As for the differences in the appearance of the ancient and modern Greeks, the following stereotype is popular:

the Greeks supposedly used to be all fair, with regular features. So in general in ancient Greek poems it is said. And the fact that now they are completely different is the consequences of the Turkish conquest.

"Recent genetic studies of Greek populations have provided evidence of statistically significant continuity between ancient and modern Greeks." (Wikipedia).

As for the myth of fair-haired people, it is very well explained in the Greek forum:

Thanks to user Olga R.:

"The Greeks were never a" homogeneous "ethnos. Since ancient times, they were divided into two tribal groups: Ionians (Achaeans) and Dorians (there were subgroups within these groups, but this is not relevant to the subject of our conversation). These tribes differed from each other friend not only in culture, but also in appearance. The Ionians were short, black-haired and swarthy, and the Dorians were tall, fair-haired and fair-skinned. The Ionians and Dorians were at enmity with each other, and both tribal groups completely mixed only in Byzantine times. Although the word "completely" here it is not entirely appropriate: in geographically isolated areas - for example, on some islands - one can still find a relatively pure Ionic or Doric type.

The Greeks of the Black Sea region (Ponti-Romeans, Azov Rumeians, Urums, etc.), like the rest of the Greeks, are also very heterogeneous: among them there are both pure Ionians and Dorians, and mixed type(The Black Sea region has been inhabited for many centuries by people from different regions of Greece). Therefore, some Greeks of Ukraine may well differ from some Greeks of Greece - but, of course, not all and not from all. For example, if you go to Crete, you will find there as many "white and curly" Greeks as you like (most Cretans retained the Doric type of appearance)."

"- Then where did such a" classical "Greek image come from and get fixed?

Thanks to "Western European artists of the 17th-19th centuries. They portrayed the ancient Greeks like themselves, loved ones - that is, Germans, Dutch and other Western Europeans. Hence the" stereotype "(not based on historical data.

"White-haired blondes are also, of course, called "ξανθοι" (and what else to call them?) But if you hear or read this word in relation to the Greek, then it means light chestnut hair."

"Homer describes Odysseus as a typical Ionian: swarthy and black-haired."

"... The fact is that the appearance of the ancient Greek gods was, as it were, a symbol of their essence - that is, it did not depend on how the worshipers of these gods looked, but on the "properties" of the gods themselves. So, Apollo's golden hair is a symbol The "gray" eyes of Athena are actually not gray, but "owl": A8hna glaukwphs (the interpretation of this word as "gray" appeared because the ancient Greek word glaux - "owl" - translators of modern times confused with the word glaukos - "gray" or "blue"). The owl was a symbol and one of the incarnations of the goddess Athena; many scholars believe that Athena was originally the goddess of death and was revered in the form of an owl (a typical Neolithic image of death and burial). By the way, there are images Athens with the head of an owl."

But what is it? Where did the sculptures with "Greek profiles" (i.e., with the absence of the bridge of the nose) come from? Where did the descriptions of the golden-haired come from? Let's even assume that blondes were mentioned. Well, the gods can do anything! They must be different from mere mortals by definition. The absence of the bridge of the nose, as it were, hinted at such an origin. On the contrary, villains, commoners were portrayed with prominent eyebrows. It's a matter of symbols. Greek art was not realistic in everything.

Tnm, if you look at the busts of philosophers, and imagine them in natural color. And even easier - check out the pictures of everyday life, which depict simple collective farmers - on a red-figure vase painting. Or even like gods, but in the clothes of mere mortals:

Classic mediterranean style! Curly swarthy hair. And the profile, at first stylized as a canon, becomes more and more realistic in the future.

The Italians, who never knew the Turkish occupation, look the same. They have a different theme: the earliest Romans looked like the northern French of today. And then the blood of slaves from the Middle East was added. Well, perhaps. But this does not deprive them of their classification among the "true Aryans":

Moreover, the southern Italians (i.e., the inhabitants of Naples and Sicily) are in many ways the descendants of the Greek colonists.

This is what the inhabitants of these areas looked like in ancient times:

And most importantly, look closely at these faces. They can be swarthy, brown-eyed. But the common origin, one way or another, is felt. Here is Despina Vandi for example:

And here is a Greek collective farmer from the movie "The Day All the Fish Came to Surface" Why not an ancient Greek bust of a philosopher?):

yes, how many did not look at all sorts of Greek mosaics, vases, frescoes - all curly.

Why were the Achaeans and Dorians at enmity? How was it expressed? Ancient Greece, after all, is in fact a bunch of policies, city-states that were at war and cooperating, the population in them was homogeneous and consisted of one type or not?

Why is it that fair hair is a cool sign (as far as I know, most of the gods were just fair-haired), but large brow ridges are not?

Answer

Sorry for not replying right away. Pre-holiday chores-c)

In fact, there is a common story here, when a nation is formed, over time, gradually from different ethnic groups, closely related, and sometimes not so much. The fragmentation of a single civilization at different stages is also natural. Achaeans in the II millennium BC created the Mycenaean civilization. The fight with Crete, where the evil Minotaur is, and the war with Troy are from that era. The Dorians, although they spoke a similar language, lived to the west for a long time, and compared to the Achaeans, they almost climbed trees.

The "Catastrophe of the Bronze Age" has arrived. Due to difficult conditions, the Dorians invaded the borders of the said power. Part of the Achaeans had to be evacuated, where they joined the "peoples of the sea" who were piracy in the Mediterranean.

