institutional;
• - information and communication;
• - normative and regulatory.

The institutional subsystem includes the state, political parties, socio-economic and public organizations. The leading institution that concentrates the maximum political power is the state. The state has the greatest potential to influence various aspects of social life. The obligatory nature of the decisions of the state for citizens allows it to impart expediency, rationality, and an orientation towards the expression of common interests to social changes.

The information and communication subsystem establishes connections between the institutions of the political system. The elements of this subsystem include channels for transmitting information to the government (procedure for hearing a case at open meetings, commissions of inquiry, confidential consultations with interested groups, etc.), as well as the media, which means television, radio, newspapers, magazines , books, the global Internet, designed for a huge audience.

The significance of this subsystem is great, because people are known to be able to evaluate actions, including political ones, only if there is a certain amount of knowledge and information. If in democratic societies the media are sufficiently independent, in authoritarian and totalitarian ones they are completely subordinate to the ruling elite.

The normative and regulatory subsystem consists of legal, political, moral norms and values. With their help, the political system has a regulatory impact on the activities of institutions, the behavior of citizens.

The functions of the political system are diverse, which is caused by the complexity and multi-layered nature of political life. Let's highlight the following ones:

• - determination of the goals and objectives of the society;
• - development of programs for his life in accordance with the interests of the ruling strata of society;
• - mobilization of society's resources in accordance with these interests;
• - control over the distribution of values. It is in this area that the interests of both social groups and social integrity collide. The loss of control over this knot, which determines the viability of a social system, threatens it with a crisis;
• - integration of society around common socio-political goals and values.

• - reactive;
• - extraction;
• - distribution;
• - regulatory.

The responsive function is associated with the need for the political system to respond to the demands of the social environment. Highly developed responsiveness allows the system to quickly adapt to changing conditions. This is especially important when new requirements of groups and parties appear. Ignoring these needs can lead to the disintegration and disintegration of society.

A political system is able to effectively respond to emerging demands if it has resources. She draws these resources from the internal or external environment. This function is called extraction.

The resources obtained must be distributed in such a way as to ensure the integration and consent of the interests of various groups within the society. The distribution of goods, services and statuses by the political system constitutes the content of the distribution function.

Finally, the political system exerts influence on society through management, coordination of the behavior of individuals and groups. The administrative actions of the political system constitute the content of its regulatory function. It is implemented through the introduction of norms and rules on the basis of which individuals, groups interact, as well as through the application of administrative and other measures against violators of the rules.

American political scientist G. Almond analyzed in detail and consistently the functions of the political system. He argues that all systems perform two basic sets of functions - "input" functions and "output" functions. Almond identifies four input functions: political socialization and engagement; articulation of interests; aggregation of interests; political communication; and three functions of "output": the development of rules-laws; application of norms; control over compliance with the norms. The "input" functions are carried out mainly by non-governmental subsystems, the "output" functions are the prerogative of the government.

Political socialization is the process of an individual acquiring political knowledge, beliefs, feelings, values ​​inherent in the society in which he lives. The introduction of an individual to political values, adherence to the standards of political behavior accepted in society, and a loyal attitude to the institutions of power ensure the maintenance of the existing model of the political system. The stability of a political system is achieved when its functioning is based on principles that correspond to the political culture of a society.

The articulation of interests is the first functional step in the course of political conversion, which is carried out by interest groups. In countries with democracies, which are characterized by official respect for public opinion and adherence to the doctrine of freedom of association, interest groups can be seen as links between citizens and the state. For example, in the political system of Russia until 1985, the articulation of interests had a specific character, since people could not express interests that were not adequate to the interests of the CPSU. It was assumed that the CPSU is the only expression of social interests.

According to G. Almond, a political system that is able to articulate interests is also capable of aggregating them, i.e. turn requirements into alternatives to public policy. A political party is considered a specialized aggregating structure in the modern political system.

Political communication is the process of conveying information and beliefs. Through this function, communication is provided between the various structures of the political system. Policy leadership and implementation usually requires a vertical flow of information from people to government and from government to people. In addition, there is a need for a horizontal flow of information between levels and authorities. Thanks to the communication process, spontaneous actions to seize power are clothed in a certain form of relationship between people, respect for power is formed, and statehood is created.

As a result of rule-making, laws are developed that determine the behavior of citizens in society. Typically, the rule-making process involves a number of stages: formulating policy and choosing common goals, developing solutions and specific rules to achieve the goals. This function is performed by the legislative, as well as the executive and judicial bodies.

State policy is not limited to the adoption of laws. An important aspect of policy and decision-making is the function of “enforcing norms”, which is performed not only by the executive and administrative bureaucracy, but often by legislative and legal structures.

Compliance monitoring is the interpretation of laws and actions to determine whether a violation of that law has occurred and to impose appropriate penalties. Control is mainly the competence of the judiciary, although the executive and legislature sometimes play a significant role in judicial processes.

Under the structure of the political system the way of linking its elements into a single, holistic systemic formation is understood, that is, the establishment of stable connections and relationships between the elements of this system.

The legal literature distinguishes the following components, or subsystems, political systems that are linked to each other and ensure the functioning of public authority.

