, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, western Sichuan and northern Gansu), areas of Asian Russia south of the taiga zone, Kazakhstan and four former Soviet republics of Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan), Afghanistan, northwestern India, northern Pakistan, northern part of Iran.

For the first time, the geographer Alexander Humboldt singled out Central Asia as a separate region of the world ().

Central Asia has historically been associated with nomadic peoples inhabiting its vast expanses and the Great Silk Road. Central Asia acted as a region where people, goods and ideas converged from different parts of the Eurasian continent - Europe, the Middle East, South and East Asia.

Central Asia and Central Asia

In Russian geographical science, since pre-revolutionary times, there has been a concept Central Asia.

In the USSR, there was a division into economic regions. The two economic regions (Central Asian and Kazakhstani) were usually referred to together: “Central Asia and Kazakhstan”.

From the point of view of physical geography and climatology, the concept of "Central Asia" covers not only the four indicated republics, but also central and southern Kazakhstan.

At the same time, the USSR also used the concept of "Central Asia", which included territories outside the USSR - Tuva, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet.

“Rejection of Chinese culture, common to all the peoples of Central Asia, is remarkable. Thus, the Turks had their own ideological system, which they clearly opposed to the Chinese one. After the fall of the Uyghur Kaganate, the Uighurs adopted Manichaeism, the Karluks - Islam, the Basmals and Onguts - Nestorianism, the Tibetans - Buddhism in its Indian form, while the Chinese ideology never stepped over the Great Wall ... "" Returning to an earlier era and summing up some of the above, Let us note that although the Huns, Turks and Mongols differed greatly among themselves, they all turned out at one time to be a barrier that kept the onslaught of China on the border of the steppes. "

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the Steppe Way began to function, stretching from the Black Sea region to the banks of the Don, then to the lands of the Savromats in the Southern Urals, to the Irtysh and further to Altai, to the country of the Agripeys who inhabited the region of the Upper Irtysh and about. Zaysan. Silk, furs and skins, Iranian carpets, and products made of precious metals were distributed along this path. The nomadic tribes of Saks and Scythians participated in the distribution of precious silks, through which the goods, outlandish for that time, were delivered to Central Asia and the Mediterranean. In the middle of the II century. BC e. The Silk Road begins to function as a regular diplomatic and trade artery. In the II-V centuries. The Silk Road, if you follow from the east, began in Chang'an - the ancient capital of China - and went to the crossing over the Yellow River in the Lanzhou region, further along the northern spurs of the Nan Shan to the western edge of the Great Wall of China, to the Jasper Gate Outpost. Here a single road branched out, bordering the Takla-Makan desert from the north and south. The northern one went through the oases Hami, Turpan, Beshbalik, Shikho to the valley of the river. Or; the middle one - from Chaochan to Karashar, Aksu and through the Bedel pass to the southern shore of Issyk-Kul - through Dunhuang, Khotan, Yarkand to Bactria, India and the Mediterranean - this is the so-called Southern route. The "Northern Route" went from Kashgar to Fergana and further through Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv and Hamadan to Syria. In the VI-VII centuries. the most brisk is the path that passed from China to the west through Semirechye and Sogdiana. The Sogdian language has become the most widely used language in trade. Moving the path to the north can be explained by several reasons. Firstly, the headquarters of the Turkic kagans were located in Semirechye, who controlled the trade routes through Central Asia. Secondly, the road through Fergana in the 7th century. became dangerous due to civil strife. Thirdly, the rich Turkic kagans and their entourage turned into large consumers of overseas goods, especially from the Hellenistic states. The main number of ambassadorial and trade caravans went through the Silk Road in the 7th-14th centuries. Over the centuries, it underwent changes: some areas acquired special significance, others, on the contrary, died out, and the cities and trading stations on them fell into decay. So, in the VI-VIII centuries. the main route was Syria - Iran - Central Asia - South Kazakhstan - Talas Valley - Chuy Valley - Issyk-Kul Basin - East Turkestan. An offshoot of this path, or rather another route, went out on the highway from Byzantium through Derbent to the Caspian steppes - Mangyshlak - Aral region - South Kazakhstan. He walked bypassing Sassanian Iran, when, in opposition to him, a trade and diplomatic alliance of the Western Turkic Kaganate in Byzantium was concluded. In the IX-XII centuries. this route was used with less intensity than the one that went through Central Asia and the Middle East, Asia Minor to Syria, Egypt and Byzantium, and in the XIII-XIV centuries. revives again. The political situation on the continent determined the choice of routes by diplomats, merchants and other traveling people.

Science and arts

As the American historian Stephen Starr points out, in Central Asia in the Middle Ages, that is, many centuries before the epoch of the same name in France, there was one of the centers of the Enlightenment. The sciences were developed, primarily astronomy and medicine, as well as various arts. Due to frequent wars and political instability, the phenomenon of itinerant scientists existed. Unlike medieval Europe, where scientists, as a rule, permanently lived in monasteries or in large cities, in Central Asia they had to constantly move in search of the safest place to live and work.

Researchers

Russian empire

19th century

• Iakinf Bichurin(Chinese trad. 乙 阿欽特, exercise 乙 阿钦特, pinyin: Yǐāqīntè, pall .: Iatsinte), in the world Nikita Yakovlevich Bichurin (1777-1853) - archimandrite of the Orthodox Russian Church (1802-1823), polyglot scientist, orientalist traveler, expert in Chinese language, history, geography and culture of China, the first professional Russian a sinologist who has received pan-European fame. The author of the most valuable works on geography, history and culture of the peoples of Central Asia.
• Peter Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky(January 2 (14) - February 26 (March 11)) - Russian geographer, botanist, statistician, statesman and public figure. Explored the Tien Shan and the Issyk-Kul Lake region.

Austro-hungary

19th century

• Arminius Vambery, aka Hermann Bamberger (1832-1913) - Hungarian orientalist, traveler, polyglot, corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Came from a poor Jewish family. In 1861, taking the fictitious name Reshid Efendi, disguised as a dervish - a mendicant preacher, he made a research trip to Central Asia. In 1864 he returned to Hungary. Arminius Vambery's voyage was one of the first European penetrations into the unexplored regions of the Pamirs. In 1864 he published a book about his travels.

• Vladimir Myasnikov(born 1931) - Soviet historian, orientalist, Sinologist, specialist in the field of Russian-Chinese relations, history of foreign policy, historical biography. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor. Lecturer at the Military Diplomatic Academy in Moscow. Author of about 500 published scientific works, books, monographs in Russian and English.
• Alexey Postnikov(born 1939) - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, specialist in the history of geography, cartography and geopolitics in Asia. Author of about 300 published scientific works, books, monographs in Russian and English.
• Okmir Agakhanyants- geographer, geobotanist, historian of science, political scientist and specialist in the field of geopolitical problems of Asia, doctor of geographical sciences, professor of the Belarusian State Pedagogical University in Minsk. Author of about 400 published works of art, scientific and popular science, books, monographs in a number of languages ​​of Europe and Asia.

"Big game"

At the end of the XIX century. a struggle unfolded between Britain and the Russian Empire for influence in Central Asia and India, which the British researcher and writer Arthur Connolly called "the big game." According to observers, at the end of the XX century. a new round of the "big game" began, which was joined by many countries - the United States, Turkey, Iran and, later, China. The “players” also include the former Central Asian republics of the USSR, balancing between opposing forces in an effort to preserve their independence.

see also

Notes (edit)

Literature

• Description of Zhungaria and East Turkestan in the ancient and present state. Translated from the Chinese monk Iakinf. Parts I and II. - St. Petersburg: 1829.
• Historical review of the Oirats or Kalmyks from the 15th century to the present. Composed by the monk Iakinf. - St. Petersburg: 1834.2nd ed. / Preface V.P. Sanchirov. - Elista, 1991.
• China, its inhabitants, customs, customs, education. Composition of the monk Iakinf. - SPb., 1840.
• Statistical Description of the Chinese Empire. Composition of the monk Iakinf. Volumes I and II. - St. Petersburg: 1842.2nd ed. Under scientific. ed. K. M. Tertitsky, A. N. Khokhlova. - M., 2002.
• China in a civil and moral state. Composition of the monk Iakinth in four parts. St. Petersburg: 1848.2nd ed. - Beijing, 1911-1912. 3rd ed. Under scientific. ed. K. M. Tertitsky, A. N. Khokhlova. - M., 2002.
• Geographic index of places on the map to the history of ancient Central Asian peoples. Composition of the monk Iakinf. - St. Petersburg: 1851.
• Collection of information about the peoples who lived in Central Asia in ancient times. In three parts with a map on three large sheets. The composition of the monk Iakinfa, awarded the Demidov Prize by the Imperial Academy of Sciences. - St. Petersburg: 1851.2nd ed. Under scientific. ed. A. N. Bernshtam and N. V. Kuhner. - M., L., 1950-1953. Reprints in Kazakhstan (Almaty): 1992, 1998, 2000.
• Collection of information on the historical geography of East and Central Asia / Compiled by L. N. Gumilyov, M. F. Khvan. - Cheboksary: ​​1960.
• For the sake of eternal memory: Poetry, articles, essays, notes, letters [Iakinf Bichurin] / Compiled and author of the Foreword V. G. Rodionov. - Cheboksary: ​​1991.
• Zvyagelskaya I. D. Formation of Central Asian States: Political Processes. - M.: Aspect Press, 2009 .-- 208 p. - ISBN 978-5-7567-0570-6.
• Myasnikov V.S. Russian-Chinese relations 1689-1916. - M.: Political Literature, 1958.

It's a mystery to me what is going on in the minds of our children when they learn from the media that the region named Central Asia is located where the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers flow, but, hourly, if the works of the historian L.N. Gumilyov or the geographer E.M. Murzaev - according to which it turns out that by this name a completely different part of Eurasia is called, where the Orkhon River flows and the mountains of the Big Khingan rise ...

It all began in the last decade of the last century, when journalists who own English language, but not burdened with knowledge, began to use tracing paper from the English-language concept of Central Asia for Soviet Central Asia.

And in 1992, the President of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev at the summit of the heads of state of the region in the South Kazakhstan region in the Ordabasy area proposed to abandon the definition of "Central Asia and Kazakhstan" in favor of another definition - "Central Asia", implying that it covers all the countries of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

If earlier such names were given by scientists and specialists, then this was a special case. The union collapsed, the Central Asian republics gained independence, and an urgent need for an urgent geopolitical self-identification arose. Then this tracing paper from the English name turned up, which denoted a wider region of the mainland than the location of the Central Asian republics.

The new name seemed more prestigious than the previous one and surprisingly quickly spread in political use.

This is how the confusion began with the terms "Central Asia" and "Central Asia" in Russian (and in the languages ​​of the Central Asian republics themselves).