At first it looked almost like an invasion of barbarians in animal skins. But during the Greek "Dark Ages", the conquerors adopted some of the achievements of the conquered, mixed with them, and, coupled with their progressive energy, and the achievements of the coming Iron Age, eventually gave life to what, in our understanding, is classical Ancient Greece.

In total, four branches played a role in the formation of the ancient Greek ethnos: Achaeans, Dorits, Ionians, and Aeolians.

On the ground, some kind of memory was preserved. The Athenians remembered that they used to have a great civilization and that they were mostly descendants of the Achaeans. The Spartans were Dorians in their purest form. The Ionians ended up in the east - in Asia Minor, and on the adjacent islands. There, apparently, ties with the already existing local population turned out to be very significant. Because of the mixing with which, the Ionians, presumably, acquired a characteristic southern appearance.

Of course, there were local differences. Even in our time, for example, we distinguish between northern and southern Russians. There are different dialects. In Greece to this day, depending on the region, either the Dorian or the Ionian type prevails. According to the records of one well-known knowledgeable man on the network, known simply as the Greek (he even starred in one of the "Dinner Party" programs), the indigenous population of the country is now, for the most part, of the European type, but repatriates from the CIS countries are usually Ionians.

Comment

How did concern for beauty and health intertwine in the life of the ancient Greeks? In ancient times, they attached great importance to the external harmony and beauty of a person, admired her and knew a lot about her. Both men and, of course, ancient Greek women wanted to look good.

The endless pursuit in search of the elixir of ideal beauty and youth is familiar to every woman. Before the advent of cosmetics, the fair sex invented many effective ways to take care of themselves.

The beauty secrets of the ancient Greeks

The women of Ancient Greece were proud of their appearance and knew the secrets that, centuries later, are available to any modern beauty.

Greek women paid special attention to water procedures. Each day began with a bath and adding oils to the water, which was soothing and beneficial to the skin. and honey were actively used to moisturize the body, face skin and maintain good hair condition.

In ancient times, the length of the hair spoke not only about the preferences of a person, but also about his social affiliation: short haircuts worn only by slaves. Ancient Greek women preferred to be long hair had a golden hue, which was achieved with the help of vinegar, and wax was used for shine.

Already in ancient times, women knew that men were attracted to hair that left a fragrant trail, and Greek women found a way out. They collected herbs, flowers and spices and then made a decoction with olive oil.

However, men did not lag behind fashion: for example, in the 6th century BC. men's hairstyles with long curls were in fashion. Later, after, the curls began to wear shorter ones. And in general, in ancient Athens, long well-groomed hair was considered a sign of aristocracy. Lycurgus argued that long hair makes a handsome man even more beautiful, and an ugly man even more unattractive.

The ancient barbers important place in society - they chatted with all the customers and were aware of everything that was happening around. It is said that when the Macedonian king Archelaus came to the barber and he asked how to cut his hair, Archelaus replied: "No further talk." 🙂

Many museums in Greece showcase small vessels used to store ointments and homemade creams. These funds had different purpose: relieved rashes, burns, injuries, or simply soothed the skin.

Mixtures of medicinal powders were prepared from aloe juice, cinnamon and honey. All this is not only applied to the skin, but also taken orally after bathing. If the skin needed cleansing, the following remedy helped: a tablespoon of heavy cream was mixed with a teaspoon of sea salt, the mixture was applied to the skin of the face and washed off after massaging.

Hippocrates, although he was not a woman, pleased with his discoveries not only ancient, but also modern ladies. In his treatises on medicine, separate works were devoted to cosmetology. To this day, many are grateful to the doctor for describing the amazing properties of clay. White clay helps to get rid of acne, increases blood circulation and strengthens hair. Blue clay reduces the depth of wrinkles, cleanses the skin, helps fight allergies, and has anti-inflammatory properties.

“And how to take care of the eyelids and delicate skin under the eyes?” – this question really excites women. The ancient Greek women had an effective way. They smeared the area around the eyes with warm olive oil and massaged it, and washed it off after half an hour. Daily repetition of this procedure allowed to smooth wrinkles.

To maintain the ideal condition of the skin of the body, Greek women also created a special remedy. For 400 g of rose petals, we took 500 g of olive oil, insisted this mixture for a week, filtered and added a few tablespoons to the bath. This recipe is guaranteed to give the skin elasticity and softness.

At all times, people alike aspired to the ideal, but achieved the desired different ways. Ancient beauties possessed beauty and knew many recipes for achieving this beauty, therefore modern women have no reason not to trust them.

ancient greek word ψιμυθίασις meant "make-up", and came from the word "blush". Ancient Greek women actively used face paints. Here is what an ancient writer named Ishomachos writes:

“I noticed that my wife was preening herself: she smeared lead white on her face to make it look whiter than it really is, rouged her cheeks to make them look rosier than they really are, and put on sandals with heels to appear taller than they are. actually…”

So, dear men were ironic about our attempts to embellish a few thousand years ago! 🙂

We will talk about the life of the ancient Greeks, after all, it was significantly different from the modern one. Perhaps it is worth taking something useful from the ancients!

Elena Meteleva

In 1833, at the London conference of the three great European powers, Otto I of Bavaria was appointed king of the Greek state that had just gained independence from the Ottoman Empire.

When the young king arrived in Athens, the city he had chosen for his capital, there was not a single more or less decent building for the royal residence.

Such were the consequences of the bloody, long and destructive war for the independence of the country.