1. Institutional;

2. Regulatory;

3. Functional;

4. Communicative;

5. Cultural and ideological.

Institutional subsystem consists of political institutions, each of which is also a system - state, party, socio-political, which, in turn, consists of private subsystems. The leading political institution, concentrating the maximum political power, is the state. A special role in the political system belongs to political parties and socio-political movements, including trade unions, organizations of entrepreneurs, and all kinds of lobbying organizations created under the structures of legislative and executive power. On the one hand, they are important participants in the political process, carry out a kind of mediation between various state structures and the population. For this reason, they are sometimes grouped under the general concept of "political infrastructure". A specific place in the political system is occupied by social institutions that are non-political in nature, such as the media and the Church, which are capable of significantly influencing the process of forming public opinion, and through it, exerting pressure on political power.

Normative subsystem forms all kinds of norms - legal and moral, political traditions, values, customs. With their help, the political system has a regulatory impact on the activities of institutions, the behavior of citizens, defining the rules of their relationship.

Functional subsystem it is expressed in the forms and directions of political activity, in various political processes, in the way and methods of exercising power. It forms the basis of the political regime, the task of which is to ensure the functioning, transformation and protection of the mechanism of power and society.

Communication subsystem presupposes a set of relations and forms of interaction that develop between classes, social groups, nations, individuals regarding their participation in the exercise of power, the development and implementation of policies. At the same time, these are relations based on the norms of law, as well as informal norms and relations that are not enshrined in the norms of law.

Political relations are the result of numerous and varied connections between political actors in the process of political activity. People and political institutions are motivated to join them by their own political interests and needs.

Allocate primary and secondary (derivative) political relations. To the first, include various forms of interaction between social groups (classes, nations, estates, etc.), as well as within them, to the second- relations between states, parties, other political institutions, reflecting in their activities the interests of certain social strata or the entire society.

Cultural and ideological subsystem is a set of political ideas, views, perceptions, feelings of participants in political life that are different in their content. The political consciousness of the subjects of the political process functions at two levels - theoretical (political ideology) and empirical (political psychology). The forms of manifestation of political ideology include views, slogans, ideas, concepts, theories, and political psychology - feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions. In the political life of society, they are equal.

In the ideological subsystem, political culture occupies a special place, understood as a complex of political orientations, attitudes, values ​​and models of political behavior typical for a particular society.

Political culture- This is the experience of political activity, passed down from generation to generation, in which knowledge, beliefs and models of behavior of a person and social groups are combined. Political culture ensures the stability of the political system of society and the reproduction of political life on the basis of continuity.

In modern political science, it is accepted typology of political culture, proposed by scientists S. Verba and G. Almond. Choosing as a criterion the degree of orientation of people to participate in political life, they identified three "pure" types of political culture.

1. Patriarchal political culture is characterized by a complete lack of interest among community members in political institutions and global political processes. The bearers of this type of political culture are oriented towards local values, indifferent to the policies, attitudes and norms of the central authorities. This type of political culture is characteristic of the developing countries of Asia and Africa.

2. Subject political culture is characterized by the orientation of the subjects towards the political system, the activities of the central authorities. Its carriers have their own idea of ​​politics, but do not take an active part in it, expecting either benefits or an order from the authorities.

3. Civil political culture is inherent in modern developed democracies. The bearers of this culture are not only oriented towards the political system, but also strive to be active participants in the political process. They obey the dictates of the authorities, but at the same time they influence the development of decision-making by state bodies.

Today it is rare to find a "pure" type of political culture. Most modern societies are characterized by mixed types: patriarchal-subject, subject-civil and patriarchal civil political culture.

The political system appears in the unity of all these subsystems, which are closely interconnected and cannot function if at least one of the subsystems does not work properly.

The essence of the political system of society is most clearly manifested in its functions. Therefore, the characterization of the political system will be incomplete without considering them.

In systems theory, under function means any action aimed at maintaining the system in a stable state and ensuring its life.

The following can be distinguished functions of the political system:

1. Political socialization function, i.e. familiarizing the individual with political values, adherence to the standards of political behavior accepted in society, loyalty to the institutions of power. This process implies the formation of the political consciousness of the individual, when the latter is involved in the work of specific political mechanisms, due to which the reproduction of the political system takes place by involving all new members of society in political participation and activity. Thus, political socialization plays the role of a mechanism for preserving the political values ​​and goals of the system, makes it possible to preserve the continuity of generations in politics.

2. Adaptation function. Preparation and selection of subjects of power (leaders, elites) capable of finding the most effective solutions to pressing problems and offering them to society.

3. Response function... With this function, the political system responds to signals from outside or from within the system. This feature allows the system to quickly adapt to changing conditions. This is especially important when new requirements of groups and parties appear. Ignoring these requirements can lead to disintegration and disintegration of society.

4.Extraction function. Extraction of resources from the external and internal (natural, economic, social, etc.) environment.

5 . Distribution (distribution) function... Assumes the distribution of functional load between various political institutions and components of the political system, the distribution of resources among groups within society; maintaining the normal functioning of the political system and ensuring its daily operation and further development.

6.Regulation function, i.e. impact on society. This impact can be manifested through the introduction of norms and rules on the basis of which individuals interact, as well as the application of measures in relation to violators.