The energy industry has a very big problem: Professionals born between the mid-1940s and mid-1960s are approaching retirement age. And a very big question arises: who will replace them?
Breaking down barriers to renewable energy
Despite certain achievements in last years Renewable energy makes up a very modest part of modern energy delivery services around the world. Why is this so?
Real-time power transmission monitoring
The demand for electricity continues to grow and power transmission companies face the challenge of increasing the transmission capacity of their networks. It can be solved by building new and modernizing old lines. But there is another way to solve it, it is to use sensors and network monitoring technology.
A material capable of making solar energy "surprisingly cheap"
Solar panels made from a material that is long known and cheaper than silicon can generate the same amount of electrical energy as solar panels used today.
Comparison of medium voltage gas and vacuum circuit breakers
The experience in the development of medium voltage circuit breakers, both SF6 and vacuum, has provided ample evidence that neither of these two technologies is, in general, significantly superior to the other. Economic factors, user preferences, national "traditions", competence and special requirements drive decisions in favor of a particular technology.
Medium voltage switchgear and LSС
Medium voltage switchgear in metal enclosure and loss of availability (LSC) categories - categories, classification, examples.
What factors will influence the future of transformer manufacturers?
Whether you are producing or selling electricity, or supplying power transformers overseas, you have to contend with the competition in the global marketplace. There are three main categories of factors that will influence the future of all transformer manufacturers.
The future of medium voltage switchgear
Smart grids seek to optimize the links between electricity demand and supply. By integrating more distributed and renewable energy sources into one network. Is the medium voltage switching equipment ready to meet these challenges, or does it need to be further developed?
Looking for a replacement for SF6 gas
Elegaz, has a number of useful characteristics, used in various industries, in particular, it is actively used in the electricity sector high voltage... However, SF6 also has a significant disadvantage - it is a powerful greenhouse gas. It is included in the list of six gases included in the Kyoto Protocol.
Advantages and types of GIS
The electrical substation should preferably be located in the center of the load. However, often the main obstacle to such a placement of a substation is the space required for it. This problem can be solved through the use of GIS technology.
Vacuum as an arc quenching medium
Currently, in medium voltages, vacuum arc extinguishing technology dominates over technologies using air, SF6, or oil. Typically, vacuum circuit breakers are safer, and more reliable in situations where the number of normal operations and operations servicing short circuits is very large.
Company selection and thermal imaging survey planning
If an idea for a thermal imaging survey is for you electrical equipment is new, planning, finding a performer, and identifying the benefits that this technology can give are confusing.
The most famous ways to isolate high voltage
Seven of the most common and well-known materials used as high-voltage insulation in electrical structures... For them, aspects that require special attention are indicated.
Five technologies to improve the efficiency of transmission and distribution systems
When looking at the measures with the highest potential for improving energy efficiency, electricity transmission inevitably comes first.
Self-healing networks come to Holland
Economic growth and population growth are driving an increase in electricity demand, together with severe restrictions on the quality and reliability of energy supply, efforts to ensure the integrity of the network are increasing. In the event of a network failure, their owners are faced with the task of minimizing the consequences of these failures, reducing the time of failure and the number of consumers disconnected from the network.
The equipment of high-voltage circuit breakers for each company is associated with a significant investment. When the question arises about their maintenance or replacement, then all possible options must be considered.
Ways to Design Safe, Reliable and Efficient Industrial Substations
The main factors that should be taken into account when developing electrical substations for powering industrial consumers are considered. Attention is drawn to some innovative technologies that can improve the reliability and efficiency of substations.
To compare the use of vacuum circuit breakers or fused contactors in 6 ... 20 kV distribution networks, an understanding of the basic characteristics of each of these switching technologies is required.
Alternator circuit breakers
Playing an important role in the protection of power plants, generator circuit breakers enable more flexible operation and allow you to find effective solutions to reduce investment costs.
A look through the switchgear
X-ray inspection can help save time and money by reducing workload. In addition, the time of supply disruptions and equipment downtime at the client is reduced.
Thermal imaging inspection of electrical substations
SF6 gas in the power industry and its alternatives
In recent years, environmental issues have become very heavy weight in society. Emission of SF6 gas from switchgear is a significant contributor to climate change.