The population of Athens in that post-war period was hardly more than 12 thousand inhabitants. But the most terrible consequences of almost 400 years of Turkish yoke and almost uninterrupted hostilities were the irreparable destruction of many historical monuments.

And before them, the Venetians and the Frankish crusaders “worked” here. The early Christian struggle against paganism, as well as the raids of the southern Slavs, also played a significant role. And in ancient times, Hellas was not spared by the aggressive campaigns of the Roman legions of the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

But fortunately, one of the main historical achievements of the “golden era” of ancient classicism was the creation by the Hellenes, in addition to material monuments, of unprecedented spiritual witnesses: theater, literature, sculpture and painting, thanks to which we can today, comparing the results of archaeological excavations of ancient cities with artistic life descriptions of the life of their population, it is much better to learn and understand how they lived in ancient Greece ...

Literary sources - witnesses of the era

The history of ancient Greece is usually divided into several historical periods., in each of which the life of the Hellenes was strikingly different from another, later time:

1. Archaic Crete Mycenaean, which we know mainly from mythological plots and from two brilliant poems of the great Homer.

2. "Dark" Ancient Middle Ages, when new conquerors - the Dorians poured into the Greek lands, dividing the culture of ancient Hellas into two branches: Achaean and Doric, and the country's history into two eras: archaic and classical.

This transitional period left much less cultural evidence, but at that time, memories of more ancient eras were preserved and recorded for posterity, which became a connecting thread and prepared the ground for the subsequent rapid spiritual flowering.

3. To the highest material, spiritual and cultural achievements classical period, prepared by previous legislative and social reforms, Hellas rose immediately after the victories in the Greco-Persian wars. The unprecedented upsurge of the national spirit, which made it possible to defeat the strongest enemy, became the source of the greatest spiritual upsurge. This was expressed in the appearance of many works of art that have become witnesses of the era for us.

Magnificent descriptions of the way of life, life, habits and traditions of the ancient Hellenes can be found in many works of ancient authors, ranging from Iliad and Odyssey by Homer or Works and Days by Hesiod to filled with everyday details comedies of Aristophanes, all-encompassing "Descriptions of Hellas" Pausanias or encyclopedic "Feast of the Wise Men" Athenaeus.

Life in ancient Greece

Chronology

There is different opinions, which date should be taken as a starting point, which can fix the beginning of the most interesting classical period of ancient Hellas for us.

It is most logical to follow the Hellenes themselves, who determined the beginning of their new time to be the date corresponding to our calendar 776 BC uh. and became the first unifying symbol of Hellas.

Until that moment, each policy had its own, sometimes very confusing, time measurement system. And starting from this date, they all began to measure time everywhere four-year periods, called the number of the corresponding Olympiad.

It was a time of rapid growth of new city-states, the colonization of the territories of Asia Minor, the Apennine Peninsula and Sicily, the development of trade and crafts, the improvement of legislation and judicial system, the birth of sciences, philosophy and art, moving from the power of kings and tyrants to the nationwide, democratic principles of government.

Family life

Cult family relations, quite strong in modern Greece, in ancient Greece was one of the foundations of ancient society.

The basis of this, of course, lies in the tribal community of the early Bronze Age.

For example, describing the palace of the Trojan king Priam in the Iliad, Homer, who talks about its gigantic size, lists all the numerous relatives who lived in these chambers.

The unconditional head of the tribal clan was the father of the family, after which power passed to the eldest son, even if he was not born in this family, but adopted.

The power of the head of the family was so strong that he could even sacrifice one of his children to the gods if they demanded it. Such, for example, is the story of Iphigenia from the same Iliad.

If the head of the family was in need, he could sell his daughters, and expel his son from home for disrespect, which was even enshrined in law.

About the feelings of the young at the conclusion of a marriage nobody asked: buyout price was the determining factor, donated by the groom to the future father-in-law, and sometimes a real auction was arranged for the bride, and the main motive for creating a family was procreation.

It is believed that a woman in a Greek family did not have the right to vote. This is not entirely true: she had her own specific range of duties around the house, for which she was responsible, disposing of slaves, food, supplies and all household chores. The man was responsible for everything else.

So, in the Odyssey, Telemachus, the son of Agamemnon, says to his mother Penelope: “Take care of the order of the economy, yarn, weaving, see that the slaves are diligent in their work: speaking is not a woman’s business, but a man’s business, and now mine. I myself am the only master ... "

But at the same time family property, especially land, did not belong solely to its head: it was considered as common property and what was received from the previous generation was to be passed on to descendants not diminished, but exaggerated.

The concept of gender was given great value. Today, many of us are unlikely to be able to remember our ancestors before the third generation, the Greeks kept and remembered their own genealogy sometimes counted in centuries.

Many tragedies of the ancient theater, especially those of Euripides, began with a description of the genealogy of the heroes, and this did not surprise the audience at all: everyone could find their distant relative among the actors. Echoes of such tribalism can be found even in modern Greek society.

Religion, ceremonies and rituals

The ancient Hellenes built their dwellings from cheap clay, which was in abundance in these places.
The best building materials were dedicated to the houses of the gods - temples, which were initially built from wood that was quite expensive here.

But wood is a short-lived material, moreover, combustible, and many ceremonies held in temples were accompanied by a large amount of open fire.

One of the impetuses for the construction of a masterpiece of classical architecture - the magnificent Acropolis complex, was the burning of old wooden buildings on it, who captured Athens by the Persians.

Therefore, gradually the tree became replaced by limestone everywhere and then marble.

In turn, the mass construction of temple complexes gave a powerful impetus to the development ancient architecture like art.

