At the beginning of the 17th century, Russia was going through difficult times. The victory of the people's militia of Minin and Pozharsky over the Poles allowed Russia to defend its independence, and at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613, elections were held for a new tsar, who should have carried out the elimination of the consequences of the Troubles in the coming years ...

Mikhail Romanov's board

The first tsar from the Romanov dynasty is Mikhail Romanov. His reign history begins at the age of 17. He was a weak in health and timid young man, who was considered by the boyars not as capable, but as a convenient tsar for lobbying their interests. The Time of Troubles was over, but the boyars dreamed of retaining their influence in the new model of autocracy.

So he ruled from 1613 to 1619, until his father Filaret returned from Polish captivity.

Rice. 1. Mikhail Romanov.

Filaret took over the functions of government in the country. He not only received the rank of patriarch, but also received the title of "great sovereign", protecting Mikhail from the influence of the boyars and ruling the country until his death in 1633.

The internal policy of Mikhail Fedorovich was aimed entirely at restoring the country's ruined economy, which was hindered by the frequent raids of the Crimean Tatars. In governing the country, the young tsar relied on the Zemsky Sobor, which was convened quite often.

An important reform was the introduction of provincial government at the local level, which streamlined the vertical of power. The consolidation of power made it possible to increase taxes levied on the townspeople, which increased treasury revenues.

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Mikhail Romanov is making an attempt to form a regular army, where foreign specialists were invited as officers. It was during his reign that dragoon regiments appeared in Russia.

In 1645, Mikhail Fedorovich died and his son Alexei became tsar.

Board of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676)

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, tsarist power was strengthened. In 1653-1655, on his order, Patriarch Nikon carried out a church reform, according to which believers had to be baptized with three fingers instead of two, bow down in the waist instead of earthly ones, and church books and icons were edited in the Greek manner.

Rice. 2. Alexey Mikhailovich Quiet.

This reform caused a great public outcry. A large number of her opponents were found, and a movement of Old Believers (Old Believers), led by Archpriest Avvakum, also arose. The Old Believer movement still exists today.

In 1648, a military reform took place in Russia. The best regiments of the "old order" - cavalry, archers and gunners were strengthened and increased. The regiments of the "new order" were massively created - reitars, dragoons and hussars. For the reform, European specialists, who had gained extensive experience in the Thirty Years' War, were massively invited.

In 1649, the Sobornoye Ulozhenie was adopted - the code of laws of Russia, which had been in force for almost 200 years. It officially recorded the attachment of not only peasants, but also their children to the land plots of the feudal lords.

In 1654, a monetary reform was carried out. Copper was added to the composition of the coins, which worsened its quality. This reform is considered unsuccessful.

In general, the policy of the first Romanovs contributed to the formation of absolutism.

Rice. 3. Map of Russia in the 17th century.

Popular riots

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, a series of popular riots took place. The copper riot was triggered by the monetary reform. In 1648, the Salt Riot took place in Moscow, caused by a sharp rise in the price of salt.

The final enslavement of the peasants, the increase in taxes and an attempt to limit the Cossack freemen gave rise to an uprising of peasants and Cossacks under the leadership of Stepan Razin on the Don in 1667-1671. The uprising took on large territorial proportions and was drowned in blood, and its leaders were executed.

Foreign policy of the first Romanovs

Under the first Romanovs, Russia experienced several wars. Let's study them using the table.

Event	date	Event value
	Smolensk war	Unsuccessful. Showed the need to reform the army
	Azov seat	Fearing a major conflict with the Ottoman Empire, Russia missed the chance to seize Azov
	The uprising of Bohdan Khmelnitsky	The uprising of the Cossacks of the Zaporizhzhya Sich against the Poles demanding the independence of the Sich.
	Pereyaslavskaya Rada	Ukraine's entry into Russia
	War with the Commonwealth	A protracted war, during which Russia defended the Ukrainian lands.
	Truce with the Commonwealth	Cessation of hostilities
	War with Sweden	Ended up to no avail for Russia
	Continuation of the war with the Commonwealth	Having spent strength on the Swedes, Russia could not win the war
	Rokos Lubomirsky	The military confederation in Poland itself against the king thwarted the plans of the Poles to seize Smolensk
	Andrusovo truce	He ended the war with the Poles. Russia annexed Smolensk, Ukraine and Kiev.
	Colonization of Siberia	Russia continues to advance deep into Siberia, colonizing lands undeveloped by civilized states.