Hybrid switch
High-voltage circuit breakers are important electrical equipment used in transmission networks to isolate the faulty section from the operable part. electrical network... This ensures safe work electrical system... This article analyzes the merits and demerits of these two types of breakers, and the need for a hybrid model.
Safety and environmental friendliness of switchgear insulation
The purpose of this article is to highlight the potential hazards to personnel and the environment associated with the same equipment, but not energized. The article concentrates on switching and distribution equipment for voltages above 1000 V.
Functions and design of medium and high voltage circuit breakers
Advantages of DC in high voltage lines
Despite the increased distribution alternating current when transmitting electrical energy, in some cases the use of high voltage direct current is preferable.
Types and designations of supports
Supports made of various materials can be used on overhead lines.
For overhead lines, the following types of supports should be used:
1) intermediate, installed on straight sections of the overhead line route. These supports in normal operating modes should not perceive the efforts directed along the overhead line;
2) anchor, installed to limit the anchor span, as well as in places where the number, brands and cross-sections of overhead lines change. These supports should perceive, in normal operating modes, the forces from the difference in the tension of the wires directed along the overhead line;
3) angular, installed in places where the direction of the overhead line route changes. Under normal operating conditions, these supports must perceive the resulting load from the tension of the wires of adjacent spans. Corner supports can be intermediate and anchor type;
4) terminal, installed at the beginning and end of the overhead line, as well as in places limiting cable inserts. They are anchor-type supports and must perceive in normal operating modes of overhead lines one-sided tension of all wires.
Depending on the number of chains suspended from them, the supports are divided into single-chain, double-chain and multi-chain.
Supports can be free-standing or with guyed.
Intermediate supports can be flexible and rigid; anchor supports must be rigid. It is allowed to use flexible anchor supports for overhead lines up to 35 kV.
The supports on which the branches from the overhead line are made are called branching; supports on which the intersection of overhead lines of different directions or the intersection of overhead lines with engineering structures, - cross. These supports can be of all types indicated.
Support structures should provide the ability to install:
- lamps street lighting all types;
- cable end sleeves;
- protective devices;
- sectioning and switching devices;
- cabinets and shields for connecting electrical receivers.
Support types
P - intermediate;
PP - transitional intermediate:
UP - corner intermediate:
A - anchor;
PA - transitional anchor;
AK - end anchor:
K - terminal:
UA - corner anchor;
PUA - transitional corner anchor;
AO - branch anchor;
POA - transitional anchor branch;
O - branching.
Nomenclature of reinforced concrete poles for power transmission lines 10 kV
Support code |
Number of racks per supports |
Rack code |
Stand height, m |
Height to the lower traverse, m |
Reinforced concrete volume, m |
Weight of metal structures, kg |
CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 CB105-3.5; SV105 |
All objects on the ground, the situation and typical relief forms are displayed on topographic plans with conventional symbols.
Legend for topography
There are four main types into which conventional signs are subdivided:
- Explanatory captions.
- Linear symbols.
- Areal (contour).
- Out of scale.
Explanatory captions are used to indicate additional characteristics of the depicted objects: the speed of the current and its direction are signed at the river, at the bridge - the width, length and its carrying capacity, at the roads - the nature of the coverage and the width of the carriageway itself, etc.
Linear symbols (designations) are used to display linear objects: Power lines, roads, product pipelines (oil, gas), communication lines, etc. The width shown on the topographic plan of linear objects is off-scale.
Contour or area conventional symbols represent those objects that can be displayed in accordance with the scale of the map and occupying a certain area. The contour is drawn with a thin solid line, dashed or depicted as a dotted line. The formed contour is filled with conventional symbols (meadow vegetation, arboreal, garden, vegetable garden, bushes, etc.).
To display objects that cannot be expressed on the scale of the map, out-of-scale conventional symbols are used, while the location of such an out-of-scale object is determined by its characteristic point. For example: the center of a geodetic point, the base of a kilometer pole, centers of radio, TV towers, pipes of factories and plants.
In topography, the objects displayed are usually divided into eight main segments (classes):
- Relief
- Mathematical basis
- Soils and vegetation
- Hydrography
- Road network
- Industrial enterprises
- Settlements,
- Signatures and borders.
Collections of conventional symbols for maps and topographic plans of various scales are created in accordance with this division into objects. Approved by the state. bodies, they are the same for all topographic plans and are required when drawing any topographic surveys (topographic surveys).