The significance of religion in the life of the Hellenes was enormous. Without the advice of the gods, expressed in the predictions of the oracles, not a single important business began.

indicative semi-mythical story of the capture of the Peloponnese by the Dorians, who, on the advice of the oracle, waited until three generations were replaced by them before starting an aggressive campaign, which ended, as you know, with a quick victory and the formation of the state of Sparta.

Considering that these three generations were busy preparing for the campaign and creating a powerful army, the wisdom of the oracle's advice should be recognized.

marriage ceremony

Great interest for general concept about the religious life of the Hellenes is marriage ceremony, which was performed not in the temple, but at the home altar and symbolized the transition of a girl from one family to another: in her father's house, a sacrifice was made to the gods at the altar, at the end of which the head of the family passed his daughter to the groom according to the established formula, tore her away from her kind, giving to another .

Then, accompanied by messengers, covered with a veil and with a wreath on her head, in white clothes, she was transported, accompanied by wedding hymns, in a chariot to the groom's house.

The young one carried the betrothed, depicting an abduction, in his arms to his dwelling. The bride, on the other hand, had to scream, showing that she did not enter here of her own free will, but, obeying her new master - her husband.

A real wedding ceremony was already held here, where the young woman was presented to the household gods at the groom's family altar. A rite of purification with water and fire was carried out, the young shared bread and fruits among themselves, then making a joint prayer to the gods.

worship of the dead

The cult was of great importance in the life of the Hellenes. veneration of the dead, who were not considered dead forever, but only moved to another kingdom, and according to some legends, for example, Hercules even managed to return from there. Visiting the graves of their ancestors, relatives brought them food and drink, as if alive, so that they would not feel deprived in another life.

Public life

A remarkable feature of the ancient Hellenes, which distinguished this people from others and allowed them to cope with an enemy many times superior in numbers, was the importance of the role and superiority of public consciousness over private.

A fair part of the life of the male population of the country took place not in houses, where they came only for an evening meal and sleep, but in in public places, mostly in the Agora, where trade and production were combined, "on the spot" with politics.

The art of persuasion - rhetoric- revered at the level of worship. A public figure who was able to prove, convince, lead was honored with lifetime veneration. Disputes of representatives of various philosophical schools in the squares gathered huge crowds of spectators.

Unconditional obedience to laws, no matter how unfair they may seem, was in the blood of the inhabitants of Hellas.

Thus, the great Socrates, in the injustice of whose sentence all his students were convinced, who offered the teacher to flee, unconditionally obeyed the verdict of the court and drank the prepared cup of poison. After all, if he did not do this, the ideals of the teachings of the great philosopher and his great authority among the citizens of Athens became meaningless.

Army and Navy

The Greeks, great admirers of geometric order and harmony, were among the first to use combat formations in military operations.

Iron discipline of the Greek warriors, standing to the death, forced the enemy to shamefully leave the battlefield, even with multiple numerical superiority. This was achieved by a full-fledged combat education of the male population from infancy, especially in.

The importance of the fleet in the life of ancient Hellas can hardly be overestimated. Not only was most of the country located on the islands: superiority at sea allowed for unrivaled trade throughout the Mediterranean region. The best example of this is the Athenian Maritime Union, created at the end of the Persian wars.

The art of building ships, which the ancient masters achieved, is amazing: within a few weeks they could build and launch a full-fledged combat fleet. The fruits of this skill were not lost in time - the Greeks are still one of the best navigators and owners of the world's largest merchant fleet.

Cloth

The simplicity of the Greek costume admires. All its varieties and details were built from ordinary rectangular pieces of linen or woolen fabric, fastened on the shoulders and sides with brooches.

A rich suit from a poor one was distinguished only by coloring, and the richness of the geometric border pattern. The main types of patterns were the classic meander and the Cretan wave.
To a greater extent, the nobility of the origin of the owner of the costume was emphasized by various Jewelry. Women richly used cosmetics: blush, antimony, various creams, masks and hair mixtures.

The basis of the ancient Greek costume was an undershirt: a tunic - for men, a tunic - for women, who were worn at home, when they went outside, various types of raincoats were added to them: a long himation and a short mantle, as well as capes: calyptra and peplos.

The clothes of the slaves, and often also peasants, fishermen, hunters, shepherds, urban poor could only consist of a loincloth.

Walking barefoot was by no means considered a sign of poverty, although sandals were the most popular footwear, consisting of a wooden, cork or rope sole tied to the leg with straps. In addition, leather or felt endromide boots were popular.

Hats made of felt or straw were most often used in bad weather or for protection from the sun during long walks. For the same purpose, various fans and fan.

Great importance in appearance ancient Greeks, especially women, were given hairstyle and hair decoration hairpins, tiaras, ribbons, etc.
For men, the main decoration, one might even say, a detail of the costume, was beard considered a sign of dignity and wisdom.

Furniture

The most common type of seats were semi-benches, which were located during the symposium dinners.
The same purpose was served by low tables with short legs. Also in great use were folding diphra chairs with legs in the form of the letter “X” and a seat linen or woven from a rope.

Armchairs with armrests - thrones - were available only in noble houses, and in royal palaces, serving as one of the symbols of supreme power.

Great importance was attached to the manufacture and decoration of beds.. They were made of wood and decorated with rich carvings, and sometimes real sculptures. Used to store clothes and valuables various chests, which were also decorated with carvings or inlays.