What have we learned?

Speaking briefly about Russia under the first Romanovs, it should be noted that they managed to defend the country's sovereignty in general, to recover from the devastation after the Time of Troubles and to strengthen the tsarist power. However, the eternal problems with access to the Baltic and the Black Sea have not been resolved.

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LECTURE 4. RUSSIA IN THE XVII CENTURY.

At the last lecture, we talked about the Great Troubles, which began the new 17th century, and as a result of which a new dynasty of Romanovs ended up on the Russian throne. They were elected for a number of reasons:

1.these were relatives of the first queen Anastasia, the wife of Ivan the Terrible;

2. Mikhail's father was tonsured a monk and sent to the monastery by Boris Godunov, his mother was also tonsured into a nun and her son was with her in the monastery;

3. this family did not participate in the boyar squabbles during the impostor;

4. Mikhail was 17 years old and the boyars believed that in his infancy they would rule the Moscow state.

Therefore, the Zemsky Sobor was convened from representatives of all classes, up to the peasantry. Czar candidates were proposed to the council. Including prince Pozharsky put forward his candidacy. However, the bulk of the participants in the Zemsky Sobor shouted the name of Mikhail Romanov. Thus, since 1613, the Romanov dynasty is considered to be on the throne, but how true this is, we will talk a little later.

Lecture questions;

1. The first Romanovs. Events that took place in Russia during the 17th century.

2. The political system of Russia under the first Romanovs.

3. Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century.

4. Russian culture and life in the 17th century.

1. The first Romanovs. Events that took place in Russia during the 17th century.

The first Romanovs include Mikhail Fedorovich (reigned 1613-1645) and Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676 reign). By this time, the reign of Princess Sophia was also added as regent of their younger brothers Ivan and Peter.

The main events of the time of the first Romanovs include:

1.stabilization of the internal life of the country, establishment of relative order, registration of the legal status of the nobility, Boyar Duma, Zemsky Sobors and, accordingly, strengthening of the autocracy;

2. Church reform, which split the society into those who accepted and did not accept the new interpretation of church worship;

3. the formation of larger military-administrative units - categories in the border regions of the country;

4. in foreign policy, this was the century of Ukraine's entry into Russia;

5. in culture and everyday life - the spread of education, an increase in the production of printed books, mainly of religious content and textbooks.

In the first years of his reign, Mikhail, due to his youth, morbidity and mental softness, could not do without the help and guidance of his elders.This help was provided by relatives from his mother, the boyar Saltykovs, until his monastic father Filaret returned from exile to Moscow. Most historians agree that Michael performed the formal function of the king, while his parents were the actual rulers.

However, the most important factor in his management were Zemsky Sobors, which provided significant moral support to the young tsar. Arriving from Kostroma to Moscow after his election, Mikhail did not dismiss the elected zemstvo people, but kept them with him. The electives changed from time to time, but the cathedral functioned in Moscow constantly for 10 years and helped the tsar in all important and difficult matters. The personnel of the Zemsky Sobor was important for their awareness, knowledge of affairs in the country and its regions, and gave advice on various branches of the economy.