Frequently encountered conventional signs on topography:
Points of state geodetic network and points of concentration
- Land use and allotment boundaries with landmarks at turning points
- Buildings. The numbers indicate the number of storeys. Explanatory signatures are given to indicate the fire resistance of the building (w - non-fire-resistant residential (wooden), n - non-residential non-fire-resistant, kn - non-residential stone, kzh - residential stone (usually brick), SMZ and SMN - mixed residential and mixed non-residential - wooden buildings with thin cladding brick or with floors built from different materials(the first floor is brick, the second is wooden)). A building under construction is shown with a dotted line.
- Slopes. Used to display ravines, road embankments and other artificial and natural landforms with sharp elevation changes
- Poles of power lines and communication lines. Symbols repeat the shape of the column section. Round or square. Reinforced concrete pillars have a dot in the center of the symbol. One arrow in the direction of the electric wires - low-voltage, two - high-voltage (6 kV and above)
- Underground and overhead communications. Underground - dotted line, aboveground - solid. The letters indicate the type of communication. K - sewerage, G - gas, N - oil pipeline, V - water supply, T - heating main. Additional explanations are also given: The number of wires for cables, the pressure of the gas pipeline, the material of the pipes, their thickness, etc.
- Various areal objects with explanatory captions. Wasteland, arable land, construction site, etc.
- Railways
- Car roads... The letters indicate the coating material. A - asphalt, Щ - crushed stone, C - cement or concrete plates... On dirt roads, the material is not indicated, and one of the sides is shown with a dotted line.
- Wells and wells
- Bridges over rivers and streams
- Horizontals. Serve to display the terrain. Are the lines formed when the earth's surface is cut parallel planes at regular intervals of altitude change.
- Elevations of the heights of the characteristic points of the terrain. Typically in the Baltic system of heights.
- Various woody vegetation. The predominant tree species, the average height of trees, their thickness and the distance between trees (density) are indicated
- Free standing trees
- Shrubs
- Various meadow vegetation
- Boggy with reed vegetation
- Fences. Fences are stone and reinforced concrete, wooden, picket fence, netting, etc.
Frequently used abbreviations in topography:
Buildings:
H - Non-residential building.
F - Residential.
KN - Stone non-residential
KZh - Stone residential
PAGE - Under construction
FUND. - Foundation
SMN - Mixed non-residential
SMZH - Mixed Residential
M. - Metallic
development - Destroyed (or fallen apart)
gar. - Garage
T. - Toilet
Communication lines:
3 ave. - Three wires on the power line pole
1kab. - One cable per pole
b / pr - without wires
tr. - Transformer
K - Sewerage
Cl. - Storm sewerage
T - Heating main
N - Oil pipeline
cab. - Cable
V - Communication lines. Number of cables in numbers, for example 4V - four cables
n.d. - Low pressure
s.d. - Medium pressure
v.d. - High pressure
Art. - Steel
cast iron. - Cast iron
bet. - concrete
Areal symbols:
bldg. - Construction site
og. - Vegetable garden
empty. - Wasteland
Roads:
A - Asphalt
Щ - Crushed stone
C - Cement, concrete slabs
D - Wood covering... Almost never occurs.
dor. zn. - Road sign
dor. decree. - Road sign
Water objects:
K - Well
well - Well
art well - artesian well
vdkch. - Water pumping station
bass. - Pool
vdr. - Reservoir
clay. - Clay
Symbols may differ on plans of different scales, therefore, to read the topographic plan, you must use conventional symbols for the appropriate scale.
How to correctly read conventional signs on topographic surveys
Let's consider how to correctly understand what we see on a topographic survey on specific example and how will they help us .
Below is a topographic survey at a scale of 1: 500 of a private house with a land plot and adjacent territory.
In the upper left corner we see an arrow with the help of which it is clear how the topographic survey is oriented towards the north. On a topographic survey, this direction may not be indicated, since by default the plan should be oriented top to the north.