There was practically no other furniture in the houses., even in pantries food stocks were stored in earthenware vessels standing right on the floor. The kitchens also had a hearth for cooking.

In the cold season, clay or metal braziers with coals were used to heat the dwellings, which were melted on the street and then brought into the house. They also served as primitive lamps. If more light was needed, oil lamps or torches were lit.

Tableware

Ceramic art in ancient Greece reached unprecedented heights.
No wonder the largest and oldest district of ancient Athens was the pottery quarter of Keramikos, practically adjoining the central trading square of the Agora.

But the most remarkable feature of the pottery of ancient Greece was the transition from simple geometric patterns in the early stages of development to real works of art decorating pottery.

Thanks to these amazing paintings, sometimes real masterpieces that witnessed the era, we can learn many small details from the everyday life of the ancient Greeks, and some images were accompanied by inscriptions, such as vase kept in the Hermitage.

By the way, even by coloring the images on the dishes, one could determine the time of its creation: black figures on a red background are earlier than red ones on a dark one.

The variety of forms of Greek utensils is also impressive. These are pithoi and skyphoi, amphoras and phials, lekythos and kylixes, craters and hydrias, inochoias and cyathos, kantharas and rhytons. Even archaeologists sometimes puzzle over the purpose of this or that object for a long time.

The Hellenes also used all kinds of comic devices: bowls that poured wine over the one who started drinking from them, or, conversely, did not allow them to quench their thirst, no matter how you tilt them.

Another feature of ancient Greek dishes was the presence, in addition to ordinary household utensils, a large number all kinds of large-volume vessels for storage and transportation of liquid and bulk products. Undoubtedly, their appearance was facilitated by the all-round development of trade in the Mediterranean.

food and wine

Many products that have become a symbol of the modern Greek table, such as tomatoes, were not yet known in Europe in ancient times. This also applies to potatoes, eggplants, peppers, rice and some other plants.

So beloved by the Greeks tobacco and coffee also appeared much later. However other vegetables: cucumbers, carrots, onions, cabbage, zucchini, radishes were widely represented on the tables of the Greeks.

The basis of the daily diet was various legumes: numerous types of beans, peas, lentils, etc. Seafood was of great importance: fish and seafood, which were available in every home. Meat was consumed daily only in rich families, and in simply wealthy, or even more so poor, only on holidays, when sacrifices were made to the gods.

All kinds of cheeses played an exceptional role in the diet. It must be said that the art of cheese making in Greece reached a very high level, and it was widely known and widespread already in the time of Homer. So, in the Odyssey, the Cyclops Polyphemus, who captured sailors, was engaged in the manufacture of cheese from sheep's milk.

Of great importance in the diet of the ancient Hellenes was bread made from wheat or barley flour, of which there were many types. His role was so significant that a meal without bread was even considered sinful, objectionable to the gods. In fact, bread was the basis of the table, while the rest of the dishes were just an addition to it. In addition to unleavened bread, yeast bread was already known, which was considered a delicacy because of its high cost.

And a special form of vessels for leaven was called, by the way, "klibanos". Perhaps the Russian word "bread" also came from this word.

Priceless the gift of the goddess Athena - an olive tree was the subject of constant reverence and gratitude for this gift to the beloved and wise goddess. The value of the olive was that its use did not have any waste: everything from fruits to wood and leaves went into action. oil fruits and olive oil occupied an overwhelming place in the daily diet.

The cult of the vine and wine, expressed in the worship of one of the favorite Greek gods - Dionysus, was one of the most common in ancient Hellas. Wine in the diet of the Hellenes occupied one of the leading places. Used it three times a day, with every meal.

By the way, the well-known procedure for diluting wine with water played a completely opposite role. The ancients did not dilute wine with water, but added it to the latter in order to disinfect it.

Trade and craft

The first people of ancient times, who lived mainly due to trade, were the Phoenicians - noble merchants and sailors. The Hellenes borrowed a lot from them, including taking the Phoenician script as the basis of their alphabet. And not just borrowed, but significantly developed and improved in the future.

The importance of trade in the life of the Hellenes was so great that The central square of many large cities was the market Agora. But it wasn't just trading. In Athens, for example, on the Agora was the highest rock of the Council and the Supreme Court - Areopagus.

People's meetings of free citizens were immediately held, making landmark decisions. Speakers spoke here, and philosophers gave lectures ... Everything, so that, being engaged in public life, not to be distracted from the main business - buying and selling.

Next to the Agora, or even right in the trading pavilions, there were workshops of artisans: weavers, blacksmiths, cabinetmakers, jewelers, etc., and a little further away, to protect against a strong smell, there was a leather production. Many products of ancient artisans still captivate connoisseurs of beauty with their beauty and grace.

The development of trade required the creation of commodity equivalents - banknotes.

It is the ancient Greek measures of weight: talent and drachma, which later became the names of coins, were the first monetary units of the ancient world to become widespread.

Science and education

Everyone knows that Greece is the birthplace of most sciences, and this topic requires a separate large article. Most of the citizens of Hellas were quite educated people. A lack of education was considered even a vice.

For example, there was a law that allowed a son not to take care of his father in old age, which was generally considered a huge sin if the younger could prove that his parent, having the opportunity to do so, did not give his offspring any education.