Throughout the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the main feature of the Zemsky Sobors was a significant increase in the representation of the lower classes. In contrast to the time of Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov, representatives of the nobility and the townspeople played in the Zemsky Cathedrals under Mikhail Fedorovich. After the death of Patriarch Filaret (the Tsar's father), some nobles proposed to transform the Zemsky Sobor into a permanent parliament. But this did not suit the autocratic authorities, and over time, Zemsky Sobors met at first less often, and then their activities were generally terminated. One of the last, the Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1653 and accepted into Russian citizenship the population of the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev. Since then, the government began to rely not on the representation of the population, but on the bureaucracy and the army. But the most recent council was convened in 1683, the main issue at which was to discuss the conditions of Eternal Peace with the Commonwealth, but its opening did not take place due to military actions.

The Boyar Duma and orders, but with a new composition, remained as the central authorities. At first, the composition of the Duma was expanded. So Mikhail Fedorovich thanked those who supported his accession. If before the Boyar Duma included a dozen boyars, by the end of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich its number had grown to 100 people. Moreover, there were not only well-born boyars, but also representatives of ordinary families or even from the princely families of the Gentiles.

The Duma was still called upon to resolve the most important issues - war and peace, the approval of bills, the introduction of new taxes, the resolution of controversial issues, etc. The sessions of the Boyar Duma were supervised either by the tsar himself or by a boyar appointed by him.

Gradually, this big thought became cumbersome and not very digestible for the tsar. Therefore, the so-called "near", "small" or even "secret" Duma was created, which eventually concentrated all power in its hands, and the Big Duma gradually died out.

The trend towards increased power and greater centralization was a natural consequence of the prevailing conditions after the Troubles. The growth of the country's territory, the complication of economic tasks led to a significant increase in orders. At different times, there were up to 100 orders in the country. The orders sought to increase their influence on the ground. Especially important were: Posolsky, Kazenny, Pomestny, Yamskoy, Chelobitny orders, there were several orders in charge of military affairs - Razryadny, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, etc.

In the XVII century. the main administrative unit was the county, whose number at the end of the century was 250. The counties, in turn, were divided into camps and volosts. From the second half of the century, Aleksey Mikhailovich introduced new military-administrative units - categories that united groups of fortified cities in the border regions of the country for defense against possible attacks.

The post of governor was widely developed, and not only in the border towns, but also everywhere. The functions of the governor included:

1. to be the executor of detailed orders and frequent individual prescriptions of the capital's bodies - orders;

2. he was a representative of the administrative central authority;

3. he was a tax collector, which every last had to deliver to the royal treasury;

4. Together with his commanding people, the voivode did not receive any salary from the tsar, nor was he a “feeding man”. He could use only voluntary gifts from the population, which led to arbitrariness, embezzlement, extortion; The receipt of such "gifts" was not condemned by either the government or the mores. It was considered that it was all in the order of things. The moral level of the administration was low. In the absence of control and responsibility, there were no restraining principles in borrowing at all. This led to the use of their position for personal, selfish purposes, which caused a murmur of the population, its discontent

The second most important innovation of Mikhail Fedorovich was the distribution of land to the tsar's closest associates. The hands of the new court nobility soon sold up to 50 thousand acres of land.

Thus, we can say that through the efforts of the first reign of the new dynasty, the state was restored on the old foundations on which the policies of Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov were based. But at the same time, one should know that the period of the Zemsky Sobor is customary in the history of Russia to be called not only the period of the formation of autocracy, but also the estate-representative monarchy.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich can be called evolutionary in a number of aspects of domestic politics. During this period, Russia began to form an absolute monarchy on the basis of the undivided domination of the feudal-serf system. This was expressed in the withering away of the Zemsky Sobors, in the evolution of the order system, the composition of the Boyar Duma, and the increase in the importance of non-pedigree people in the power, a victorious outcome for the secular power in its rivalry with the church power.

The most important events during the reign of the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption by the Zemsky Cathedral of the Cathedral Code in 1649. Its compilation was entrusted to the tsar's entourage, headed by Prince Odoevsky. It is interesting that when it was drawn up, not only the codes of laws available in Russia were used, but also foreign ones. In addition, the young tsar himself participated in the development of laws. According to this Cathedral Code, Russia lived for about 200 years.