In the free online encyclopedia Wikipedia the following definition of the region is given:

« central Asia is the region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east, and from the south of Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south. It is also sometimes referred to within the wider Eurasian continent as Central Asia or Inner Asia... There are various names for this range of countries, and none of them is generally accepted. Despite this ambiguity in defining boundaries, the region shares a number of important characteristics in common. On the one hand, Central Asia has historically been closely associated with the Eurasian nomadic world and the Silk Road. And it was a crossroads for the movement of people, goods and ideas between Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and East Asia.

In the modern context, Central Asia consists of five former Soviet republics - Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Sometimes Central Asia also includes such regions as Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, the western part of the PRC (Xinjiang), Mongolia, Jammu and Kashmir, the northern regions of Pakistan, the southwestern and middle regions of China (Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu and Inner Mongolia ) and southern parts of Siberia " (our translation - S.I.).

As you can see, this reflects the ambiguity of the term today.

In the most widespread understanding, it includes the same five post-Soviet states. But others understand by this concept a broader region. So, what is the real content of the concept of "Central Asia"?

In the Russian geographical, cultural and historical tradition middle Asia and central Asia two adjacent but different regions.

Name middle Asia in Russian has been known since the second half of the 19th century. and its familiar content was established in the next century, after the borders of the USSR with Afghanistan and the PRC were coordinated.

According to it, Central Asia is a part of the Eurasian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west to the border with China in the east and from the Aral-Irtysh watershed in the north to the border with Iran and Afghanistan in the south.

In physical, geographical and climatological terms, it includes the Ustyurt plateau, the Turan lowland, the Turgai plateau, the Kazakh small hills and partially the mountains: Kopetdag, Pamir-Alai, Tien Shan, Dzhungarsky Alatau, Saur and Tarbagatai.

Thus, the region of Central Asia appears here as a natural country.

And in the Russian language, until recently, Central Asia was understood as the region where Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Central and South Kazakhstan are located.

It is appropriate to say that culturally and historically, the region in the past included two more regions that remained beyond the line of the Russian conquest - the present-day XUAR (PRC) and northern Afghanistan.

In parallel with the name "Central Asia" in Russian since the time of penetration Russian Empire in this region (in the second half of the 19th century) there was the name "Turkestan".

In this case, the territory between the Caspian Sea and China was called Russian (or Western) Turkestan, East Turkestan designated the territory of Western China inhabited by Turkic peoples (Uighurs, Kazakhs), the territory of the Turkic peoples and Tajiks beyond the Amu Darya was called Afghan Turkestan.

In the mid-1920s (after the formation of the Central Asian republics), the term "Turkestan" gradually fell out of use and was replaced by the term "Central Asia".

Then the Kirghiz SSR, the Tajik SSR, the Uzbek SSR and the Turkmen SSR were merged into the "Central Asian economic region", and the Kazakh SSR was separated into a separate economic region, and hence the stable expression "Central Asia and Kazakhstan" appeared.

Thus, according to the Soviet geographical tradition, Central Asia and Kazakhstan were a group of physical and geographical countries located in the inland regions of Asia, and at the same time a large region characterized by similarities natural conditions, economic activity, historical destinies and resettlement.

A central Asia was also considered exclusively as a natural, physical and geographical region, covering the territories of Northern China and Mongolia.

It is known that the name "Central Asia" became common after the appearance of the eponymous work of the German geographer and traveler A. Humboldt L'Asie Centrale (Berlin, 1844. T. 1). In this fundamental work, the territories south of Altai up to the northern slope of the Himalayas were assigned to Central Asia. Then F. Richtofen in his book "China" (1887) outlined the western and eastern borders of Central Asia, including the lands from the watersheds of the Pamirs in the west to the watersheds of the gigantic rivers of China and the Great Khingan in the east.

Since then, Russian geographers understood Central Asia as a region stretching east of the Pamirs. N.M. Przhevalsky (1888) drew the borders of Central Asia along the Himalayas, Pamir, Western Tien Shan, in the east - along the Great Khingan and the border ridges of China. V.A. Obruchev (1951) somewhat narrowed the boundaries of the region - it included only the territory of Mongolia (with the exception of its northern part) and the desert regions of China, without the Tibetan Plateau.

Russian geographers and historians also used the terms Central Asia and Inner Asia applicable to this region.

Meanwhile, the concept of Central Asia in the West expanded and it was by the middle of the 20th century. already included all the inland regions of Asia - from Transcaucasia to Tibet. Thus, it now covered both Russian-language names. And Western authors, when they talked about the Central Asian interfluve, used the clarifying definition of Soviet Central Asia.

In the general history of Central Asia prepared by UNESCO even before the collapse of the USSR (Dani, A.H. and Masson, V.M. eds. UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Paris: UNESCO, 1992), the definition of the region is based on its climatic features, and the region itself includes Mongolia, Western China, Punjab, northern India and northern Pakistan, northeastern Iran, Afghanistan, regions of Asian Russia south of the taiga zone and five former Soviet Central Asian republics.

But Soviet science at one time did not accept this change in definition.

And then, before our very eyes, two different terminological traditions collided in the post-Soviet information space - and today we have this confusion with names middle Asia and central Asia.

It should be noted that the Soviet understanding of the Central Asia region was flawed, since due to the observance of the principle of "indivisibility" of borders, the natural extensions of the region beyond the Khan-Tengri mountains and beyond the Amu Darya were cut off.

Now the Russian language has a need to accept the international term. central Asia in a broader sense, and somehow differently designate the sub-regions within its framework - the Central Asian interfluve (still call it Central Asia?) and the territory of Mongolia and Northern China (continue to call Central Asia? Inner Asia?).

Because in the modern global information space, terminological confusion is undesirable.

Without a doubt, the modern expanded understanding of the boundaries of the Central Asian region inevitably requires the allocation of several sub-regions in its composition according to geographical and cultural-historical (civilizational) characteristics. For example, Pakistan and Afghanistan, as countries with a firm position of Sunni Islam, stand apart from Shiite Iran, and the five independent states of the Altai-Caspian area with a common historical, ethnic, cultural and linguistic heritage, as well as Soviet experience, are separate, unlike anyone else. a historical sub-region.

It is well known that the civilization of the Central Asian interfluve has absorbed two components - the civilization of nomads and sedentary farmers, and since the existence of the Great Silk Road it has been a kind of bridge between East and West. And this location suggested the possibility of a universal perception of the achievements of both parts of the world.

Against the background of other, long-established regions (East, South, Southeast Asia, etc.), Central Asia is becoming a region that is acquiring its geopolitical appearance. And the former Central Asia within its framework, no matter how it is called now, is a special cultural and historical region with its own face and development prospects.

Central Asian identity. The political and geographical “content” of the terms “Central Asia”, “Central Asia” and “Turkestan” among different authors (especially among “natural scientists”, on the one hand, and “humanities”, on the other) differs significantly, although in the literature of the Soviet period , largely due to the instructions of the ideological department of the Central Committee of the CPSU, there was "complete clarity" in this regard: Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan traditionally constituted Central Asia (Turkestan was associated with it), while the concept of "Central Asia" was used in physical and geographical context.

In the 90s. the term “Central Asia” acquired the predominant meaning, including Kazakhstan. Some authors began to identify the concepts of "Turkestan" and "Central Asia", although such a step seems unjustified. Turkestan, as a historical and geographical region, covers the Xinjiang Uy-Gur Autonomous Region of China, as well as the northern part of Afghanistan. The confusion with the definition of the Central Asian region is largely "indebted" to Western humanitarians, who, using practically the only term - "Central Asia", interpret it quite arbitrarily, sometimes resorting to constructions such as "Greater Central Asia", "Expanded Central Asia ", Central Asian macroregion", etc. Consideration of “Central Asia in such a broad framework (that is, the inclusion of Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan and other“ distant ”states) to a certain extent loses its meaning in a serious geopolitical analysis - therefore, for ourselves, we will limit Central Asia to five post-Soviet countries.

Among the arguments in favor of Central Asian identity, with a certain degree of conventionality, one can note the territorial community of the states of the region, their resource-climatic similarity, historical parallels of development, ethnolinguistic and especially confessional closeness of local peoples.

Firstly, the region is located between two large mountain systems - the Urals, on the one hand, and the largest mountain systems of alpine folding - the Pamir and Kopet-dag - on the other. From the west, the natural boundary is the basin of the Caspian Sea. (Geographically, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are somewhat isolated, since their territories are a "continuous alternation" of mountain ranges and valleys.) At the same time, all of Central Asia is an area of ​​internal flow that does not have river flows associated with the ocean.

Secondly, most of the (plain) is characterized by an arid climate, which determines the spread of semi-desert and desert landscapes here. The moisture deficit is largely associated with the "drying up" of the Amu Darya and Syrdarya due to poorly thought out water use systems (the situation around these river arteries is somewhat reminiscent of the situation with the transit of Russian gas through Ukraine, when the Russian side accused Ukraine of stealing gas from gas pipelines). Low humidity and high temperatures largely determined the agricultural specialization of Central Asia as the largest cotton producer back in the Soviet era.

Thirdly, the recent history of Central Asia has developed in the framework of united state- the Russian Empire, and then the USSR.

In the context of drawing "historical parallels", let us mention the "cutting" of artificial borders in the region, i.e. on the imposition of "artificial identification". The territories that now belong to the Central Asian region were included in various combinations in the composition of ancient formations: Khorasan, the Samanid state, the Timur empire, etc. (If Russia still remembers the almost three-hundred-year-old Tatar-Mongol yoke, then this region has experienced at least five historical catastrophes of this magnitude.) At all times, the allocation of national territories in this region, especially on the lands of nomads, was largely ritual. In the traditions of the Central Asian peoples, it was generally not accepted to correlate ideas of property or nation with territory. In the strict sense, the concept of "territory", interpreted as a piece of land with certain boundaries, is not applicable to this nomadic space, cut by borders only after the arrival of the Russians and the British.

Fourth, we can talk about the presence of an ethnolinguistic community in the region. The Uzbeks, Turkmens, Kazakhs and Kyrgyz are Turkic speaking, while the Tajiks represent an "Aryan island" in the "sea of ​​Turks", belonging to the Iranian language group. However, the above reservation should be repeated: historically, the population of the region identified itself not with an ethnic group, but with a place of residence, and in this sense, national identification here is a somewhat artificial thing. Only in Soviet times were national borders "cut", and the population began to refer themselves to the corresponding nationalities.

Fifth, Despite the long-term processes of secularization, one can speak of the confessional identity of the Central Asian peoples professing Islam. Most of the local Muslims are Sunnis, although the population of Gorno-Badakhshan is Ismaili, and there are small Shiite communities in Turkmenistan. At the same time, the Russian-speaking population, which in Soviet times was not in any way religious, is now more and more actively involved in Orthodoxy as one of the means of its cultural identification.

Thus, despite the obvious features of commonality between the Central Asian regions, none of the identity factors is absolute, i.e. fully, without any reservations, uniting peoples and states.