The sacred island of Crete with a detailed history of the life of the gods - read

We heard about the Gods and myths of ancient Greece in the lessons of history and cultural studies, read in educational, historical and fiction literature, and also saw dozens of cartoons and films about the gods and heroes of Hellas. Greek culture and religion are inseparable from ancient civilization, therefore it is impossible to say for sure whether the formation of one of the greatest civilizations of antiquity influenced the development of its own religion, or vice versa, and the worldviews of the ancient Greeks were the reason that this people managed to create an advanced civilization of the ancient world. The religion of ancient Greece was one of the most complex religious systems of antiquity, as it included belief in impersonal deities, humanoid deities, demigods, demonic entities, heroes, as well as a number of cults and traditions associated with the worship of gods and heroes.

Features of the religion of the ancient Greeks

The ancient Greeks considered the supreme deity, contrary to popular belief, not Zeus at all, but the absolute (cosmos). According to their beliefs, the absolute is a rational, all-encompassing and omnipotent super-entity that created both the earth and people, and gave birth to deities. Despite this belief, the ancient Greeks practically did not have cults dedicated to the absolute, since they believed that it was necessary to glorify individual deities who personify and embody the ideas of the absolute on earth.

The two main characteristics that describe and distinguish the religion of ancient Greece from the beliefs of other peoples of antiquity are considered to be polytheism and anthropomorphism. Polytheism or polytheism is a belief in the existence of many gods, and in the beliefs of the ancient Greeks, polytheism is most clearly visible, since the Hellenes believed that almost every natural element and every social phenomenon has its own god or goddess. The second characteristic of the religion of the ancient Greeks, anthropomorphism or humanization of the gods, was expressed in the fact that the Greeks attributed human qualities and habits to their gods. The gods of the ancient Greeks lived on Mount Olympus, worked together and watched people, and sometimes quarreled and fought among themselves.

Another feature of the beliefs of the ancient Greeks was the belief in the constant interaction of people with the gods. According to the inhabitants of Hellas, not only was everything human not alien to the gods, but they themselves often descended to earth from Olympus and even entered into contact with people. The results of such a connection were heroes - demigods, half-humans, children of a deity and a man, not immortal, but possessing great strength. One of the most famous heroes in Greek religion was Hercules, the son of the god Zeus and the earthly woman Alkemina.

Unlike those who deified their rulers and considered the priests to be the highest caste, the Greeks did not treat the clergy with special reverence. Most rituals and religious rites were carried out separately in each family or community by the heads of families or people respected in society, and the oracles (as the Greeks called their priests), who served at the temples, were responsible for conducting only the most ambitious rituals that required training and special knowledge. However, it cannot be said that the oracles were considered higher than other people in Greek society - despite some isolation of their lives and the ability to communicate with the gods attributed to them, the law and the right of Greek society equally extended to both laity and clergy.

Deities of the ancient Greeks

The ancient Greeks believed that the first dogs were created by the absolute along with the creation of heaven and earth, and these gods were Uranus and Gaia - the god of heaven and the goddess of the earth, respectively. Uranus and Gaia became the parents of Kronos, the first supreme god and tyrant, who married his sister Rhea and became the father of other deities. However, according to Greek mythology, Kronos was very afraid that his children would take power from him on Olympus, so he devoured his own children. Then the goddess Rhea, wanting to protect the newborn Zeus, hid the baby from her father in a cave, and instead of the child she fed Kronos a stone. When Zeus grew up, he defeated his father, freed his sisters and brothers from his womb, and began to rule on Olympus himself. Zeus, his wife Hera, their children, as well as brothers, sisters and nephews of Zeus made up the pantheon of the gods of the ancient Greeks.

All the deities that the inhabitants of ancient Hellas believed in can be divided into three main groups: heavenly (gods living on Olympus), underground (gods living in other underground spheres) and earthly (gods patronizing people and spending most of their time on earth). The most revered in ancient Greece were the following deities:

1. Zeus - the god of thunder and lightning, the ruler of Olympus;

2. Hera - the goddess of family and marriage, the wife of Zeus;

3. Apollo - the god of the Sun and art;

4. Aphrodite - the goddess of beauty and love;

5. Athena - the goddess of wisdom and justice, was also considered the patroness of those who fought for a just cause;

6. Artemis - the goddess of hunting;

7. Hestia - the goddess of the hearth;

8. Poseidon - the god of the sea;

9. Demeter - the goddess of fertility and agriculture;

11. Hades - the god of the underworld, where the souls of people fall after death;

12. Ares - the god of war;

13. Hephaestus - the god of fire and the patron of artisans;

14. Themis - the goddess of justice;

15. Dionysus - the god of winemaking and musical art.

In addition to the gods, the ancient Greeks also believed in the existence of the so-called "demons" - immortal entities that serve this or that deity and possess a certain supernatural power. The inhabitants of Hellas attributed selenium, nymphs, satyrs, oceanides, etc. to such entities.

Cults of the ancient Greeks

In the religion of the ancient Greeks, much attention was paid to various cults associated with the veneration of deities and attempts to get closer to Vivid examples of cults associated with the glorification of deities were religious holidays, which were celebrated on a grand scale by all the inhabitants of ancient Hellas. The feast of the "Great Panatheneas" in honor of Athena was especially magnificently celebrated, which included sacrifices in the Acropolis, built specifically for this purpose. The Greeks held similar holidays in honor of other gods, and a number of them included mysteries - rituals performed by oracles, to which lay people were not allowed. Also, the ancient Greeks paid much attention to the cult of ancestors, which consisted in honoring and offering sacrifices to the dead.