The nature of the relief in the surveyed area: the area is flat with a slight decrease to the south. The difference in elevation marks from north to south is approximately 1 meter. The height of the southernmost point is 155.71 meters, and the most northern one is 156.88 meters. To display the relief, elevation marks were used that cover the entire topographic survey area and two contours. The upper one is thin with an elevation of 156.5 meters (not signed on the topographic survey) and thickened to the south with an elevation of 156 meters. At any point lying on the 156th horizontal the mark will be exactly 156 meters above sea level.
The topographic survey shows four identical crosses located at equal distances in the form of a square. This is the coordinate grid. They are used to graphically determine the coordinates of any point on the survey.
Next, we will consistently describe what we see from north to south. In the upper part of the topographic plan there are two parallel dotted lines with the inscription "Valentinovskaya St." between them and two letters "A". This means that we see a street called Valentinovskaya, the roadway of which is covered with asphalt, without a border (since these are dotted lines. Solid lines are drawn with the border, indicating the height of the border, or two marks are given: the top and bottom of the curb stone).
Let's describe the space between the road and the fence of the site:
- A horizontal line runs along it. The relief lowers towards the site.
- In the center of this part of the survey is concrete pillar power lines, from which cables with wires depart in the directions indicated by the arrows. Voltage of cables 0.4kv. There is also a street light on the pole.
- To the left of the pillar, we see four broad-leaved trees (it can be oak, maple, linden, ash, etc.)
- Below the post, parallel to the road with a branch towards the house, an underground gas pipeline is laid (yellow dotted line with the letter D). Pressure, material and pipe diameter are not indicated on the topographic survey. These characteristics are specified after agreement with the gas industry.
- Two short parallel sections occurring in this area of the survey are a conventional sign of herbaceous vegetation (forbs)
We pass to the site itself.
The facade of the site is fenced with a metal fence with a height of more than 1 meter with a gate and a wicket. The facade of the left (or right, if you look at the site from the street) is exactly the same. The facade of the right section is fenced wooden fence on a stone, concrete or brick foundation.
Vegetation on the site: lawn grass with freestanding pines (4 pcs.) and fruit trees(also 4 pcs.).
On the site there is a concrete pole with a power cable from the pole on the street to the house on the site. An underground gas branch runs from the gas pipeline route to the house. Underground water supply brought to the house from the side of the neighboring plot. The fencing of the western and southern parts of the site is made of a chain-link mesh, the eastern one is made of metal fence more than 1 meter high. In the southwestern part of the site, part of the fences of neighboring areas made of a chain-link mesh and a solid wooden fence are visible.
Buildings on the site: In the upper (northern) part of the site there is a residential one-story wooden house... 8 is the house number on Valentinovskaya street. The floor level in the house is 156.55 meters. In the eastern part of the house there is a terrace with a wooden closed porch... In the western part, on the adjacent plot, there is a ruined annex to the house. There is a well near the northeast corner of the house. In the southern part of the site there are three wooden non-residential buildings. One of them has a canopy on pillars.
Vegetation in neighboring areas: in the area located to the east - woody vegetation, to the west - herbaceous.
A residential one-storey wooden house is visible on the plot located to the south.
This way help to obtain a fairly large amount of information about the territory in which the topographic survey was carried out.
And finally, this is what this topographic survey looks like when applied to an aerial photograph: 
People who do not have a special education in the field of geodesy or cartography may not understand the crosses depicted on maps and topographic plans. What is this conventional sign?
This is the so-called coordinate grid, where integer or exact coordinate values intersect. Coordinates used on maps and topoplans can be geographic and rectangular. Geographic coordinates are latitude and longitude, rectangular coordinates are distances from the conventional origin in meters. For example, the state cadastral registration is carried out in rectangular coordinates and for each region its own rectangular coordinate system is used, which differs in the conditional origin in different regions of Russia (for the Moscow region, the MSK-50 coordinate system is adopted). For maps over large areas, geographic coordinates are usually used (latitude and longitude, which you could also see in GPS navigators).
Topographic survey or topographic survey is performed in a rectangular coordinate system and the crosses that we see on such a topographic plan are the intersection points of the circular coordinate values. If there are two topographic surveys of neighboring areas in the same coordinate system, they can be combined along these crosses and get a topographic survey into two areas at once, according to which more full information about the adjacent territory.
