Plan: 1. General concept of activity. External and internal activities and their relationship. 2. Structure of human activity. Actions and
movements.
3. Conscious and automated components
activities. Abilities, skills, habits and their
peculiarities. Skills, their structure and
production patterns.
4. Types of human activity. Concept
leading activities.

1. The domestic psychological school is based on activity theory. The creators and continuers of this theory are

A.N. Leontyev, L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, B.G.
Ananyev, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, E.A. Klimov and others.
IN general view activity means
activity of a living organism aimed at
satisfaction of needs and adjustable
conscious goal.

Conscious human activity is fundamentally different from the behavior of animals: - not necessarily related to biological

motives,
- is not determined only by visual
impressions,
- formed by assimilation
social experience.

2. Structure of human activity. Action is a process aimed at realizing a goal. They are characterized by

Features:
1) acting as a necessary component
include an act of consciousness in the form of setting and holding
goals;
2) it is at the same time an act of behavior, and external
actions are inextricably linked with consciousness;
3) through the concept of “action” the principle is affirmed
activity;
4) actions can be external, attracted and
internal mental.
Objective actions are actions aimed at
to change the state or properties of objects
outside world. They are made up of certain
movements.

Any activity includes both internal and external components. Initially, objective actions are performed (external

component) and only then,
as experience accumulates, a person
acquires the ability to perform the same
actions in the mind (internal component)
(interiorization). Aimed at the end
externally, to transform the subject matter
in reality, they are exposed
inverse conversion
(exteriorization).

Internal
activity
External
activity
need
activity
motive
action
target
operation
task
movement
result
psychophysiological
functions

3. Conscious and automated components of activity. Abilities, skills, habits and their characteristics. Planning mechanism

control and regulation
actions were studied by domestic and foreign
physiologists and psychologists - P.K. Anokhin, P.A. Bernstein,
E.A. Afatyan, W. Ashby, etc. In their studies
it is shown that the purpose of any action is represented in
consciousness in the form of a psychological image -
a kind of neuropsychological model.
The mechanism for correcting actions through correlation with
in the manner of the expected result, as P.K. pointed out.
Anokhin, called the action acceptor.

P.A. Bernstein proposed a completely new
principle of motion control; he called it a principle
sensory correction, meaning corrections made to
impulses based on sensory information about the progress of movement.
In this connection, various structural elements are distinguished
activities - abilities, skills, habits.
Skills are ways of successfully performing an action,
corresponding to the goals and conditions of activity. Skills
always rely on knowledge.
A skill is a fully automated component
actions formed during the exercises.

10. Methods of execution, control and regulation of actions that a person uses in the process of activity are called techniques

this
activities
Skills and abilities, as methods of action, are always
included in specific activities.
For example:
- motor skills develop over time
physical labor, sports, educational
process;
- mental skills are developed in the process
observation, planning, production of oral and
written calculations, working with a book, etc.

11. Skill building

Skills are formed through exercise, i.e.
targeted and systematic repetitions
actions. As the exercise progresses, they change as
quantitative and qualitative indicators
work.
There are three main ones in the formation of a skill:
stages: analytical, synthetic and stage
automation.

12. Stages of skill formation

Analytical
1
2
3
isolation and mastery of individual
action elements
Synthetic
combining elements into a holistic action
Automation
exercise to give action
smoothness, desired speed, stress relief

13. Habits are a component of action, which is based on need and repeated repetition. They can to a certain extent

consciously controlled, but not always
are reasonable and useful (bad habits).
Ways to form habits:
- imitation;
- as a result of repeated repetition of an action;
- conscious, targeted efforts, e.g.
through positive reinforcement of what is desired
behavior through a material object, verbal
assessment or emotional image.

14. 4. Types of activities. The concept of leading activity. There are three types of activities: play, learning, work. They differ in

final results, organization and
features of motivation.
All the diversity of human
activities can be reduced to
three main types: work, learning,
a game.

15.

Main types of human activities and their background

16. Game is a form of activity in conditional situations aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience fixed in

socially assigned
ways to implement subject
actions, in subjects of science and culture.

17. Teaching It follows play and precedes work, drawing closer to labor in its general attitude: in learning, as in work, one must fulfill

assignments, maintain discipline,
Academic work is based on responsibilities.
The main purpose of the training is to prepare for the future
independent work activity, and the main
means - mastering the generalized results of
what was created by previous human labor.
Learning is impossible in animals. A person has it
possible only at the stage of conscious regulation
their behavior, i.e. by 6-7 years.

18. Labor This is historically the first type of human activity. K. Marx: labor is a conscious, purposeful activity that

sent for implementation
result and is regulated by the will in accordance with its
conscious goal.
Labor is also the main way of personality formation. IN
work develops human abilities,
his character is formed.
The purpose of activity lies not in itself, but in its
product. Labor is an activity aimed
to create a socially useful product.