Since the ancient Greeks endowed the gods human qualities and considered them perfect creatures endowed with immortality, supernatural strength, wisdom and beauty, it is natural that simple people tried to approach the divine ideal. The cult of the body in ancient Greece was the result of such attempts, because people considered the beauty and health of the physical body a sign of spirituality, harmony and goodwill towards a person. higher powers. The manifestation of the cult of the body in ancient Greece was a number of traditions associated with the upbringing of children, as well as the attitude of the Greeks to beautiful people. The Greeks were not shy about their bodies, they admired athletic athletes and were not shy about being naked in front of other people in public baths.

The cult of the body in ancient Greece contributed to the formation of the ideal of beauty in the minds of the Greeks. People with regular and symmetrical facial features, a toned athletic figure, golden hair and bright eyes were considered beautiful, and the statue of Aphrodite was the standard of female beauty. Since light skin, big eyes and bright plump lips were in fashion, rich Greek women and Greeks did not spare money on cosmetics for skin whitening, blush and lipstick, which were made from natural ingredients. Thanks to the cult of the body, which obliges to engage in physical education and take care of your body, the ancient Greeks, in comparison with other peoples, were distinguished by better health and longer life expectancy.

(about 1200 BC) led to the collapse of these states and the restoration of tribal relations. By the 9th century BC e. the population of Ancient Greece was as follows: Aeolians - Northern Greece, Dorians - Central Greece and the Peloponnese, Ionians - Attica and the islands.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Policies (city-states) were formed in Greece. Depending on the results of the struggle between the demos (farmers and artisans) with the tribal nobility, the state structure in the policies was either democratic (Athens, etc.) or aristocratic (Sparta, Crete, etc.). In economically developed policies (Corinth, Athens, etc.), slavery was widespread; in Sparta, Argos, and others, remnants of the tribal system were preserved for a long time.

5th-4th centuries BC e. - the period of the highest heyday of the polis device. As a result of the victory of the Greeks in the Greco-Persian wars (500-449 BC), Athens rises, the Delian League is created (led by Athens). The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture falls on the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). The struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth related to the struggle for trade routes led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), which ended in the defeat of Athens.

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in the north of Greece, the rise of Macedonia takes place. Its king Philip II, having won a victory at Chaeronea (338 BC) over a coalition of Greek states, actually subjugated Greece. His son Alexander the Great led the campaign of the united Greek-Macedonian army in Asia. He took Persia and part of India. After the collapse of his power in the III-II centuries. BC e. a number of Hellenistic states arise with a mixed Greek-Oriental population and culture. In Greece itself, states and alliances of the paramilitary type (Macedonia, the Achaean League, the Aetolian League), which contested hegemony over Greece, prevailed at this time. In 146 BC e. The Romans defeat the Achaean League and subdue Greece. In 27 BC e. the province of Achaia was formed on its territory. In the IV century. Greece became the main part of the Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium.

The history of the Greek-eastern Hellenistic states ends with the conquest by Rome of the last Hellenistic state - Ptolemaic Egypt in the 1st century BC. BC e.

periodization

In the most general form, in historical science it is customary to single out the following stages in the history of Ancient Greece:

1. Crete-Mycenaean (late III-II millennium BC). Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state formations. The development of navigation. Establishment of trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. The emergence of original writing. for Crete and mainland Greece at this stage, different periods of development are distinguished, since on the island of Crete, where the non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which was subjected to end III millennium BC. e. the conquest of the Achaean Greeks.
   1. Minoan civilization (Crete):
      1. Early Minoan period (XXX-XXIII centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations, the beginning of the development of metals, the beginnings of crafts, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agrarian relations.
      2. Middle Minoan period (XXII-XVIII centuries BC). Also known as the period of "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. Construction of monumental palace complexes in a number of regions of Crete. early forms of writing.
      3. Late Minoan period (XVII-XII centuries BC). The heyday of the Minoan civilization, the unification of Crete, the creation of the sea power of King Minos, the wide scope of Crete's trading activities in the Aegean Sea, the flourishing of monumental construction ("new" palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos). Active contacts with ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the middle of the XV century. BC e. causes the decline of the Minoan civilization, which created the prerequisites for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans.
   2. Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece):
      1. Early Helladic period (XXX-XXI centuries BC). Dominance in Balkan Greece of tribal relations among the pre-Greek population. The appearance of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes.
      2. Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII centuries BC). The settlement in the south of the Balkan Peninsula of the first waves of Greek speakers - the Achaeans, was accompanied by a slight decrease in the overall level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Achaeans.
      3. Late Helladic period (XVI-XII centuries BC). The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a producing economy in agriculture, the emergence of a number of state formations with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc., the formation of original writing, the flourishing of Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans conquer Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the XII century. BC e. Greece is invaded by a new tribal group - the Dorians, the death of the Mycenaean statehood.
2. Polisny (XI-IV centuries BC). Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. Formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. Highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.
   1. Homeric (prepolis) period, "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC). The final destruction of the remnants of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and domination of tribal relations, their transformation into early class relations, the formation of unique prepolis social structures.
   2. Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC). Formation of polis structures. Great Greek colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of the Hellenic society. The introduction of iron in all spheres of production, economic recovery. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, distribution of elements of private property.
   3. Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC). The flourishing of the economy and culture of the Greek city-states. Reflection of the aggression of the Persian world power, the rise of national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic system, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of the Macedonian aggression.
3. Hellenistic (IV-I centuries BC). Short-term assertion of the world power of Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of the Hellenistic Greek-Eastern statehood.
   1. First Hellenistic period (334-281 BC). Campaigns of the Greek-Macedonian army of Alexander the Great, short period the existence of its world power and its disintegration into a number of Hellenistic states.
   2. Second Hellenistic period (281-150 BC). The heyday of Greek-Eastern statehood, economy and culture.
   3. Third Hellenistic period (150-30 BC). Crisis and collapse of the Hellenistic statehood.