The Code reflected the increased role of the king in the life of the country. For the first time, the concept of "state crime" was introduced (against the honor of the tsar, his family, representatives of state power and the church), for which severe punishment was provided.

The Code for the first time approved in the law the full right of the feudal lord to land and dependent (serfs) peasants. An indefinite search for fugitive peasants was established and a large fine for harboring fugitives was established.

Changes have also taken place in the military system. Until that time, the Russian state relied on the militia supplied by the boyars at the call of the tsar and the verdict of the Boyar Duma. It was a mounted militia of landowners, patrimonials and landowners, who were obliged to appear, if necessary, "horses, crowded and armed." In the clash with the western neighbors, the military-technical backwardness of the Moscow "military" people was revealed, and this forced the Moscow government to organize regiments of the "foreign system": soldiers (infantry), Reitars (mounted) and dragoons (mixed), which were recruited from Russian free people and trained by invited foreign mercenary officers. However, these regiments were formed only in case of war, and in peacetime they were dismissed to their homes. It was not yet a regular army.

Of particular importance in the 17th century. acquired church reform. It was initiated by Patriarch Nikon, the former Metropolitan of Novgorod. He came to the post of patriarch at the suggestion of Alexei Mikhailovich. But the reform did not start out of the blue. For many decades, there was a dispute among the clergy that the books copied by hand contained many distortions and errors in comparison with the original. So, a lot of doubts were caused by the custom of polyphony during the service, when all those present used different prayers, or were baptized with two fingers, when everything came from the Trinity, the three-handed Heavenly Sovereign. After the death of Patriarch Joseph, opinions were divided: some believed that it was necessary to return to the original, ancient Russian models, while others - to the very Greek sources from which the old books were copied. Therefore, Alexei Mikhailovich instructed Nikon to carry out such a reform according to the Greek model. It was carried out in 1653-1655. and dealt mainly with church rituals and books. Baptism with three fingers was introduced, bows in the waist instead of earthly ones, icons and church books were corrected according to Greek models.

The church council convened in 1654 approved the reform, but proposed to bring the existing rituals in line not only with the Greek, but also the Russian tradition.

Nikon was a wayward, strong-willed, fanatical man. Having received immense power over the believers, he soon came up with the idea of ​​the primacy of the power of the church over the secular power, over the tsar. In essence, he proposed to share power with Alexei Mikhailovich. However, he simply stopped attending the services of Nikon, inviting him to state receptions, to which Nikon was offended and once, while preaching in the Assumption Cathedral, announced that he was resigning from his duties as patriarch and was leaving for the Resurrection New Rusalim Monastery. There he began to wait for Alexei's repentance and the call again to Moscow. However, Alexey acted contrary to Nikon's expectations. He invited patriarchs from other countries to Moscow, convened a church council in 1666, Nikon was brought to him in custody, over whom a trial was arranged for leaving the church and renouncing the patriarchate without the consent of the tsar. The hierarchs present at the council condemned Nikon, blessed his defrocking and imprisonment in a monastery. The Council supported the reform and cursed its opponents, the Old Believers to hand over to the secular authorities for trial. According to the Cathedral Code of 1649, they were all threatened with the death penalty. But Alexei Mikhailovich replaced her with imprisonment in monasteries. Cathedral 1666-1667 marked the beginning of a split in the Russian Orthodox Church.

The outstanding leader of the Old Believers was Archpriest Avvakum (Avvakum Petrov) (1620-1682).

Thus, the 17th century in the internal life of the country became a century of different directions: from the Troubles to stabilization, then to the evolution of structures and the system of power, the emergence of laws, the implementation of church reform, became the time of the decline of the zemstvo, collegial principle, and the growing bureaucratization both in the central and and in the local government of the Moscow state.

It took several decades to restore the destroyed economy.

The position of the feudal landowners was strengthened; especially increased noble land ownership (the nobles demanded not only new lands, but also the strengthening of land rights in order to turn their estates into patrimonial possessions).