Distance between crosses on topography
In accordance with the rules and regulations, they are always located at a distance of 10 cm from each other and form regular squares. By measuring this distance on the paper version of the topographic survey, you can determine whether the scale of the topographic survey was respected when printing or photocopying source material... This distance should always be 10 centimeters between adjacent crosses. If it differs significantly, but not a whole number of times, then such material cannot be used, since it does not correspond to the declared scale of the topographic survey.
If the distance between the crosses differs several times from 10 cm, then most likely such a topographic survey was printed for some tasks that do not require adherence to the original scale. For example: if the distance between crosses on topography 1: 500 scale - 5 cm, which means it was printed at a scale of 1: 1000, distorting all the conventional signs, but at the same time reducing the size of the printed material, which can be used as an overview plan.
Knowing the scale of the topographic survey, it is possible to determine what distance in meters on the ground corresponds to the distance between adjacent crosses on the topographic survey. So for the most commonly used topographic scale 1: 500, the distance between the crosses corresponds to 50 meters, for a scale of 1: 1000 - 100 meters, 1: 2000 - 200 meters, etc. This can be calculated by knowing what is between crosses on topography 10 cm, and the distance on the ground in one centimeter of the topographic survey in meters is obtained by dividing the scale denominator by 100.
It is possible to calculate the scale of the topographic survey using the crosses (coordinate grid) if the rectangular coordinates of the neighboring crosses are specified. To calculate, you need to multiply the coordinate difference along one of the axes of neighboring crosses by 10. For the example of the topographic survey given below, in this case, we get: (2246600 - 2246550) * 10 = 500 ---> The scale of this survey is 1: 500 or in one centimeter 5 meters. You can also calculate the scale, if it is not indicated on the topographic survey, using the known distance on the ground. For example, by the known length of the fence or the length of one of the sides of the house. To do this, we divide the known length on the terrain in meters by the measured distance of this length on the topographic survey in centimeters and multiply by 100. Example: the length of the house wall is 9 meters, this distance measured with a ruler on the topographic survey is 1.8 cm. (9 / 1.8) * 100 = 500. Topographic scale - 1: 500. If the distance measured on the topographic survey is 0.9 cm, then the scale is 1: 1000 ((9 / 0.9) * 100 = 1000)
The use of crosses in topography
The size crosses on topography should be 1cm X 1cm. If the crosses do not correspond to these dimensions, then most likely the distance between them was not observed and the scale of the topographic survey is distorted. As already written, by crosses, in the case of performing topographic surveys in one coordinate system, it is possible to combine topographic surveys of neighboring territories. Designers use crosses in topographic surveys to link the objects under construction. For example, for setting out the axes of buildings, the exact distances along the coordinate axes to the nearest cross are indicated, which allows you to calculate the future exact location of the projected object on the ground.
Below is a fragment of a topographic survey with the indicated values of rectangular coordinates on the crosses.
Topographic survey scale
The scale is the ratio linear dimensions... This word came to us from German language, and translates as "measuring stick".
What is the scale of topographic survey
In geodesy and cartography, the term scale is understood as the ratio of the present magnitude of an object to the magnitude of its image on a map or plan. The scale value is written as a fraction with one in the numerator, and in the denominator - a number indicating how many times the decrease was made.
Using the scale, you can determine which segment on the map will correspond to the distance measured on the ground. For example, moving around a map with a scale of 1: 1000, one centimeter will be equivalent to ten meters traversed on the ground. Conversely, every ten meters of terrain is a centimeter of a map or plan. The larger the scale, the more detailed the map, the more fully it displays the terrain objects applied to it.
Scale- one of key concepts topographic survey... The variety of scales is explained by the fact that each type of it, focused on a solution specific tasks, allows you to receive plans of a certain size and generalization. For example, a large-scale ground survey is capable of providing a detailed display of the relief and objects on the ground. It is done in the production of land management work, as well as in engineering and geodetic surveys. But it will not be able to show objects over an area as large as small-scale aerial photography.
The choice of scale, first of all, depends on the degree of detail of the map or plan required in each particular case. The larger the scale used, the higher the requirements for the accuracy of the measurements to be made. And the more experience performers and specialized enterprises performing this shooting should have.
Scale views
There are 3 types of scale:
Named;
Graphic;
Numerical.
Topographic survey scale 1:1000
used in the design of low-rise construction, in engineering surveys. It is also used to draw up working drawings for various industrial facilities.