Historical past. Located at a historical crossroads between Europe and South Asia, the Middle East and the Urals, the Central Asian region (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan) has been the scene of dramatic events for millennia. Numerous conquerors were attracted here. The "Great Silk Road" ran through it, thanks to which there was a

Trade and industrial centers, the nuclei of the famous Uzbek-Tajik civilization twisted: Samarkand, Bukhara, Khojent, Tashkent, Khiva and others. The Fergana Valley, the basins of the Zeravshan, Kash-Kadarya, the lower reaches of the Amu Darya have been densely populated oases since ancient times. Later, on the ruins of the ancient states of Kho-Rezmshahs, Timur and Timurids, Sheibanids in the XVI - Xviii centuries three feudal states were formed: the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand khanates. In addition to the Uzbeks, the population of the khanates was represented by Tajiks, Turkmens, Kazakhs, and Karakalpaks.

The Tajiks can be considered the most ancient of many of the peoples living in the region. Iranian-speaking descendants of the population of Bactria and Sogdiana at the end of the 9th century. created the Tajik state of the Samanids, which later fell under the blows of the Turkic-speaking tribes.

By the last quarter of the 19th century, this vast and multifaceted region was completely under the rule of the Russian Empire. The metropolis took vigorous measures to end feudal strife, restore trade, crafts, and agriculture. Already in the 1880s and 1899s. the railway “cut through” these ancient lands from Krasnovodsk in the Caspian Sea through Mary, Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent to Andijan. At the beginning of the XX century. a new highway connected Tashkent with Orenburg, and through it with Central Russia. The construction of enterprises for the processing of local agricultural raw materials - cotton ginning, oil mills, flour mills, etc.

Under Soviet rule, considerable investments were made in the development of industry (mainly food and light) in Central Asia, Agriculture, transport infrastructure, social sphere... But the most noticeable shifts in the region's economy took place during the Second World War, when many defense and other industrial enterprises were relocated to Central Asia, together with labor collectives from the European part of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. However, the agrarian and raw material structure of the economy of the local republics (with the exception of Kazakhstan) has been preserved to this day, which is indirectly confirmed by the high proportion of rural residents (about 60% versus 26% in Russia).

After the collapse of the USSR, the formation of a relatively independent union of five Asian countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which established the so-called Community of Central Asian Republics, was immediately announced. In terms of population (about 50 million people), this block is approximately equal to Ukraine, but "overtakes" it before our very eyes. With rich reserves of fossil fuels, iron, non-ferrous metals, fertile lands, it has become

will become a serious counterbalance to Ukraine and Belarus in the balance of Russia's economic interests in the “new abroad”. At the same time, the economic integration of the Central Asian states is limited both by the underdevelopment of some of them and by the fact that their economies duplicate rather than complement each other. The process of political integration is even more difficult, since their geopolitical interests (see below) do not always coincide.

The process of religious and cultural revival is much more successful (mosques are being built, religious festivals are being held, the number of pilgrims is increasing, etc.). In addition to close proximity in the Central Asian region, these states are brought together by a common historical fate, a single religion, the similarity of the mentality of the local population, features of demographic development (high birth rate), etc.

Under the new conditions, the Central Asian states faced a painful choice: should they continue to focus primarily on the former "metropolis" or look for new strategic partners. In the early 90s. XX century it seemed that in the resulting geopolitical vacuum, a real competition would begin between states seeking to assert their economic and geopolitical dominance here. It was assumed that in the conditions of the weakening of Russia, two countries could become new geopolitical leaders in the region: Turkey and Iran. At first glance, this hypothesis seemed quite logical. However, neither Turkey nor Iran has yet been able to master the role of the region's geopolitical leaders. Ankara's main task is to cope with numerous of its own problems, and first of all - with the Kurdish one. There is no strength for any serious economic expansion in Central Asia and Tehran. In addition, the ideological model of Iran is completely unacceptable for the authorities of the Central Asian states, which emphasize their adherence to a secular democratic model of development.

Kazakhstan: between the Slavic North and the Turkic South. The unique geographical position of Kazakhstan lies in the fact that it is located, as it were, in a mixed Eurasian geopolitical space and is a kind of "Turkic bridge", a mediating link between the Slavic North and the Turkic South, between the Christian North-West, Confucian-Buddyst Southeast and the Muslim Southwest. (It is noteworthy that part of the territory of this state in the west - along the right bank of the Ural River, geographically belongs to Europe.)

As one of the largest states in the world in terms of area (2,712.3 km 2), Kazakhstan is distinguished by colossal territorial specifics. So, Northern Kazakhstan is a typical Southern Siberia with a sharply continental climate, steppe vegetation

Nost, chernozem soils, predominantly Slavic population and developed grain farming. Thus, if we approach the identification of Central Asia not from state-territorial positions, but from real ones, including geopolitical ones, then the territory of Northern Kazakhstan should not be included in the framework of Northern Kazakhstan, since it does not coincide with most of the region-forming features. Central and Western - semi-desert and desert regions with a predominance of the Kazakh population, grazing in agriculture and the centers of the mining industry. Southern Kazakhstan (the foothills of the Tien Shan and the Syr Darya valley) has a distinctly Central Asian appearance with a large sum of temperatures, irrigated agriculture, specializing mainly in cotton and rice.

A common history has linked Russians and Kazakhs for about 300 years. The Kazakhs (for a long time called the Kyrgyz) acquired their own state education in 1920, when the Kyrgyz (?!) ASSR was formed as part of the RSFSR, with its center in Orenburg. Later, the republic changed not only its shape, but also its name (Kazak, then Kazakh), eventually receiving the status of a union republic. The constant “adjustment” of the northern boundary shows how artificial it is. Today Kazakhstan is in close contact with the Russian Lower Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia and Altai. This neighborhood is reflected in the interconnected network of communications that, like threads, connect the two states. In the west, railways and highways connect Guryev (Atyrtau) and Uralsk (Oral) with Astrakhan and Saratov. In the central part, the lines of ground communications have the longest history and lead from Kyzyl-Orda and Aralsk to Orenburg.

The country is generously endowed with mineral resources (among the republics the former Soviet Union first place in reserves of chromium, vanadium, polymetals, silver, tungsten, bismuth, bauxite, one of the first places in reserves of copper, molybdenum, cadmium, asbestos, phosphorites, iron ores, coal, oil, gas). Accordingly, in the industrial production of Kazakhstan, non-ferrous metallurgy, mining, coal industry are distinguished, supplemented by meat and wool washing. Moreover, the main industrial centers are located in Northern (including the Karaganda region), Eastern Kazakhstan (Rudny Altai with Ust-Kamenogorsk) and in the southeast in the foothill zone. One of the disadvantages of the economy is its low complexity, poor development of many manufacturing industries (upper floors), which makes Kazakhstan akin to Eastern Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation.

Let us recall the distinctive features of the geography of Kazakhstan - the largest (after the Russian Federation) in the territory of the "fragment" of the Soviet

Kazakhstan serves as a connecting inland bridge between Slavic-Christian Russia and the Turkic South, between China (Xinjiang), Russia and Central Asia;

Kazakhs, in the past typical nomads, belong to the Turkic ethnolinguistic group of peoples. By religion, they are Muslims, but the role of Islam in the public life of the country is relatively weak (nomadic civilization, the influence of the Soviet subculture, etc.);

The bowels of the country are extremely rich in valuable minerals (WTO
place in the former USSR after Russia), and this led to the pre
property development in the republic of black (Temir-Tau) and color
noy (Ust-Kamenogorsk, Balkhash, etc.) metallurgy, coal
industry, iron ore mining, etc .;

Features of local climatic conditions (aridity)
determined the development of sheep breeding and the sectoral structure of light
industry (wool washing, leather, sheepskin and fur coat);
humid steppes of Northern Kazakhstan (once virgin and
fallow lands) is a large granary (even by world standards
cam);

A powerful Russian-speaking diaspora (Russian, Ukrainian, not
German communities) in northern Kazakhstan is an important factor
"West Slavic" (European) orientation of the country, over
200 years under the direct protectorate of Ros
siysk state. (Transfer of the capital from Almaty to the north -
to Astana aims to prevent geopolitical races
cola of the country into the Russian-speaking North and the Kazakh South.)

So, according to a number of economic indicators, Kazakhstan is one of the most significant states in the world. He has all the necessary resources (oil, ores, grain) for active trade with the world community. However, due to its border position with Russia and, based on the fact that about two-thirds of the republic's population are Slavs (moreover, compactly living in the northern regions of the country bordering on the former metropolis), Astana is simply forced to focus primarily on its northern neighbor. We also add that the Russian Federation has not always skillfully used the Russian factor in Kazakhstan.

The orientation of Kazakhstan towards the North is economically justified. Thus, the main product of Kazakhstan's export is grain, which is also grown in the "Slavic" regions bordering on the former metropolis, it is much more profitable and safer to sell to the traditional buyer - Russia than to look for new markets. The same can be said about the mining industry, which is closely related to the metallurgical plants of Yuzh-

Noah of Siberia and the Urals. Perhaps the only industry in Kazakhstan that is of interest to the world market is the oil and gas industry.

Using Kazakhstan's potential as a bridge or buffer to the maximum benefit for Russia is the most important task of Russian politics. At the same time, the Russian Federation has real economic, cultural and political resources to effectively implement its interests:

a) long-term presence of the territory of modern Kazakhstan
as part of the Russian Empire and the USSR;

b) the presence of an extended common border;

c) general lines of communication;

d) the preserved ties of Russian and Kazakh enterprises
yati;

e) the absence of natural boundaries limiting employees
honor;

f) joint dispersed residence of Kazakhs, Russians, uk
raintsy and "mixed" population on both sides of the Russian
Kazakhstan border.

Uzbekistan. While Kazakhstan is the largest state in Central Asia in terms of territory, Uzbekistan has the largest population (Uzbeks are the largest non-Slavic ethnic group in the former USSR). The country, located at the junction of the desert plains and mountain systems of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai, forms the core part of Central Asia and only it borders on each of the other states in the region. Most of the Fergana Valley, the “pearl” of Central Asia, belongs to Uzbekistan, and the capital of the republic itself, Tashkent, is considered the traditional “gateway” of Central Asia.

Uzbekistan, whose territory includes foothill plains and intermontane basins in the upper reaches of rivers, is much better supplied with water for irrigated agriculture than its neighbors. Using abundant thermal resources, the republic, while still a part of the USSR, became an absolute producer of raw cotton and cotton fiber (about 2/3). In recent years, the share of cotton in crops has been decreasing, which has long been "expected" due to a sharp violation of the ecological balance in the region (including South Kazakhstan) - a decrease in water consumption in rivers, the drying up of the Aral Sea, etc. Of the mineral resources, the most significant are gas, copper and tungsten ores, sulfur, and in the structure of the industry, the light and food industries, mechanical engineering are distinguished.