More than half of the population of Russia was in serfdom. The peasants of the palace and black-sowing volosts and the townspeople were also not free people, being exploited by the state.

Domestic trade in Russia increased significantly: annual fairs were held (Moscow had extensive trade ties), furs were brought from Siberia, fish from the Lower Volga, salt from the North, and bread from Orel.

Socio-political development:

The weakening of the autocracy at the beginning of the 17th century. The importance of the feudal nobility in the state remained very great.

The old one was replaced by a new aristocracy.

When solving state issues, the Duma nobles began to acquire more and more importance.

Along with the Boyar Duma, in the first half of the 17th century, Zemsky Sobors were often assembled from elected representatives of various estates. With the strengthening of tsarist power, the convocations of Zemsky Sobors by the end of the 17th century ceased.

There was an extensive system of orders.

The military is a constant concern of the government. Permanent soldiers' regiments of the "new order" were formed. The armament of the army was strengthened.

In foreign policy: the establishment of disturbed international relations.

Reflecting attacks from the south.

Restoration of the state unity of the Russian lands.

The Moscow government began a war for the return of Smolensk (1632-1634).

1648 - a major uprising took place in Moscow.

1650 - major uprisings took place in Novgorod and Pskov, which revealed a class demarcation among the townspeople.

1649 - The Zemsky Sobor adopted a new set of laws, which was named the Sobornoye Ulozhenie.

The origin of absolutism. Now, when the nobility has strengthened and the merchant class has grown, the importance of the Boyar nobility in the state has diminished.

Church schism (the emergence of a stream of Old Believers. People left the subordination of the official church under the pretext of a struggle to preserve the old faith).

Topic 6. Russia in the 17th century

The accession of the Romanov dynasty and the end of the Troubles

In January 1613 the Zemsky Sobor met, which elected a new tsar. Nobles and Cossacks nominated 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645) as a candidate for the Russian throne. The representative of the old Moscow boyar family also suited the highest aristocracy. A dynasty came to power in Russia, connected by kinship with the previous tsars.

The election of Mikhail Romanov did not yet mean the end of the Troubles. The liberation of the country from the invaders dragged on for several years. In 1617, the Stolbovo peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which Russia had to cede the territory of Karelia. In 1618, Russia concluded the Deulinskoe truce with Poland, to which the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands retreated. The suppression of the internal opposition, and above all the detachments of free Cossacks, turned out to be a difficult task.

The Time of Troubles had significant consequences for the further development of Russian history. Long years of chaos strengthened among the people the idea of ​​the need for a strong state power, which in no small measure contributed to the formation of the Russian autocracy. But it was during the Time of Troubles that the national consciousness of the Russian people was strengthened, the role of the Orthodox Church in the spiritual life of the people increased. As a result of the upheavals, a new dynasty reigned in Russia, which was to rule the country for the next three centuries.

The Troubles led Russia to complete economic collapse. Political stability was not immediately established, the system of government in the center and in the localities was destroyed. The main tasks of Mikhail Romanov were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcome the economic chaos and streamline the management system. For the first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors. In 1619, the Tsar's father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from Polish captivity. Filaret, who took patriarchal dignity, began to actually rule the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) became the Russian tsar.

By the middle of the century, the economic chaos caused by the Troubles had been overcome. Economic development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life. The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were made not to order, but for the market, economic specialization of individual regions took place. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing, Novgorod and Pskov were the centers of flax production. The best jewelry was produced in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. Centers of artistic production began to emerge (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).

The development of commodity production led to the emergence of manufactories. They were divided into state-owned, that is, owned by the state, and private.

The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the emergence of the all-Russian market. There were two large all-Russian fairs - Makarievskaya on the Volga and Irbitskaya in the Urals.

The Zemsky Sobor in 1649 adopted the Soborno Ulozhenie - the code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of society. The cathedral code prescribed severe punishments not only for rebellion against the king or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and atrocities in the royal court. Thus, there was a legislative consolidation of the process of the formation of an absolute monarchy.