Smaller scale 1:2000 suitable, for example, for detailing individual areas settlements- cities, towns, countryside... It is also used for projects of rather large industrial structures.
To scale 1:5000 draw up cadastral plans, general plans of cities. It is irreplaceable when designing railways and highways, laying of communication networks. It is taken as a basis for drawing up small-scale topographic plans. Smaller scales, starting from 1: 10000, are used for plans of the largest settlements - cities and towns.
But the greatest demand is for topographic surveying at scale 1:500 ... The range of its use is quite wide: from the master plan of the construction site, to above-ground and underground engineering communications... Larger-scale work is required only in landscape design, where ratios of 1:50, 1: 100 and 1: 200 are required for a detailed description of the area - separately standing trees, shrubs and other similar objects.
For topographic survey at a scale of 1: 500, the average errors of contours and objects should not exceed 0.7 millimeters, no matter how complex the terrain and relief may be. These requirements are determined by the characteristics of the field of application, which includes:
engineering communications plans;
drawing up very detailed plans for industrial and economic structures;
improvement of the territory adjacent to the buildings;
layout of gardens and parks;
landscaping of small areas.
Such plans depict not only the relief and vegetation, but also water bodies, geological wells, reference points and other similar structures. One of the main features of this large-scale topographic survey is the application of communications, which must be coordinated with the services operating them.
DIY topography
Is it possible to perform a topographic survey own site with your own hands, without involving a specialist in the field of geodesy? How difficult it is to do topography on your own.
In the event that topography is necessary to obtain any official documents, for example, a building permit, granting ownership or lease land plot or getting technical conditions for connection to gas, electricity or other communications, you will not be able to provide do-it-yourself topography... In this case, topographic survey is an official document, the basis for further design and only specialists who have a license to carry out geodetic and cartographic work or are members of a self-regulatory organization (SRO) corresponding to these types of work have the right to perform it.
Execute do-it-yourself topography without special education and work experience it is almost impossible. Topographic survey is a rather complicated product in technical terms, requiring knowledge in the field of geodesy, cartography and the availability of special expensive equipment. Possible errors in the resulting topographic plan can lead to serious problems. For example, an incorrect determination of the location of the future structure due to poor-quality topography can lead to a violation of fire and building codes and as a consequence to a possible court decision on the demolition of the building. Topography with gross errors can lead to an incorrect location of the fence, violating the rights of the neighbors of your land plot and, as a result, to its dismantling and significant additional costs for its construction in a new place.
In what cases and how can you do it yourself?
The result of the topographic survey is detailed plan terrain on which the relief and detailed situation are displayed. Special geodetic equipment is used to plot objects and terrain on the plan.
Devices and tools that can be used to perform topographic survey:
high-precision geodetic GPS / GLONASS receiver
3D laser scanner
theodolite
total station
Theodolite is the cheapest piece of equipment. The cheapest theodolite costs about 25,000 rubles. The most expensive of these devices is the laser scanner. Its price is measured in millions of rubles. Based on this and the prices for topographic surveying, it makes no sense to purchase your own equipment for doing topographic surveying with your own hands. There remains the option of renting equipment. The cost of renting an electronic total station starts from 1000 rubles. in a day. If you have experience in performing topographic surveying and working with this equipment, then it makes sense to rent an electronic tacheometer and do a topographic survey with your own hands. Otherwise, without experience, you will spend quite a lot of time studying complex equipment and work technology, which will lead to significant rental costs that exceed the cost of performing this type of work by an organization with a special license.
For the design of underground communications on the site essential has a relief character. Incorrect determination of the slope can lead to undesirable consequences when laying the sewage system. Based on the above, the only one possible variant do-it-yourself topography this compilation simple plan on a site with already existing buildings for simple improvement of the territory. In this case, if the site is on the cadastral register, a cadastral passport with form B6 can help. There are indicated exact dimensions, coordinates and angles of rotation of the boundaries of the site. The most difficult thing when measuring without special equipment is determining the angles. The available information about the boundaries of the site can be used as a basis for building a simple plan of your site. A tape measure can be used as a tool for further measurements. It is desirable that its length be sufficient for measuring the diagonals of the section, otherwise, when measuring the lengths of the lines in several steps, errors will accumulate. Measurements with a tape measure for drawing up a site plan can be carried out if there are already established boundaries of your site and they are fixed with boundary marks or coincide with the fence of the site. In this case, to apply any objects to the plan, several measurements of the lengths of lines from boundary marks or corners of the site are performed. The plan is prepared electronically or on paper. For paper version it is better to use graph paper. The boundaries of the site are applied to the plan and used as a basis for further constructions. The distances measured with a tape measure are plotted from the plotted corners of the site and at the intersection of the radii of the circles corresponding to the measured distances, the location of the required object is obtained. The resulting plan can be used for simple calculations. For example, calculating the area occupied by a vegetable garden, a preliminary calculation of the amount necessary building materials for additional decorative fences or laying garden paths.