Many threads tie together Uzbeks and Tajiks (especially northern ones), who belong to the ancient Muslim (Uzbek-Tajik) civilization, which stands above the ethnolinguistic differences existing between these peoples. Traditionally, there were

There are two written languages ​​- Persian (or Persian-Tajik), which was used as the language of the administration (including Uzbek), and "Chagatai-Turks", from which the modern Uzbek language later crystallized. The cell of the Uzbek (as well as Tajik) society is the makhalla - an urban area-community with elements of autonomy and self-government, and in the countryside there is a kishlak.

The most striking geographical features of Uzbekistan include the following:

Uzbekistan is the main "core" of one of the most ancient civilizations in the world (Uzbek-Tajik civilization);

Uzbeks are representatives of the Turkic group of peoples,
women of Islam, the most numerous ethnic group in Central

Within the region, the country occupies the most profitable geopo
political situation, having common borders with everyone else
mi republics;

The economy of Uzbekistan until recently was based
on growing cotton ("cotton republic"), in connection with which
the overwhelming majority of dehkans (peasants) live in irrigated oases
and is engaged in cotton growing, as well as in the production of light products,
food industry, mechanical engineering.

Uzbekistan's aspirations to become the new regional leader in Central Asia are evidenced by both the foreign policy strategy and the statements of the Uzbek leadership. Thus, the idea of ​​a single common home - Turkestan - is most often repeated in the local mass media. It should not be forgotten that in Soviet times, Uzbekistan was a kind of conductor of the Center's policy in Central Asia, and this "habit" is still evident. Claims for regional leadership are justified, among other things, by historical arguments: the presence of “ great history and great spiritual heritage ”,“ great culture ”. The fact is emphasized that at the time when the population of neighboring countries still lived in tribes, sciences and arts were already flourishing on the territory of Uzbekistan.

In the post-Soviet era, Timur became the main historical authority in Uzbekistan, and, accordingly, Uzbek statehood is counted from his empire. The Tashkent Museum of Timur contains a map of the geographical zones of influence (territories from which tribute was collected) of the great conqueror, which, in addition to North Africa and North India, includes the vast territory of modern Russia with the current capital. All this to some extent predetermines the leadership ambitions of Uzbekistan.

Building its relations with Uzbekistan, Russia naturally takes into account all these realities. Compared to Kazakhstan, which, due to its geographic location, is "doomed"

Maintaining friendly relations with its northern neighbor, Uzbekistan with its relative development, demographic and natural potential, as well as with a great gravitation towards the Turkic-Islamic world can "afford" a greater degree of independence.

Tajikistan. Tajikistan is a highland country, 90% of the territory of which is occupied by mountains and highlands, and almost 50% of the territory is located at an altitude of 3,000 m. The surface structure here is well distinguished: 1) the Alai mountain system (with the Turkestan, Zeravshan and Gissar ridges); 2) Pamir; 3) the western part of the Fergana Valley (Fergana Tajikistan) and 4) the southwestern part with the Vakhsh, Gissar and other valleys.

The borders of the republic run mainly along natural boundaries - mountain ranges, intermountain depressions, river arteries. At the same time, they can be divided according to priority levels into the most important (not only for Tajikistan) - the former borders of the Soviet Union and internal - with the Central Asian states. The border with China (Xinjiang) stretches for about 500 km, and the border with Afghanistan (Samangan, Kunduz, Badakhshan, Takhar, Balkh provinces) for 1.5 thousand km.From the Central Asian states, Tajikistan borders with Uzbekistan (more than 1 thousand km) and with Kyrgyzstan (about 700 km).

Like other titular peoples of Soviet Central Asia (that is, those who gave the names to the republics), the Tajiks are part of the Islamic world. However, they are the only ones who in this region do not belong to the Turkic, but to Iranian group peoples (Indo-European ethnolinguistic family). The population of Tajikistan clearly distinguishes between the northern lowland Tajiks, belonging to a single civilization with the Uzbeks (the valley subculture of which is based on the Samarkand, Bukhara, Fergana and Khojent Tajiks, as well as the Tajik-Chagagai), and the southern-mountain Tajiks (the mountainous subculture of the southern Tajiks, whose lands were not included in the Turkestan General Government, and then in the Turkestan Republic). Despite the unity of the origin of the Pamir peoples (Shugnans, Garmis Rushantsy, Kalai-Khumbtsy, Vanchians, Tajiks of Karategin, Darvaza, etc.), they are fragmented into local subcultures with their own dialects, customs, traditions, differences in traditional clothes and cuisine. Residents of the extreme south of Tajikistan (Gorny Badakhshan) do not feel kinship with the inhabitants of the north. In addition, a significant part of the southerners - Ismailis, those. Muslims of one of the branches of the Shiite persuasion, unlike other Muslims of Central Asia - Sunnis. The internal heterogeneity of the dismemberment of Tajik society gives rise to sometimes calling Tajiks a community out of necessity.

Let's emphasize the most remarkable features of the geography of Tajikistan:

Within the framework of the Central Asian region, the country is "bordered" by Turkic states, while the Tajiks themselves (Muslims by religion) belong to the Iranian ethnolinguistic group of peoples. At the same time, the Tajik ethnic group is one of the disunited (between Tajikistan and Afghanistan);

Tajikistan is one of the most mountainous countries on the planet (Pamir is the roof of the world), which creates difficulties for economic activities and people's lives, the development of agriculture, the construction of communications, etc .;

Local rivers (the Vakhsh river, tributaries of the Pyandzha river, etc.) take their
the beginning is high in the mountains, they are rich in water and, thanks to
steep fall, have a colossal global scale
bam hydropower reserves (which is why the production guide
reelectricity - one of the areas of economic special
lization of the country);

Geopolitically, Tajikistan is located far from Russia and
has no common border with her. However, destabilization is about
installations (especially on the Afghan-Tajik border) is capable of
upset the balance of power across the region and endanger the eco
nomic and political interests of Russia.

In this long-suffering country, the political struggle is indistinguishable from the inter-regional, inter-clan struggle. The fight is fought between three main clans: Leninabad(Northern Tajikistan), Karategin(mountainous region in the south of the republic) and Kulyab-skim(south). At the beginning of the XXI century. the situation in Tajikistan remains unpredictable and dangerous. Any conflict, unfortunately, can initiate the dismemberment of the republic and cause, in turn, a wave of territorial redistributions in Central Asia, where the borders are conditional.

The greatest geo-economic attractiveness for Russian business is represented by Tajik hydropower resources. On the territory of the former USSR, in terms of its hydropower potential, the republic was second only to the vast Eastern Siberia. Access of Russian aluminum producers to Tajik hydroelectric power plants would mean an increase in market power and a strengthening of their competitive position in the world market. The Tajik authorities undertake to take into account the interests of Russian aluminum holdings in the future privatization of the Tajik aluminum plant.

As we can see, Russia's geopolitical and geoeconomic interests in Tajikistan are by no means illusory, but quite tangible. By gaining a foothold in this important geopolitical foothold, Russia will be able to much more actively influence the state of affairs in the entire Asian subcontinent, which in turn will allow it to pursue a more independent foreign policy and force it geopolitical

opponents (China, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Afghanistan, etc.) treat Russian interests more respectfully.

In the post-Soviet geopolitical space of Central Asia, Russia's presence in Tajikistan will allow, firstly, to protect the interests of the remaining, relatively large Russian-speaking diaspora. The hypothetical withdrawal of Russia from Tajikistan is likely to lead to panic among Russians and Russian-speakers, on the one hand, and to an increase in anti-Russian sentiments among various kinds of nationalists and fundamentalists, on the other. Secondly, it will help to effectively control the penetration of drugs into Russia, since it is the "golden crescent" (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran) that is one of the world's largest producers of opiate drugs (primarily heroin), and Tajikistan is the main transshipment point of drug traffickers on the way from the "golden crescent" to Europe. Thirdly, Russian business can reap real dividends contributing to the development of the Tajik economy. Thus, the objective interests of the Russian Federation and Tajikistan itself largely coincide.

Kyrgyzstan. As a part of the USSR, Kyrgyzstan was traditionally viewed as a secondary element in the structure of Soviet Central Asia, which was partly confirmed by its status as an autonomous republic within the RSFSR (later elevated to the status of a union republic). The country has neither a great cultural and historical heritage (unlike Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), nor a developed industry (like Kazakhstan), nor a great natural resource potential (like Turkmenistan). As a result, Kyrgyzstan is forced to engage in an intensive search for geopolitical and geo-economic "trump cards" for successful development. There is reason to believe that the political and economic orientation of Kyrgyzstan towards Russia is explained not only by the traditional bonds of friendship between our peoples, but also by pragmatic considerations. According to the witty remark of the former president of this state A. Akaev, expressed in the 90s: “Russia is an icebreaker, if you don’t go in its channel, the ice will crush”. Like Tajikistan adjacent to the south, Kyrgyzstan includes within its limits almost exclusively mountainous areas - the Central and almost the entire Western Tien Shan, and in the extreme south a part of the Pamir-Alai. A glance at the geographical map reveals a somewhat “deformed” geometrical configuration of the republic, whose territory in the western part is, as it were, “pressed down” by the Fergana Valley, which became part of Uzbekistan as a result of the national-state demarcation. Building a geopolitical strategy, Kyrgyzstan cannot but reckon with its political and geographical position, largely determined by the common borders with Kazakhstan (about 1,000 km), Uzbekistan

kistan (about 800 km), Tajikistan (about 700 km) and the PRC (about 1,000 km).

There are nuances, however, which the geographic map is "silent" about. Thus, within the republic, two historically formed parts are clearly distinguished: the north as a cultural "fragment" of the Semirechensk region and the south as a cultural "fragment" of the Fergana region. Accordingly, the northern part is distinguished by lively ties with South Kazakhstan (they are connected by rail and road), and the southern part is more integrated into the "Fergana" cultural space, has common ground communications with Uzbekistan. Another nuance is associated with the very strong ties of good-neighborly relations between Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, whom the Soviet press at the beginning of the 20th century. mistakenly perceived even as a single ethnic group. Hence, it is clear that for the Russian Federation, which does not have a common border with the mountainous republic, Kazakhstan serves as the most important connecting "bridge".

Like Kazakhstan, the population of the republic increased significantly during the Great Patriotic War due to evacuated people (often together with enterprises) and as a result of the deportation of peoples from the European part of the USSR to the republic. Therefore specific gravity Kyrgyz population in the republic has dropped significantly - up to 40%. After the rehabilitation of the deported peoples and their mass departure to their historical homeland, as well as the collapse of the USSR and the emergence of the refugee problem, the proportion of the Kyrgyz began to increase. At the same time, the combination of progressive poverty and uncertainty of prospects for the Russian-speaking population negatively affects the dynamics of the emigration of the latter. Even giving a special status to the Russian language could not change the situation, since poor knowledge of the Kyrgyz language, unemployment, economic problems clearly outweighed the scales.