Fragmented Greece

For all the time of the independent existence of Greece, it has never been single state and the various parts of the Hellenic race never constituted one people. V historical time the territory occupied by the Hellenes was divided into two thousand small states, usually consisting of one city, with fields or rural settlements adjoining it. Each such city-state was completely politically independent, like the present vast monarchy or republic, or steadily strived for such independence. Only this small region was the fatherland for the Greeks; all other Hellenes were strangers, foreigners, and the mutual relations between states were international relations. In the space, for example, one Kazan province could accommodate about 30 such republics as the famous Athenian. Uniting several villages, the system of institutions provided each citizen with a conscious, active participation in all the affairs of the community and versatile personal development through frequent joint discussion and final resolution of various issues. internal management and foreign policy.

By the same fragmentation of the Hellenic race into small autonomous communities, with all the rights of supremacy, those feelings of attachment to the homeland and its political institutions were brought up, which found themselves repeated expression in feats of selfless courage and thanks to which, of all the ancient peoples of Europe, one Hellenic retained up to present, the main part of its territory, with the same name, and a political structure capable of further development. However, the inevitable companion of the crushing of the Hellenes was political strife between the communities, which was based, in addition to the thirst for independence, the difference in the degree of civil and mental development, in public institutions, mores, habits, in the whole way of life. Domestic and mental strife among the Hellenes did not weaken over time, but rather intensified, as the prosperous republics moved further and further away from the state of settlements that remained faithful to the archaic conditions of life. Could it have been achieved in the III century BC. e. a strong unity between Athens or Corinth on the one hand, and some community of Aetolians, Locrians or Acarnanians on the other, when the former were industrial and enlightened urban republics, and the latter were at the level of poor rural settlements? Nevertheless, the feeling of consanguinity was inherent in the numerous ramifications of the Hellenic race from ancient times, outwardly expressed in a single name (first Achaeans, or Danaeans, or Argives, then Hellenes), in the unity of the language, in the community of religious beliefs and some traditions, and finally, in separating oneself from other peoples, non-Greeks, denoted by the term "barbarians". Since ancient times, certain provisions of the usual international law, the protection of which belonged to the gods themselves, festivities recognized by all Hellenes, alliances of tribes, and finally public enterprises, such as, for example, the Trojan War. The Greeks were not alien to the understanding of the benefits that the unification of disparate communities could bring them in the fight against the barbarians, who from time to time threatened the freedom of all Hellas, whether these barbarians were Medes, Macedonians or Romans.

The first 10-year war, known as Arkhidamova, was conducted with varying success, and in 421 BC. e. the warring parties concluded the so-called Peace of Nikiev for 60 years. But barely 6 years passed, when the rotten peace was broken, and hostilities resumed: in 416 BC. e. the Athenians sent an excellent army against Syracuse in Sicily under the command of Alcibiades, Nicias, Demosthenes; but Alcibiades was called off the road and fled to Sparta. On his advice, the Spartans sent strong reinforcements to Syracuse and waged a sea war, in the waters of the Aegean Sea, and a land war, on the territory of Attica itself, where they occupied the village of Dekeley and constantly threatened Athens itself. On the side of Sparta were now the money and ships of the Persian king. The Sicilian expedition ended for the Athenians with the complete destruction of their fleet (413 BC) and the falling away of the strongest allies. The return of Alcibiades to Athens (411 BC) was accompanied by an oligarchic revolution, but the reign of 400 lasted no more than 4 months, and democracy was gradually restored. Athens again stood at the head of the union, had a significant fleet, ships of one and a half hundred, and repeatedly showed miracles of courage and selflessness.

But in 405 BC. e. in the Hellespont, under Aegospotami, the Athenian fleet was destroyed, and the Spartan troops, under the command of Lysander, locked them up from land and from the sea. Hunger and the intrigues of the oligarchs forced the Athenians to agree to capitulation: the fortifications of the city were demolished, all ships except 12 were handed over to the enemy, the alliance was terminated, democracy was replaced by the oligarchic rule of thirty (April 404 BC). V next year the tyranny of the thirty was overthrown by the exiled democrats, with Thrasybulus at the head, and in the archonship of Euclid (autumn 403 BC), an agreement took place between the parties. According to Aristotle, the now restored democratic government was maintained without upheavals until his time; the changes that took place in it tended to expand the rights of the people. The people's party in Athens, in its triumph, showed extraordinary moderation, tolerance and generosity in relation to opponents.

Hegemony of Sparta and Thebes

The secondary hegemony of Sparta that followed the defeat of Athens had little in common with the first Spartan hegemony, until the Greco-Persian Wars. On the one hand, Sparta has now stained itself with violent upheavals in the allied communities in the oligarchic sense, venality and theft; on the other hand, the Hellenic communities, taught by experience and jealously guarding their independence, found salvation from the yoke of Sparta in an allied organization and in the support of the Persian king. Partly mainland, but mainly Asia Minor Greeks were involved in the internecine strife of Cyrus the Younger, governor of Asia Minor, and his brother Artaxerxes, king of the Persians (401 BC). The work of Xenophon "Anabasis" immortalized the campaign of 10,000 Greeks, committed under the command of Cyrus into the depths of Asia, and their return journey to the Asia Minor coast, under the command