In the Cathedral Code, the social structure of society was formalized, since it regulates the rights and obligations of all estates.

Fundamental changes have taken place in the life of the peasantry. The cathedral code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich finally formalized serfdom - an unlimited search for fugitive peasants was established.

According to the Cathedral Code, city dwellers were attached to their place of residence and "tax", that is, to bearing state duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure for legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look too harsh. For many crimes in the Cathedral Code, the death penalty was provided. The Code also regulated the procedure for performing military service, leaving for other states, customs policy, etc.

The political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the state system: from the estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. Zemsky sobor held a special place in the system of the estate-representative monarchy. The Zemsky Sobor included the higher clergy, the Boyar Duma and the elective part: the Moscow nobles, the administration of orders, the district nobility, the top of the "draft" settlements of the Moscow posad, as well as the Cossacks and Streltsy ("service people on the device").

In the first years of Mikhail Romanov's reign, Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped him in governing the state. Under Filaret Romanov, the activities of the Councils became less active. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, decided the question of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Subsequently, the zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660s-1680s. gathered numerous estate commissions. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from the estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. The significant role of the Boyar Duma remained in the system of government and administrative bodies. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its importance falls.

High development in the 17th century. reaches the ordered control system. The orders dealt with individual branches of government within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The most important among them were the order of the Secret Affairs, led personally by Alexei Mikhailovich and supervising the activities of higher state institutions and officials. The local order formalized land plots and conducted judicial investigations on land matters. The ambassadorial order carried out the foreign policy of the state. The order of the Great Treasury controlled finances.

The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. The local government system was built in the 17th century. not on the basis of elected bodies, but on the authority of the governors appointed from the center. Zemstvo and lip chiefs obeyed them. In the hands of the governor, administrative, judicial and military power, supervision over the collection of taxes and taxes was concentrated.

The social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply class-based. The term "estate" means a social group that has rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The privileged class was secular and spiritual feudal lords (clergy). Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks. In the XVII century. this concept reflected not so much the official position as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. Its top was made up of the Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, clerks and noblemen of the Duma. The next in terms of their position in society were the Moscow ranks - officials, solicitors, Moscow nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - the ranks of the city. These included the provincial nobles, who were called "boyar children."

The majority of the dependent population were peasants. The personally free members of the community were called black-haired peasants. The rest of the peasants were either privately owned, that is, belonging to the landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to the royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. The inhabitants of the cities - artisans and merchants - were attached to their duties. The richest merchants were called "guests". Among the dependent estates were also "service people by the device": archers, gunners and Cossacks.

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov became the Russian tsar in difficult times (Fig. 6.1). The Troubles led Russia to complete economic ruin. Political stability was not immediately established, the system of government in the center and in the localities was destroyed. The main tasks of the young tsar were to achieve reconciliation in the country, overcoming economic ruin and streamlining the management system.

Rice. 6.1

For the first six years of his reign, Mikhail ruled, relying on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors. The latter actually did not stop their work from 1613 to 1619. In 1619, the Tsar's father Fyodor Nikitich (in monasticism Filaret) Romanov returned from the Polish captivity. Filaret, who took patriarchal dignity, became the de facto ruler of the country until his death in 1633. In 1645, Mikhail Romanov also died. His son Alexei Mikhailovich became the Russian tsar (Fig. 6.2).

Rice. 6.2

By the middle of the century, the economic chaos caused by the Troubles had been overcome. The economic development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by a number of new phenomena in economic life (Fig. 6.3). The craft gradually developed into small-scale production. More and more products were produced not to order, but to the market. The economic specialization of individual regions is developing. In Tula and Kashira, for example, metal products were produced. The Volga region specialized in leather processing. Novgorod and Pskov were the centers of flax production. The best jewelry was produced in Novgorod, Tikhvin and Moscow. In the same era, centers of art production appeared (Khokhloma, Palekh, etc.).