The situation is aggravated by the lack of clarity on the strategic paths of development of the national economy and due to problems with the sources of the initial accumulation of capital. The rugged relief limits the development of agriculture, and to a lesser extent, of pasture animal husbandry (sheep, goats, horses). Of greatest interest for agriculture are the few valleys - the Chui, Talas and Kyrgyz parts of the international Fergana Valley. Mountain rivers (Naryn, Talase, Chu, etc.) serve as a source of electricity and water for irrigation. The local economy is based mainly on the breeding of fine-fleece and semi-fine-fleeced sheep, the cultivation of cereals, beets, tobacco, as well as the production of light products (wool washing, woolen, leather) and food industries.

Let's emphasize the main geographic features of Kyrgyzstan: like Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan is a high-mountainous country (1/3 of the territory lies above 3000 m), which is reflected in

the way of life of the local population and the economy of the country (grazing livestock, irrigated agriculture in valleys and intermontane basins);

Kirghiz (by religion - Muslims, but the role of Islam
ma, as in Kazakhstan, is poorly expressed in public life)
belong to the Turkic ethnolinguistic group of peoples,
although their distant ancestors who migrated to the foothills of the Tien Shan
from the headwaters of the distant Yenisei, belonged to the Mongol group
Altai family of peoples;

The industry of the republic does not have a clearly defined international
native specialization. Main economic region - Chui-
skaya valley, where 2/3 of the industrial and most
agricultural products of the country.

From the point of view of the world community, this country is a deep province, a distant periphery. Based on this sad reality, the Kyrgyz authorities understand that they cannot count on the great interest of world business, given the country's poverty in mineral resources of export value. Nevertheless, this Central Asian state has already received considerable Western loans, standing out among its neighbors with a pronounced democratic image of power structures. Unlike the authoritarian-minded leaders of some neighboring states, the leadership of Kyrgyzstan is trying to follow, not in words, but in deeds, democratic, liberal values, and their attempts did not go unnoticed in the West, where they regard Kyrgyzstan as an example on which to prove the fundamental possibility of inculcating Western liberal democratic values ​​on the Central Asian soil.

Unlike the United States, Russia has not only geopolitical, but also geoeconomic and geocultural interest in the republic. The most attractive target for Russian capital is the mining industry, primarily gold mining. However, Russian business is also interested in acquiring large blocks of shares in leading Kyrgyz manufacturing enterprises, which in some cases still retain production and infrastructure ties with Russian enterprises.

In addition to objective economic conditions, Kyrgyzstan has one more circumstance that pushes this country towards a close alliance with Russia. About 30% of the population of the republic is Slavs, i.e. 3 times more than in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. Consequently, Bishkek simply cannot but take into account the "Russian factor" when determining the foreign policy of its state. In geopolitical terms, the importance of Kyrgyzstan for Russia is determined, among other things, by an extended border with

China, the danger of the spread of Islamic fundamentalism to the territory of Central Asia, as well as the increased attention of the West to it.

Turkmenistan. After the conquest of Central Asia by Russia, as is known, the question arose about the delimitation of the acquired territory. It was decided not to inherit the borders of the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva Khanate and Turkmenistan, but to divide Central Asia into the Turkestan Territory and the Trans-Caspian Region. The authorities proceeded partly from the fact that the Turkestan region was clearly oriented "inward", which could not be said about the Trans-Caspian region, where the geopolitical influence of Persia and even Afghanistan was felt. From the height of today's "epiphany", the reasonableness of such a decision, of course, can be questioned, since in the new conditions it significantly facilitates the drift of Turkmenistan away from Russia and serves as a kind of argument in favor of the status of permanent neutrality adopted by this country (the UN recognized this status by resolution of 12.12 .1995).

Modern Turkmenistan, almost equal in territory to France, is located in the southwest of Central Asia, adjoins the Caspian Sea, borders Iran and Afghanistan in the south, and Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in the north and east. 9/10 of its territory is a sandy desert Kara-Kum, always greatly burdened the life of the local population. The local population is concentrated along the perimeter, along the borders with Uzbekistan (in the middle reaches of the Amu Darya and on the left bank), in the valleys of the Murgab and Ted-zhen rivers, in the foothill plains of the Kopetdag ridge and on the Caspian Sea, mainly in the Krasnovodsk Bay area.

Taking into account the "water hunger", the Soviet government in 1947 decided to build the Great Karakum Canal (from the middle reaches of the Amu Darya to the foothills of the Kopetdag and further to Krasnovodsk on the Caspian coast), designed to improve the republic's water supply. As one of the most ambitious hydraulic structures in the world, this canal has simultaneously become an example of an anti-ecological solution to the problem due to the colossal volumes of water evaporation from its surface. (Under these thermal conditions, artificial watercourses are usually built closed, which minimizes evaporation and infiltration of water.)

For many years the Turkmen Republic remained a typical agricultural outskirts of the USSR, specializing in sheep breeding and cotton growing (especially after the construction of the Karakum Canal). However, the discovery of huge reserves of oil and gas dramatically changed the nature of its economic specialization and, with a relatively small population, gave rise to hopes for early prosperity here (like the countries of the Persian Gulf).

Let's note the main features of the geography of this Central Asian state:

Geographically, Turkmenistan is the southernmost and at the same time
but the westernmost country of the region, geographically close
naya to Iran (a long common border) and to Turkey, which in
largely allows the authorities of this country to build
to play “our” geopolitical “game”;

Turkmenistan is the most arid country of the new abroad,
90% of its territory is occupied by desert landscapes. In connection with
this is the nature of the settlement of the Turkmen and the pattern of agriculture
wear pronounced oasis character. Life problem
mine is irrigation(moreover, water as the main life
the resource is "imported", not yet commercially, from
neighboring countries);

Turkmens belong to the Turkic group of peoples and are
adherents of Islam. In the social organization of the Turkmen
the society reveals the features of the tribal organization;

The Turkmen economy is based on the extraction and export of nature
natural gas and oil, as well as cotton and sheep farming.

Until recently, economic relations between Russia and Turkmenistan were viewed mainly through the prism of gas trade. The Russian Federation gives a clear account of the fact that Turkmenistan is one of the most serious competitors of Russia on the world gas and, to a lesser extent, oil market, and that it is hardly reasonable to hope for a long time to maintain the current configuration of the pipeline network oriented towards Russia. In this regard, our country is interested in finding ways of long-term strategic partnership between two major world gas exporters. On the one hand, Turkmenistan is interested in diversifying its pipeline infrastructure, in particular, in the implementation of the trans-Caspian pipeline: Turkmenistan-Azerbaijan-Georgia-Turkey-Europe. On the other hand, the new government of this country has embarked on a course towards a broader development of world economic ties, towards the establishment of more versatile and trusting relations with Russia.

Test questions and tasks

1. Indicate the main components of the Central Asian identity. 2. Why is the ethnocultural affinity of Uzbeks and Tajiks higher than the ethnolinguistic differences existing between these peoples?

3. Compare the natural resource potential of the Central Asian states
gifts. Evaluate it from the point of view of Russia's geoeconomic interests.

4. What is the uniqueness of the Fergana Valley? 5. "Draw" the scene
nariy of the future relations of our country with the Central Asian
states, taking into account its geopolitical, geoeconomic and geo
cultural interests.

Already passed under the jurisdiction of China in July 1997.

In the region under consideration, there are countries of different types and different levels of socio-economic development.

According to the economic-geographical typology, Japan belongs to the group of economically highly developed states (after the United States, it ranks second in the world in terms of economic power). China and the DPRK are still socialist states, Mongolia is called a post-socialist country, and Taiwan and the Republic of Korea () belong to the group of developing states (although, according to the level of its economic development, the Republic of Korea, according to many scientists, can already be classified in the group economically) ... Macau is a non-self-governing territory.

Japan, the only highly developed state in the region, is a constitutional monarchy. According to the current constitution, the emperor is "a symbol of the state and the unity of the people." The highest body of state power and the only legislative body in the country is the parliament.

In 1931, Japanese troops occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 they started a war against China. Having entered into an alliance with the Nazi and Fascist, during the Second World War on December 7, 1941, with its attack on Pearl Harbor (Hawaiian Islands, USA), militaristic Japan unleashed a war against the United States. In 1942, she occupied large territories in the South: Peninsula, Malaya, Burma, which significantly increased the colonial possessions of Japan. But these territories were previously colonies of European states (Great Britain,), that is, the situation in the region could not be calm - open hostilities were conducted here during the Second World War. It was during this period that local national liberation movements began to gain strength and gain strength.

Germany and its allies lost the Second World War. On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered under the blows of the armed forces of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. Post-war events unfolded as follows.

Under the terms of the peace treaty with Japan, Korea was promised independence. Northeastern China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan (Formosa) and other Chinese islands seized by Japan were supposed to be returned. South Sakhalin was returned to the Soviet Union and the Kuril Islands, which had once belonged to Russia, were handed over.

In the course of hostilities in this area, the Americans occupied everything, as well as the Caroline Islands and the Mariana Islands, which were under Japanese rule (later on behalf of the United States, guardianship over the islands was carried out). The southern part of the Korean Peninsula (up to the 38th parallel) also entered the zone of American occupation, and the northern part was occupied by Soviet troops.

We signed the so-called Security Guarantee Treaty with Japan, which gave them the right to keep their armed forces there and establish military bases. In 1960, the United States and Japan signed a new agreement on mutual cooperation and security guarantees, which is automatically extended.

Currently, there are two states on the Korean Peninsula with different political systems: the DPRK and the Republic of Korea.

Korea is one of the oldest states in East Asia with a unique history and culture. The first information about it dates back to the II millennium BC. A single feudal state was formed in the 7th century. The last royal dynasty lasted from 1392 to 1910. During the Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905. Korea was occupied by Japan. After World War II (in 1945), the country was divided along the 38th parallel, which became the dividing line between Soviet and American troops.

In 1948, the Republic of Korea (South Korea) was officially proclaimed in Seoul, and North Korea - in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). In 1950-53. there was a war on the peninsula, which was the result of an acute confrontation between the two republics on the issue of uniting the country. The post-war ceasefire agreement is still in force. An important event was the entry in 1991 of both Korean states into the UN.

Mongolia is a country that also has a long history of its existence. The founder of the first unified state at the beginning of the XIII century. was Genghis Khan. Later, in the 17th century, Mongolia was conquered by the Manchus in parts and until 1911 was part of the Qing Empire. Then the independence of the country was proclaimed and the national statehood was restored in the form of unlimited feudal-theocratic. In 1915, the status was limited by the framework of broad autonomy under the suzerainty of China and the patronage of Russia (later, Chinese troops were introduced into the country).

In 1921, as a result of the struggle of the Mongolian people for liberation, the victory of the people's revolution was proclaimed. Mongolia became a people's republic (MPR) and for many years developed in close cooperation with the USSR. Foreign trade was for the member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), and the main trading partner was the Soviet Union.

At present, Mongolia (Mongol Uls) is a "post-socialist state", a republic with a presidential form of government, an agrarian-industrial state. In the early 90s, former socialist associations were transformed into joint-stock companies, and the privatization of livestock was mainly completed. The country is undergoing reforms in order to move from a planned system to a market economy.