Considering all of the above, we can conclude:
If topography is required to obtain any official documents (building permit, cadastral registration, urban planning plan, planning organization scheme) or design residential building, its implementation must be entrusted to an organization that has an appropriate license or is a member of a self-regulatory organization (SRO). In this case, the performed do it yourself topography is null and void and possible mistakes if carried out by a layperson can lead to disastrous consequences. The only possible option do-it-yourself topography it is drawing up a simple plan for solving simple tasks on a personal site.
STATE STANDARD OF THE UNION OF SSR
UNIFIED SYSTEM OF TECHNOLOGICAL DOCUMENTATION
SUPPORTS, CLAMPS
AND INSTALLATION DEVICES.
GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
GOST 3.1107-81
(CTSEV 1803 -7 9)
STATE STANDARD OF THE UNION OF SSR
|
Unified system of technological documentation SUPPORTS, CLAMPS Unified system for technological documentation. |
GOST (CTSEV 1803 -7 9) Instead of |
from 01.07.82
1. This standard establishes graphic designations of supports, clamps and installation devices used in technological documentation. The standard is fully consistent with ST SEV 1803 -7 9. 2. For the representation of the designation of supports, clamps and installation devices, a solid thin line should be used in accordance with GOST 2.303-68. 3. Designations of supports (conventional) are given in table. 1.
Table 1
|
Support and change |
Support Symbol in Views |
||
|
in front and behind |
|||
| 1. Immovable | |||
| 2. Movable |
|
||
| 3. Floating |
|
||
| 4. Adjustable |
|
||
table 2
|
Clamp name |
Clamp designation in the view |
||
|
front, back |
|||
| 1. Single | |||
| 2. Double |
|
|
|
Table a 3
|
Name of the device settings |
Designation of the installation device in the views |
||
|
front, back, top x bottom |
|||
| 1. The center is stationary |
|
No designation |
No designation |
| 2. Center revolving |
|
||
| 3. Center floating |
|
||
| 4. The mandrel is cylindrical |
|
||
| 5. Ball mandrel (roller) |
|
||
| 6. Leader chuck | |||
Table 4
|
Naming the working surface shape |
Designation of the shape of the working surface on all sides |
| 1. Flat |
|
| 2. Spherical |
|
| 3. Tsil indric (ball) | |
| 4. Pr and zmatic | |
| 5. Conical | |
| 6. Rhombic |
|
| 7. Triangular |
Table 5
15. The designation of the types of clamping devices is applied to the left of the designation of the terminals (reference annexes 1 and 2). Note. For g and droplastic mandrels, it is allowed to use the designation e -. 16. The number of points of application of the clamping force to the product, if necessary, should be recorded to the right of the clamp designation (reference annex 2, pos. 3). 17. On diagrams with several projections, it is allowed on separate projections not to indicate the designations of supports, clamps and installation devices relative to the product, if their position is uniquely determined on one projection (reference annex 2, pos. 2). 18. On the diagrams, it is allowed to replace several designations of the supports of the same name on each type with one, with a designation of their number (reference annex 2, pos. 2). 19. Deviations from the size of the graphic designations indicated in the table are allowed. 1 - 4 and in the drawing.ANNEX 1
Reference
Examples of applying designations of supports, clamps and installation devices on diagrams
|
Name |
Examples of application of designations of supports, clamps and installations of fixing devices |
| 1. The center is stationary (smooth) |
|
| 2. The center is grooved |
|
| 3. Center floating |
|
| 4. Center revolving |
|
| 5. Reverse rotating center with grooved surface |
|
| 6. Leader chuck |
|
| 7. Steady rest |