The development of commodity production made possible the emergence of manufactories, which were divided into state-owned, i.e. state-owned (for example, the Armory), and private. The last

arose mainly in metallurgy. Such enterprises were located in Tula, Kashira and in the Urals.

Rice. 6.3

The growth of productive forces contributed to the development of trade and the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market. There are two large all-Russian fairs Makarievskaya on the Volga and Irbigskaya in the Urals.

In the XVII century. final legal registration took place in Russia serfdom. Historians understand this term as the most severe form of dependence of the peasants on the landowner, whose power extended to the person, labor and property of the peasants belonging to him. The forcible attachment of peasants to the land was practiced in a number of European countries in the Middle Ages. However, in Western Europe serfdom was relatively short-lived and did not exist everywhere. In Russia, it was finally established at the turn of the New Age, existed in the most severe form and was canceled only in 1861. How can this phenomenon of Russian history be explained? In the historical literature, one of the reasons for the enslavement of the peasants is the low productivity of peasant farms. Historians believe that other reasons for the formation of serfdom are the harsh natural and climatic conditions and the economic dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords. The position of the Russian peasantry was influenced by the peculiarities of the political development of the Russian statehood. The basis of the armed forces of Russia in the 17th century. constituted the service class of landowners - landowners. The constantly emerging costs of maintaining the country's defense required the strengthening of this class and providing it with free labor (Fig. 6.4).

Rice. 6.4

In the historical literature, there are two main concepts of enslavement of the Russian peasantry. The concept of "decree" enslavement presupposes that serfdom was introduced at the initiative of the government, proceeding from the needs of the country's defense capability and to ensure the service class. This point of view was shared by historians N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Soloviev, N. I. Kostomarov, S. B. Veselovsky and B. D. Grekov, modern historian R. G. Skrynnikov. In the works of V.O. Klyuchevsky, M. II. Pogodin and M. L. Dyakonov defend the "non-specified" concept, according to which serfdom was a consequence of the real living conditions of the country, formalized by the state only legally (Fig. 6.5).

Rice. 6.5

It is not difficult to trace the stages of legal registration of serfdom. In 1581 Ivan the Terrible introduced the "Reserved Summer", until the abolition of which peasants were forbidden to leave their owners, i.e. peasants were deprived of the ancient right to go to St. George's Day. In continuation of the policy of enslaving the peasants, the Godunov government adopted in 1597 a decree on a five-year search for fugitive peasants. By the decrees of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich in 1637 and 1641. the state investigation was increased accordingly to nine, and then to 15 years. The date of final registration of serfdom is considered to be 1649. The Cathedral Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich established an unlimited search for fugitive peasants.

Adopted in 1649, the Cathedral Code is the code of domestic feudal law that regulated relations in the main spheres of society (Fig. 6.6).

In July 1648 the Zemsky Sobor considered the petition of servicemen and merchants for the adoption of a new code of laws. For its development, a special commission was created, headed by the boyar Odoevsky. Already in the fall of the same year, the draft Code was presented to the tsar. At the beginning of 1649 the Code was approved by the Zemsky Sobor. It was soon published with a circulation of 1,200 copies.

The Code is divided into chapters, and chapters into articles. In total, the Cathedral Code contains 25 chapters and 967 articles. The Code of Laws begins with the chapter "On Blasphemers and Church Rebels," which prescribes the punishment of any blasphemy, heresy, or opposition to the church authorities by burning at the stake. The next two chapters regulate the status of the king. The very name of one of them is indicative: "On the sovereign's honor and how to protect his sovereign health." The cathedral code prescribes severe punishment not only for rebellion against the king or insulting the head of state, but even for fights and atrocities in the royal court. This is how the legislative consolidation of the process of the formation of an absolute monarchy took place.