China is one of the oldest, dating back to the XIV century. BC e. On its territory, during the slaveholding and feudal periods of development, centralized empires repeatedly appeared, disintegrating into independent principalities. From the 17th to the 20th centuries the country was ruled by the Manchu Qing dynasty, which with its policy brought the country to the position of a semi-colonial state. In the XIX century. China became the object of the colonial expansion of a number of imperialist powers (Great Britain, Japan, Germany, etc.).

Major event in Newest history China was the Xin Hai Revolution (1911-1913), which overthrew the Manchu monarchy and proclaimed the Republic of China. During the war against Japanese aggression in China (1937-45), the USSR rendered great assistance to the Chinese people. In 1949, after the defeat of the Japanese Kwantung Army and the completion of the people's revolution, the People's Republic of China was formed on the mainland.

And to the island of Taiwan (or the island of Formosa - the former possession of Japan), the remnants of the Go-Mindang regime that was overthrown in the country fled. There, the "government of the Republic of China" was established. According to the current constitution in Taiwan, the Taipei regime is a republic headed by a president. The highest representative body is the National Assembly. Currently, the government of Taiwan claims to be represented in the world community on behalf of all of China, the mainland of which, according to Taipei, is "temporarily occupied by the communists." For its part, it believes that Taiwan should recognize the government of the PRC and proposes the formula "one state - two systems" (that is, Taiwan becomes a special administrative region under the jurisdiction of China). Taipei, on the other hand, offers 76 its own formula - "one country - two governments." The situation has not changed for many years.

Today Taiwan belongs to the group of "newly industrialized countries" - "four small economic dragons". Along with the Republic, it plays an increasingly important role in the economies of the Asia-Pacific region.

In recent years, the PRC has seen a very significant economic upturn and the political course is being adjusted. In 1992 (at the XIV Congress of the Communist Party of China), a course was proclaimed to further deepen economic reforms and transfer the economy to the rails of a "socialist market economy." An open foreign economic policy is being implemented. The country is moving to the forefront in the world - in terms of growth rates and GDP, iron and steel smelting, etc. However, all socio-economic indicators per capita are still very significantly inferior to the corresponding indicators of economically developed countries of the world.

In July 1997, Hong Kong, the former colonial possession of Great Britain (like Taiwan, which belonged to the group of "newly industrialized countries"), passed under the sovereignty of China. The PRC guarantees Hong Kong the preservation of a special economic and legal status for the next 50 years. How events will actually unfold - the future will show.

Introduction

Central Asia, despite its relatively small area, is a significant part of the modern world. At present, the states of Central Asia, with more or less success, are participating in several different-vector integration formations. It is also worth noting the cultural and natural features that the region is rich in. Objective:
- to get acquainted with the political, economic, natural and social characteristics of Central Asia;

Identify a number of problems in the region (demographic, economic) and outline ways to solve them.

Key facts about the Central Asia region

Central Asia today includes five republics: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the countries of the Central Asian region naturally re-evaluated their own role as subjects of geopolitical and international relations, which, among other things, affected their regional self-identification. There was a rejection of the self-designation of the region "Central Asia and Kazakhstan" fixed in the Soviet period in favor of the definition of "Central Asia". After 20 years, the definition of "Central Asia" has become commonly used, denoting a geopolitical space, which includes five states of the former USSR - Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. (For the first time, the proposal to rename the region was voiced by Nursultan Nazarbayev, who was supported by the leaders of other CA countries). The total population of the region is 65 million. The region of Central Asia is geopolitically part of the Eurasian civilization, the Islamic component predominates in confessional terms, the Turkic component predominates in ethnic terms, Soviet identity predominates in the historical sense, and Western roots predominate in education.

Region composition

The boundaries of Central Asia are defined in different ways (as defined by UNESCO, for example, the region includes Mongolia, Western China, Punjab, northern India and northern Pakistan, northeastern Iran, Afghanistan, regions of Asian Russia south of the taiga zone, and the five former Soviet republics of Central Asia) however, the region is now believed to be made up of the following countries: Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. The area of ​​the region is 3,994,300 sq. km. The countries have many features of a cultural and historical community. At the same time, each of the countries has its own specifics.

Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan is a state located in the center of Eurasia. The border of Kazakhstan runs along the Caspian Sea, then along the Volga steppes, rises north to the southern spurs of the Ural Mountains, then east along the West Siberian Plain to Altai. In the east, the border runs along the Tarbagatai and Dzungaria ridges, in the south - along the Tan-Shan mountains and the Turan lowland to the Caspian Sea. The area of ​​the territory of Kazakhstan is 2 million 724.9 thousand km² (ninth largest in the world). The capital of Kazakhstan is Astana.

The relief of Kazakhstan is represented by all high-altitude steps - from low-lying plains to high mountains. Lowlands are located in the north, where they form the southern part of the West Siberian Plain, in the northwest (Caspian Sea region) and in the south (Turanian Plain). They account for about ⅓ of the territory of the republic. More than half of its area is occupied by plateaus - Poduralskoe, Turgayskoe, Ustyurt, Betpak-Dala - and uplands - General Syrt, Kokchetavskaya with heights of 300-400 m, as well as the vast Kazakh Uplands with heights of up to 400-600 m.The surface rises from the north and west to the east and southeast, where plains give way to mountains. Mountain ranges of Altai, Dzhungarskiy Alatau, Tan-Shan rise up to 4000-5000 m and more. The highest point of Kazakhstan is located on the border with Kyrgyzstan - it is the Khan Tengri peak (6995 m) in the mountains of the Central Tien Shan. Mountain systems are separated by intermontane depressions; the largest of them are Ili, Alakol, Zaysan. [??]
The bowels of Kazakhstan are rich in minerals. They are associated not only with a folded basement complex, but also with a loose sedimentary cover. Several structural and geological provinces with a specific set of minerals are isolated.

Large deposits of copper (Dzhezkazgan, Kounradskoye and other deposits), lead, zinc, rare metals, coal (Karaganda coal basin), iron and manganese ore are concentrated in Central Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan Altai is known for its copper-lead-zinc ores, deposits of gold, tin, and rare metals. The main polymetallic deposits are Leninogorskoye, Zyryanovskoye, Belousovskoye. The Turgai trough is an area of ​​large reserves of iron ores. The Kacharskoe, Sokolovskoe, Sarbayskoe, Korzhunkulskoe deposits of magnetite ores are especially rich. The Ural regions of Kazakhstan are characterized by chromite, copper and asbestos mineralization. The Urals in the Aktyubinsk region is famous for its phosphorites and high-quality nickel ores. Lead-zinc ores are mined in the Mirgalimsayskoye, Baizhansayskoye and Achisayskoye deposits. The Caspian Basin and the Mangyshlak Peninsula are an oil and gas province. The Emba oil has long been famous for its high quality. The Caspian Basin is also associated with huge reserves of sodium chloride and potassium salts. They are confined to salt-dome structures that break through a loose sedimentary cover.

The climate of Kazakhstan is continental and dry. The inland situation determines the predominance of the anticyclonic type of atmospheric circulation and a very weakened cyclonic activity. The predominance of clear weather increases the duration of sunshine (from 2000 to 3000 hours per year). Winter, except for the southernmost regions, is severe, usually with little snow, with strong snowstorms and blizzards. The average January temperature is -19º, in the extreme south up to - 3 - 5º. In summer, the weather is also not mild. Average July temperatures are 19-20º in the north and 28-30º in the south.

About six thousand species of plants grow in Kazakhstan, about 500 species of birds, 178 species of animals, 49 species of reptiles, 12 species of amphibians can be found in its open spaces, and about 100 species of fish in rivers and lakes.

Forests occupy about 5.5% of the area of ​​Kazakhstan and are located in the northern forest-steppe, in the eastern and southern mountainous parts of the country. Most of the forests in the country are located in the region of the northern Tien Shan and Altai mountains. There are juniper forests and alpine meadows, apple and walnut trees grow in the gorges. Among the mammals living in the northern Tien Shan, the snow leopard, brown bear, and Siberian ibex are especially distinguished. Taiga forests are found on the territory of Altai, where a natural reserve on Lake Markakol was created on the Kazakh territory. Here, in the taiga forests, such rare bird species as wood grouse, hazel grouse, and ptarmigan live.

The steppes of Kazakhstan are a thrilling and breathtaking sight. Here you can meet several hundred species of birds that live in the area of ​​numerous fresh and salt lakes. Lake Tengiz in Central Kazakhstan is home to one of the rarest and most beautiful bird species in the world - pink flamingos. To protect them, the government of Kazakhstan created the Kurgaldzhinsky reserve.

Among the deserts of Kazakhstan, one can distinguish the Betpak-Dala desert, the Ustyurt plateau desert, the Kyzyl Kum sandy desert, the Moyunkum desert, as well as the Aral Karakum desert. It is inhabited by gazelles and jerboas, as well as the thunderstorm of all deserts - the viper. In addition to it, 16 more species of snakes were identified on the territory of Kazakhstan. Of course, we must not forget about the largest lizard that lives only in the sands of Kyzylkum - the gray monitor lizard.

In terms of species, aquatic vegetation is the poorest (63 species) in the flora of the republic, but the most ancient. Rare and endangered plants in Kazakhstan are subject to special protection, there are about 600 species, a significant part of them are included in the Red Book of Kazakhstan.

The population of Kazakhstan has been multinational since ancient times, its number is 17 670 957 people as of January 1, 2016 [Wikipedia].

Uzbekistan

The Republic of Uzbekistan is a state located in the central part of Central Asia, which borders Kyrgyzstan in the east, Kazakhstan in the north, Turkmenistan in the southwest, Afghanistan in the south and Tajikistan in the southeast. Uzbekistan covers an area of ​​447,400 sq. km. The capital of Uzbekistan is Tashkent.