19. Each type of activity is most characteristic of certain age stages of child development. Current view

activities as if
prepares the next one.
In this regard, in psychology there is a concept
leading type of activity.
The type of activity that is leading is called
which at this age stage
determines the main, most important changes in
the child’s psyche, in his mental processes and
mental properties of the individual, and not the one by which
the child is engaged more often.

20.

For preschoolers, VVDe is a game
although they are in accessible forms
are engaged in both educational and labor
activities;
for VVDe schoolchildren - teaching;
in adolescents – intimate and personal
communication;
in youth and adulthood - work.

The term “thinking” was understood differently by representatives of various sciences. By thinking they meant the entire psychology of man and contrasted it with the really existing material world (17th century French philosopher R. Descartes). At the end of the 19th century. thinking began to be understood as one of the cognitive processes. From the middle of the 20th century. it turns out that it represents quite difficult process and it is not possible to accurately define thinking as a concept. There is still no single generally accepted definition thinking.

And yet thinking in its modern sense can be defined with different sides, as one of the cognitive, mental processes of a person. Its goal is to understand the world around us through the senses or through other psychological processes.

Thinking is the process of solving problems, questions, problems by transforming initial conditions according to certain rules and laws of logic.

Thinking is the process of a person’s generalized cognition of reality at the conceptual level (knowledge about the most important and essential things that are associated with a certain word, content.

Thinking is also a process of indirect (using special means) human cognition of reality.

Thinking is a type of activity through which a person, including it in other cognitive processes, transforms them into higher mental functions. The highest forms of perception, attention, imagination, memory and speech of a person are most closely related to thinking.

Features of thinking

Thinking- it's mental cognitive process reflections of significant connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of the objective world. It acts as the main tool of cognition. Thinking is mediated (cognition of one thing through another) cognition. The thinking process is characterized by the following features:

1. Thinking always has indirect nature. Establishing connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the objective world, a person relies not only on immediate sensations and perceptions, but also on the data of past experience preserved in his memory.

2. Thinking based on available to a person knowledge about the general laws of nature and society. In the process of thinking, a person uses the knowledge of general provisions already formed on the basis of previous practice, which reflect the most general connections and patterns of the surrounding world.

3. Thinking comes from “living contemplation”, but is not reduced to it. Reflecting connections and relationships between phenomena, we always reflect these connections in an abstract and generalized form, as having a general meaning for all similar phenomena of a given class, and not just for this specifically observed phenomenon.

4. Thinking is always there reflection of connections and relationships between objects in verbal form. Thinking and speech are always in inextricable unity. Due to the fact that thinking takes place in words, the processes of abstraction and generalization are facilitated, since words by their nature are very special stimuli that signal reality in the most generalized form.

5. Human thinking is organic connected With practical activities. In its essence, it is based on human social practice. This is by no means Not simple “contemplation” of the external world, but such a reflection of it that meets the tasks that arise before a person in the process of labor and other activities aimed at reorganizing the surrounding world.

Thought, however, is different from other cognitive processes. for example, from perception, imagination and memory.

The image of perception always contains only that which directly affects the senses. Perception always more or less accurately, directly or indirectly, contains or reflects information that affects the senses.

Thinking always represents something that in reality, in physical form, does not exist. The concept of phenomena and objects is the result of thinking. Thinking reflects only the essential and ignores many random, unimportant signs of objects and phenomena.

Imagination and thinking are purely internal and different processes. However, they are significantly different. The result of thinking is a thought, and the result of imagination is an image. Thinking helps a person to understand the world around him more deeply and better. The result of imagination is not any law. The further the fantasy image departs from reality, the better the imagination. The closer to reality the product of thinking is, the more perfect it is.

A person with a rich imagination is not always creatively gifted or intellectually developed, and a person with a well-developed thinking does not always have a good imagination.

Memory remembers, stores and reproduces information about the surrounding world. It does not introduce anything new, does not generate or change thought. Thinking, on the contrary, generates and changes precisely thoughts as such.

Basic types of human thinking. There are several approaches to the classification of types of thinking: empirical (experienced) and static, logical, genetic principles.

So, in a person we can distinguish the following main types of thinking:

theoretical and practical,

productive (creative) and reproductive (non-creative),

intuitive (sensual) and logical,

autistic and realistic,

visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking.

Theoretical is called thinking that occurs in the mind, without resorting to practical actions, i.e., thinking based on theoretical reasoning and inferences. For example, proof of any non-obvious position by mental transformation of already known provisions, definition of concepts, formulation and justification of theories that explain any phenomena of reality.