Rice. 6.6

The cathedral code formalized the social structure of society, regulating the rights and obligations of all estates. The most important was chapter 11 "The Peasants' Court". It was she who introduced an indefinite search for fugitive peasants, finally formalizing serfdom. The Sobornoye Ulozhenie attached the city dwellers to the place of residence and "tax", ie. bearing government duties. A significant part of the Code is devoted to the procedure for legal proceedings and criminal law. Laws of the 17th century look harsh. Historians of law have counted 60 crimes for which the Cathedral Code provides for the death penalty. The Code also regulates the procedure for military service, travel to other states, customs policy and much more.

The political development of Russia in the 17th century. characterized by the evolution of the state system from the estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. A special place in the system of the estate-representative monarchy was occupied by Zemsky Sobors (Fig. 6.7). They included the "consecrated cathedral" (the higher clergy), the Boyar Duma and the elective part (curia). The elected delegates of the Zemsky Sobor represented the Moscow nobles, the administration of the orders, the district nobility, the top of the draft settlements of the Moscow posad, as well as service people "by device" - the Cossacks and Streltsy. State peasants were represented only once: at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613.

Rice. 6.7

As already indicated, the first Zemsky Sobor (Cathedral of Reconciliation) in the history of Russia was convened by Ivan IV in 1549 (Fig. 6.8). Cathedrals of the 16th century resolved questions about the continuation of the Livonian War and the election of a new king to the kingdom. A special role in Russian history was played by the Cathedral of 1613, which elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne. In the early years of the young tsar's reign, Zemsky Sobors worked almost continuously and helped Mikhail in governing the state. After the return of Father Mikhail Fedorovich Filaret from Polish captivity, the activities of the cathedrals became less active. Councils decided mainly questions of war and peace. In 1649 the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Cathedral Code. The last Zemsky Sobor, which worked in 1653, decided the question of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. After that, the zemstvo activity fades away. In the 1660-1680s. gathered numerous estate commissions. All of them were predominantly boyars. The end of the work of the Zemsky Sobors actually meant the completion of the transition from the estate-representative monarchy to absolutism.

The high position of the Boyar Duma remained in the system of state power and administration. However, in the second half of the 17th century. its importance falls. From the composition of the Duma, the so-called Near Duma stands out, consisting of persons especially loyal to the tsar.

Rice. 6.8

High development in the 17th century. reaches the ordered control system (Fig. 6.9). Permanent orders dealt with individual branches of government within the country or were in charge of individual territories. The branch orders include all orders in charge of the country's defense and affairs

service class. This function was carried out by one of the most important government bodies - the discharge order. The local order formalized land plots and carried out the court of land affairs. The ambassadorial order was in charge of the foreign policy of the state. Along with permanent orders, temporary orders were also created. One of them was the order of the Secret Affairs, directed personally by Alexei Mikhailovich. The order was engaged in the supervision of the activities of the highest state institutions and officials.

Rice. 6.9

The main administrative-territorial unit of the state was the county. The local government system was built in the 17th century. not on elected bodies, but on the authorities appointed from the center of the governors, to whom the zemstvo and lip chiefs were subordinate.

The social structure of Russian society in the 17th century. was deeply class-based (Fig. 6.10). The term "class" means a social group that has

enshrined in custom or law and inherited rights and obligations. The privileged class was secular and spiritual feudal lords. Secular feudal lords were divided into ranks, under which in the 17th century. it was understood not so much the official position as belonging to a certain group of the feudal class. The top of the latter was made up of Duma officials - boyars, okolnichy, Duma clerks and Duma nobles. The next in their position in society were the Moscow ranks - the capital's nobles. They were followed by the lower categories of the privileged class - the city ranks, which included the provincial noblemen, who were called boyar children.

The majority of the dependent population were peasants. Not serfs, personally free members of the community were called black-haired peasants, and the rest were privately owned, i.e. belonging to the landowners, or palace, or appanage, belonging to the royal family. Serfs were in the position of slaves. Residents of cities - artisans and merchants - were attached to their duties, among whom the richest were called "guests". The servants were also among the dependent estates "according to the device": archers, gunners and Cossacks.