The territory of present-day Uzbekistan arose as a result of the Paleozoic (about 300 million years ago) mountain building. It was then that the Turanian plate and land were formed, which later became the mountains of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai. The territory of Uzbekistan has a mostly flat relief. Only where the Paleozoic basement protrudes above late sediments (for example, in the Kyzyl Kum) did the island mountains (Sultanuizdag, Tamdytau, Kuldzhuktau, Bukantau, etc.) rise to a height of almost 900 m.Really, only the folded regions of the Tien Shan turned out to be high and the Pamir-Alai.
Each large natural area of ​​the republic is distinguished by its combination of relief forms. The Ustyurt plateau (height up to 300 m) has a slightly undulating relief and steep (150 m height) cliffs (chinks) to the coast of the Amu Darya and the Aral Sea. The alluvial-delta plain in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya is characterized by a flat relief, which is diversified only by low (from 60 to 80 m) backbones. In Kyzylkum, along with the aforementioned outlier mountains, there are various forms of accumulation - ridges, hillocks, dunes, oriented in accordance with the direction of the prevailing winds. In the east, mid-mountain and high-mountainous forms of relief prevail: the slopes or ends of the ranges of the Western Tien Shan (Ugasky, Pskemsky, Chatkalsky, Kuraminsky ridges) and Pamir-Alai (Zeravshansky, Gissar, Kugitang, Baysuntau ranges) are within the republic. The mid-mountain (up to 2169 m) Nuratinsky ridge is somewhat isolated. The mountains are characterized by large contrasts of heights and a strip of hilly foothills - adyrs, steep ridges with narrow, picturesque gorges and often sharp watersheds. But there are also low mountains (Aktau, Karakchitau, Gobduntau, the western end of the Zeravshan ridge) with smooth ridges.
WITH geological structure and the relief associated and minerals. On the plains with their sedimentary rocks there are deposits of oil and gas (Gazlinskoe, Shakhpatinskoe, etc.), self-precipitated salt (Barsakelmes), and building materials. Deposits of coal (Angrenskoye, Shargunskoye, Baysunskoye, etc.), noble, non-ferrous and rare metals, fluorite, and building materials are associated with older rocks of the mountains.

Uzbekistan has a hot, continental, arid climate. From north to south change winter temperatures: average for January - from -10º to + 2-3º, absolute minimum - from -25º to -38º. On the other hand, in the summer on the territory of the plains of Uzbekistan, the average temperature remains at the level of 30º with absolute maximums above 42º. In the mountains (above 3000 m), the average summer temperatures drop to 22-30º.

The territory of Uzbekistan is diverse, but large areas of this country are partly of little use for life: these are deserts, steppes and mountains. The cities of Uzbekistan, around which the life of the people of this country is concentrated, are located in the river valleys.

The flora of Uzbekistan numbers over 3700 plant species. 20% of the species are endemic, most of which grow in the mountains. The flora of the steppes and deserts consists of peculiar shrubs. On the low plains, woody, shrubby, and herbaceous vegetation is developed. Reed and kendyr thickets are typical for tugai. In the landscape of the foothill plains, there are no grasses, no trees, bushes are found along watercourses. Various types of onions, tulips, rhubarb and irises grow here. The high foothills are a dry forb steppe on dark gray soils. Shrubs grow on rocky areas - almonds, kurchava, cherry trees. The most valuable tree species, the Zaravshan juniper, mainly grows in the low mountains. Also common hardwood- maple, hawthorn, different shapes wild apple, pistachio, walnut, birch, willow, poplar, magalebka cherry. The lowlands are very rich in shrubs: honeysuckle, barberry, wild rose, tavolda, wild vineyard thickets. The set of herbs is very diverse: clary sage, ziziphora, rhubarb, sorrel, tulip, Pskem onion (a valuable medicinal plant). Rosehips and other shrubs grow in the middle mountains. In the highlands, only 30% of the soil is covered with vegetation. Mainly fescue grows here.

As well as flora, fauna of Uzbekistan is diverse. Many representatives of the Asian fauna can be found here. Among them: mammals (wolf, eared hedgehog, fox, corsac, toloy hare, turtle, gazelle, saiga, wild boar, horned goat, mountain sheep, badger, stone marten, bear, leopard, ermine, Siberian mountain goat, plastinated toothed rat, jackal, Bukhara deer, Bukhara horseshoe bat, pointed-eared bat gopher, jerboa), reptiles (geckos, agama, sandy boa, snake arrow, Central Asian cobra, snake snake, four-striped snake, Alai golaz), birds, avian bustard, beauty saja, dunny nightjar, steppe buzzard, jay, sorokaput, warbler, finch, oatmeal, lentil, great dove, black vulture, griffon vulture, lamb, Himalayan snowcock, bearded vulture, accentor, jackdaw, pheasant, cuckoo, yellow wagtail, magpie, magpie, black vulture crow, southern nightingale, baleen tit, reed bunting, blackbird warbler), insects, etc.

About 70 species of fish are found in water bodies: Aral salmon, Amudarya trout, pike, Aral roach, Aral barbel, carp, goldfish, catfish, pike perch, perch, snakehead, silver carp, grass carp.

The population of Uzbekistan was 31,025,500 people (at the time of 2015).

Tajikistan

Tajikistan is located in the southeastern part of Central Asia. The territory of the republic is stretched 700 km from west to east and 350 km from north to south. The area of ​​Tajikistan is 142,000 km². The republic has complex outlines of borders, reflecting the historical and geographical features of the settlement of the Tajik people. In the west and north, Tajikistan borders with Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, and in the south and east with China and Afghanistan. The capital of Tajikistan is Dushanbe.

Tajikistan is located within the boundaries of the Pamir-Alai mountain system and the adjacent sections of the Fergana Basin. Ismoil Somoni peak and Communism peak rise in the north-east of the republic. There is also one of the most powerful continental glaciers in the world - the mountain-valley Fedchenko glacier. Mountains occupy 90% of the territory of Tajikistan; the nature of the mountainous republic is unique, full of contrasts. The complexity of the relief, the variety of heights, the pronounced vertical zoning determine the large differences in landscapes in certain areas. On the plains, which occupy only 7% of the territory of the republic, most of its population, almost all cities and the main branches of the national economy are concentrated.

The natural resources of Tajikistan are very diverse. Many deposits of polychemical, rare and noble metals have been identified on the territory of the republic: zinc, lead, molybdenum, tungsten, copper, gold, silver, antimony, mercury, fluorspars, tin, uranium, bismuth, iron, manganese, table salt, magnesium and others having export value. There are deposits of coal, gas, oil, marble, building materials. 80% of coal is coking.

The climate in Tajikistan is subtropical with significant daily and seasonal fluctuations in air temperature, low precipitation, dry air and little cloud cover. The contrast of climatic conditions is associated with the three-dimensional distribution of indicators: according to thermal conditions, climates change from bottom to top - from subtropical (hot summers, warm, wet vegetation winters in the valleys) to moderate (hot summers and cold winters in the mountains) and cold (warm summers, very cold winter in the highlands). Solar heating is also changing from north to south.

The flora and fauna of Tajikistan is diverse. There are more than 4.5 thousand plant species in Tajikistan. Such floristic richness in a relatively small area is the result of intense speciation while preserving many relics (species that have survived from ancient times). At least a quarter of the species are endemic. The flora of Tajikistan is genetically related to the flora of the Mediterranean, the Himalayas, Tibet, and the northern regions of Eurasia. On the territory of Tajikistan, there are some of the ancient centers of the formation of cultivated plants: ligulless wheat and various forms of barley, different varieties of peas, ranks, chickpeas, and beans. There are also many original fruit varieties - apricots, almonds, grapes. In all altitudinal zones, there are medicinal, food, fodder, oil-containing, fibrous, tanning, dyeing and other plants. Animal world Tajikistan is also diverse: 84 species of mammals, 346 species of birds, 44 species of reptiles, several species of fish and more than 10 thousand species of insects and other arthropods. In deserts and ephemeral grass stands there are gazelles, wolves, hyenas, foxes, ground squirrels, porcupines, hares, bustards, lizards - monitor lizard and yellow-bellied turtle, and from snakes - efa, cobra, shtomordnik.

Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan is located in the northeastern part of Central Asia. In the south-west, it neighbors with Tajikistan, in the west - with Uzbekistan, in the north - with Kazakhstan. The border with China is in the east and south. The area of ​​Kyrgyzstan is 199,951 km², the capital is Bishkek.

The main mountain ranges of Kyrgyzstan belong to the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai systems. They stretch in huge arcs, mainly in a latitudinal direction, gathering in the east in the mighty Khan-Tengri mountain range. The combination of the processes of destruction and demolition leads to a wide variety of landforms, characterized by a tiered structure and at the same time massive manifestations of asymmetry.

In the Northern Tien Shan, metamorphic and magmatic sedimentary strata are widely developed, which are accompanied by deposits of non-ferrous metals. Deposits of gold, molybdenum, vanadium, iron ore are associated with gneisses, crystalline schists, amphibolites and marbles of the Inner Tien Shan; deposits of mercury, antimony, tin, and others are associated with carbonate rocks of the Pamir-Alai. Hot minerals (coal, oil, gas) occur in intermontane depressions. The richest deposits of Jurassic coals in the Northern and Inner Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai. Oil and gas fields are located in the Fergana Basin in Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments. Kyrgyzstan is rich in nonmetallic minerals, underground waters and curative mud. All this is widely used in the national economy of the republic.

The climate in Kyrgyzstan is mostly dry, sharply continental, formed under the influence of factors such as comparative southern position, remoteness from the oceans, large contrasts of heights, the proximity of the Pamir mountains, the plains of Siberia, Kazakhstan and Dzungaria. This is the reason for hot summers and rather cold winters, large contrasts of seasonal and daily temperature norms. The duration of the sunshine is great in Kyrgyzstan.

The diversity of the flora of Kyrgyzstan is determined by the location of the country in the high-altitude zone. On slopes with different humidity, different types of vegetation grow. On the northern slopes, there are steppes, meadow steppes, meadows, and bushes. While due to the dry climate, the southern slopes are covered mainly with semi-deserts and deserts. The flora of Kyrgyzstan is represented by 3676 lower plants and 3786 higher plants. On the territory of the republic there are about 600 species of useful wild-growing types of herbs, of which 200 are officially recognized as medicinal: basil, Karakol aconite, timber, Turkestan motherwort, St. John's wort, coltsfoot, oregano, sea buckthorn, etc. Among the wild plants of economic importance, one can note: salt marsh, barberry, rhubarb, Fergana spurge, various types of thyme, etc. In the south of Kyrgyzstan there are unique natural formations - walnut forests. Valuable genetic material of these forests is represented by walnut trees, Siverskaya apple-tree, Sogdian cherry plum, pear trees, Korzhinsky pear, Tien

Shan cherry, barberry bushes, almond and pistachio trees, Dzungarian and Turkestan hawthorn and many other species.

101 species of the simplest unicellular animal organisms, 10242 species of insects and arthropods represent the fauna of Kyrgyzstan. In addition, the country is home to over 1.5 thousand invertebrates, 75 species of fish, 4 species of amphibians, 33 species of reptiles, 368 species of birds and 83 species of mammals. At an altitude of 3400-3800 meters, common inhabitants are the gray marmot, the silver vole and the narrow-headed vole. In summer, brown bears are found in alpine meadows. Besides him, the inhabitants of alpine meadows are rams, marmots, hares, mountain goats and wolves. Mammals do not live at altitudes of 3800-4000 meters, however, gray marmots and narrow-headed voles are frequent guests. Above the snow line, on the ledges of rocks (height 4.4 kilometers), the red-breasted redstart and alpine mountain chaffinch nest. Mountain goose, rock dove, partridge, alpine jackdaw and large bullfinch can also be found at this altitude. And at an altitude of 4500 meters, there are snow goats and predatory leopards. Many endangered animal species inhabiting the territory of Kyrgyzstan have been listed in the Red Book: wild sheep, snow goat, roe deer, red deer, bear, deer, fallow deer, lynx and snow leopard.

The population of Kyrgyzstan is about 6 million people.

Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan is a Central Asian country that borders Afghanistan and Iran in the south, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in the north. In the west, the republic is washed by the Caspian Sea. The area of ​​the republic is 491,200 sq. km. The capital of Turkmenistan is Ashgabat.

Turkmenistan is often called the land of deserts and oases. This definition reflects the main appearance of the landscape of the republic: deserts occupy more than 80% of its territory. This is the Karakum desert (“black sands”, which is equivalent to the concept of “overgrown sands”), as well as part of the deserts of the Ustyurt plateau, the Krasnovodsk and Mangyshlak plateaus and the coastal strip along the Caspian coast. The plateaus drop off steeply to the plains, and these steep ledges are called "chinks". The population lives mainly on the periphery of the republic, in oases. By the nature of the relief, the territory of Turkmenistan is divided into two unequal parts - flat and mountainous. Plains account for more than 80% of the territory of the republic. In the mountainous part, the Kopetdag ridge (the highest point is 2942 m), belonging to the system of the Turkmen-Khoran mountains, as well as the western spurs of the Pamir-Alai, entering the territory of Turkmenistan by the Kugitang ridge (up to 3137 m), stand out.

Mineral resources of sedimentary origin prevail in Turkmenistan - oil, gas, sulfur, table salt, mirabilite, quartz sands, limestones, etc. All of them are being developed. Combustible gas is supplied through powerful gas pipelines to the Central Industrial Region of the country.

Turkmenistan is characterized by a sharply continental dry climate with its typical features - significant daily and annual fluctuations in temperature and precipitation, dry air, low cloud cover, negligible amounts of atmospheric precipitation. The continentality and aridity of the climate are associated with the considerable remoteness of the territory from the oceans, with its southern inland position and the nature of atmospheric circulation.

As it should be in a continental climate, air temperatures fluctuate within significant limits: on the plains - from 11º in the north to 17º in the south (in average annual terms), and in the mountains at an altitude of 1500 m - from 6º to 10º.

The nature of Turkmenistan has thousands of plant species, ranging from desert grasses and saxauls to mountain forests. The fauna is represented by 91 species of mammals, 372 species of birds, 74 species of reptiles and 60 species of fish. A special distribution of flora and fauna is observed in the mountain valleys. There are several reserves on the territory of Turkmenistan: Badkhyz, Krasnodar, Repetek, Kopetdag, Amudarinsky.

The population of Turkmenistan is 5,240,502.

Here you need to try to write down some problems of relations between the Central Asian states, based on the composition of the region. But those have not yet been identified.

Population

The history of Central Asia is extremely complex, the territory of which lay on the path of invasions by many conquerors and powerful migrations that influenced the composition of the population, the formation of languages ​​and culture. Large states were formed that left a deep mark in history, and collapsed under the blows of the conquerors. The periods of prosperity of cities, agricultural oases were replaced by their death and desolation, the high achievements of science and art alternated with times of decline in culture, stagnation. On the ruins of the disintegrated states, new ones arose, there were endless feudal wars.

Under these conditions, the process of ethnic formation of the peoples of Central Asia was going on. The initial elements of the ethnic community of today's nations were formed as early as the 9th - 12th centuries. The peoples of Central Asia are linked by ethnic kinship. In addition, the ancestors of many of them for a long time entered the same states, jointly fought against foreign invaders. Brought them closer and joint participation in uprisings against feudal rulers, as well as constant economic and cultural communication.

Demographic problems

Among the demographic problems typical for Central Asia, it is worth noting some very important and significant ones. First of all, these are interethnic and interfaith contradictions. It is worth recalling the facts of nine years ago to understand that Central Asia is not a stable region in terms of conflicts. The main lines of interethnic tension were conflicts between the titular ethnic groups, as well as between them and the non-indigenous population, in the role of which were no longer Russians, but Asian peoples who were deported to the territory of the region during the Soviet period or who appeared here relatively recently as a result of labor migrations. As an example, we can recall the events of November 2006, on the eve of the 20th anniversary of the Alma-Ata events, when mass protests of Kazakhs took place against the appointment of G. Kolbin, a Russian by nationality, as the first secretary of the Republican Communist Party, there were clashes between Kazakhs and Uighurs in the Shelek village of Alma-Ata. area. The riots began on November 18 with a domestic brawl in the Old Castle cafe, in which three Uighurs beat a Kazakh. The fight escalated into mass clashes between Kazakh and Uyghur youth, in which the numerical superiority was on the side of the Uyghurs. The next day, the Kazakh youth decided to take revenge and started a fight in three cafes, whose visitors were Uyghurs. The clashes, in one of which up to 300 people participated on both sides, moved to the street and were stopped only thanks to the intervention of the elders. To prevent further clashes in the village, a kind of curfew was imposed, and elders' control over entertainment establishments was established.

Another problem related to the demography of Central Asia is migration. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, external migration processes in the Central Asian states have undergone fundamental changes twice. In the first half of the 90s, there were powerful flows of forced migration from this region. As the potential for forced migration (which was based on the migration of the Russian-speaking population) was exhausted, the scale of legal and illegal labor migration of the indigenous population of Central Asia began to grow. Currently, labor migration of the indigenous population of Central Asia has become widespread.

The main sources of labor migration flows from the region are three states: Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. According to various estimates, at the end of 2005, there were between 1.8 and 3.5 million labor migrants from Central Asian countries in Russia, 9/10 of whom came from the aforementioned countries. (from bibliography)

Due to the fact that labor migration is predominantly illegal, it is difficult to determine the real number of labor migrants. The statistical authorities of the Central Asian countries and their migration partners cannot name exact scales labor migration from the region. Information from the authorities often requires certain adjustments to be made. Thus, according to the materials of the Office for External Migration of the Ministry of Labor and Employment of the Population of Tajikistan, more than 250 thousand labor migrants from this country are in the CIS countries. According to the State Migration Service of the Republic of Tatarstan, the volume of labor migration exceeds 0.5 million people. According to experts from the Security Council under the President of the Republic of Tajikistan, the number of labor migrants from Tajikistan is about 800 thousand people. According to the Committee for the Protection of the State Border of the Republic of Tatarstan, in 2001 alone, more than 1.2 million people left the country in order to earn money. This spread in estimates can be partly explained by the fact that the total number of migrants, in addition to citizens of Tajikistan, may include transit migrants (for example, from Afghanistan), the fact that many migrants repeatedly cross the border during the year, etc.

Ecological problems. The most serious problem is the rational use of labor resources. Rivers are transboundary, basin ecosystems are threatened. The solution to this issue is important both today and in the future. If the states located in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan) are constantly experiencing a shortage of water, then the states of the upper reaches (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) are faced with the problem of providing fuel resources from neighboring countries to load power plants in the winter. which leads to additional use of hydropower facilities. However, the operation of hydroelectric power plants in winter at full capacity is fraught with a number of negative consequences: a decrease in the volume of reservoirs, an excess of water discharge into the border areas of neighboring states. Thus, the problem of rational use of water and energy resources in Central Asia has long been at the level of interstate relations.

Central Asia is a continental zone, the most remote from the ocean routes. Its land communications are closed to Russia, and air communications are underdeveloped. The region occupies a peripheral position in relation to many large blocks of the world geopolitical space: Western Europe, the USA, South and Southeast Asia. Only Russia, China and the Middle East are directly adjacent to it. This is partly due to the choice of Central Asia by Russia and China as subjects of regional policy.

It is also worth noting the management problems associated with political and economic processes:

Lack of a mechanism for implementing decisions. In Central Asia, there is a discrepancy in the positions of the participating states on many issues. Execution rate remains low decisions taken, and the documents themselves are of a general, recommendatory nature. In particular, the problem of the rational use of water and energy resources of the countries of the Central Asian region remains a problem. The existence of many unresolved problems and the lack of coordinated actions by all parties in overcoming them impede the development of integration processes in the transport sector. In particular, the project of creating an International Transport Consortium has not yet been implemented, the functioning of which would contribute to the formation of a common transport policy of the Central Asian states, the effective development of their transit potential.

Different levels of economic development in Central Asia. The states of the Central Asian region have a multi-level and multi-speed economy, which is a constraining factor in deepening the integration interaction of the Central Asian countries.

3. Ineffective development of mutual trade of the Central Asian states. Differences in the pace and scale of economic liberalization, the low level of economic interaction between the Central Asian states have become the main factors in the ineffective development of mutual trade between them. It should be noted that the economies of the Central Asian countries complement each other in many respects, which creates an opportunity for expanding the range of commodities in the mutual trade of the Central Asian states. The current situation testifies to the presence of many unresolved problems in the regional cooperation of the Central Asian countries; the level of implementation of the decisions made remains low. Restraining factors in the development of regional cooperation are not only different rates of economic transformation in the countries of Central Asia, but also the introduction of all kinds of restrictions in mutual trade, the presence of high political and economic risks of investment.

Ways to solve environmental problems in the region:

1. Prevention of artificial reduction in the volume and regime of flows of transboundary rivers into the Aral Sea, which may lead to a deterioration of the ecological situation in the Aral Sea zone, the health of the population, and the living conditions of millions of people living in this region;

2. Implementation of measures to curb the spread of desertification and soil salinization through measures for forest planting and other agro-technical and special measures in the zone of ecological disaster;

Creation of conditions for the expansion of employment and the growth of incomes of the population in the zone of ecological disaster through the development of small business, first of all, low-water-intensive industrial and agricultural production, the service sector.

In order to achieve the goal of deepening integration processes in the region, it is necessary to focus efforts on the most priority areas of economic interaction. Four such areas can be distinguished.

First, the joint rational use of water and energy resources. The priority of this area of ​​cooperation is explained by the fact that the Central Asian states are linked by common river basins of the Syrdarya and Amu Darya rivers, a single ecological system, a common gas pipeline Gazli-Bukhara-Tashkent-Shymkent-Almaty.

In the water sector of the region, the following problems have emerged today:

1. general shortage of water resources;

2. lack of a unified legal framework;

3. frequent disregard for the interests of neighboring countries;

4. violation of the existing principles of water distribution in transboundary rivers;

5. non-fulfillment of compensatory supplies (meaning compensation to Kyrgyzstan for water from the Toktagul reservoir in the form of supplies of heat and energy resources in the winter).

All these problems can be solved only if there is sufficient political will of the Central Asian states. All issues should be resolved through constructive negotiations. The main thing is not to turn water into an instrument of political and economic pressure. It is necessary to give water the status of a common value. For Central Asia, water should become a unifying, not a separating principle. The interaction of the states of the region in this direction should be carried out on the basis of such generally accepted principles as respect for sovereignty, equal partnership, consideration of national interests and the conscientious fulfillment of mutual obligations.

The main tasks to be addressed by the efforts of the countries of the region in this area are.