Practical they call thinking, the purpose of which is to solve some practical, life problem, different from those purely cognitive problems that were called theoretical. Such thinking can contain both mental and practical actions of a person. Practical thinking - thinking based on judgments and inferences based on solving practical problems.

Productive or creative they call such thinking that generates some new, previously unknown material (object, phenomenon) or ideal (thought, idea) product. Productive(creative) thinking - thinking based on creative imagination.

Reproductive or reproducing thinking deals with problems for which solutions have been found. In reproductive thinking, a person follows an already traveled, known path. Nothing new is created as a result of such thinking. Therefore, it is sometimes also called uncreative. Reproductive(reproducing) thinking - thinking based on images and ideas drawn from certain sources.

The names “productive” and “reproductive” in relation to thinking appeared and began to be used at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Currently, the preferred names are: “ creative thinking" and "uncreative thinking."

Intuitive is called thinking, the peculiarity of which is that a person has a special intellectual ability and a special feeling - intuition. Intuition is the ability to quickly find the correct solution to a problem without much reasoning and to be convinced, to feel its correctness, without having strong evidence of the truth of this solution. A person is guided by intuition, and it also leads his thinking along the right path.

Intuitive thinking - thinking on the basis of direct sensory perceptions and direct reflection of the effects of objects and phenomena of the objective world.

Intuitive thinking is usually unconscious. A person does not know, cannot give a conscious account of how he came to this or that decision, cannot logically justify it. Discursive thinking is thinking mediated by the logic of reasoning, not perception.

Logical called such thinking, which is recognized as a process, can be proven and verified from the point of view of its correctness or error by logical rules.

There is an assumption that a person’s predominance of intuitive or logical thinking to some extent genetically determined. Scientists admit that in people for whom the right hemisphere of the brain is dominant, intuitive thinking predominates, and in people for whom the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant, logical thinking is dominant.

Autistic thinking - special kind thinking, which does not always reveal the truth to a person or leads to the right decision one task or another. “Autism” is translated into Russian as “having your head in the clouds”, “free flight of fantasy”, “detachment from reality”. We are talking about thinking that does not take into account or is poorly oriented towards reality, solving problems without taking into account objective life circumstances. Such thinking in most cases is not quite normal from the point of view of the usual understanding of the norm. This thinking, however, cannot be called sick (pathological), since its presence in a person does not indicate the presence of any disease.

In contrast to autistic thinking, realistic thinking is distinguished. This type of thinking is always guided by reality, seeks and finds solutions to problems as a result of a careful study of this reality, and the solutions found, as a rule, correspond to reality. Autistically thinking people are sometimes called dreamers, and realistically thinking people are called pragmatists, realists.

Visually effective is called thinking, the process of which comes down to real, practical actions of a person with material objects in a clearly perceived situation. Internal, mental actions are practically reduced to a minimum; the task is mainly solved through practical manipulations with objects. Visually effective- This is the simplest known type of thinking, characteristic of many animals. Visually effective thinking is thinking directly involved in activity.

It represents genetically the earliest type of human thinking.

Visually figurative They call thinking in which problems are solved by a person through internal, psychological actions and transformations of images of objects. This type of thinking appears in children aged 3-4 years. Figurative thinking is thinking carried out on the basis of images, ideas of what a person perceived before.

Verbal-logical called the highest level of development of human thinking, which arises only at the end of preschool age and improves throughout life. Such thinking deals with concepts about objects and phenomena, proceeds entirely on the internal, mental plane, and does not require reliance on a clearly perceived situation.

Abstract thinking is thinking carried out on the basis of abstract concepts that are not represented figuratively.

Thinking processes. Thinking processes These are the processes by which a person solves problems. It could be like internal, so and external processes, as a result of which a person discovers new knowledge and finds solutions to the problems that arise before him. In different types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical - these processes appear as different.

In visual-effective thinking, they represent purposeful practical actions of a person with real objects, leading him to a given goal. These actions are determined by the conditions of the problem and are aimed at transforming them in such a way as to lead a person to the desired goal - the desired solution to the problem - in a minimum number of relatively simple actions.

In visual-figurative thinking, its process is already a purely internal, psychological process, the content of which is the manipulation of images of relevant objects.

The processes that characterize verbal-logical thinking are understood as the internal reasoning of a person, where he acts with concepts according to the laws of logic, searching for the desired solution to a problem through comparison and transformation of concepts.

Under judgment understand a certain statement containing a certain thought. Under reasoning They mean a system of logically interconnected judgments, the constructed sequence of which leads to a conclusion that represents the desired solution to the problem. Judgments can be statements about the presence or absence of a specific feature in an object or phenomenon. Logically and linguistically, propositions are usually represented by simple sentences.

In psychology and logic, the processes related to verbal-logical thinking turned out to be the most studied in detail. For centuries in the process of searching the right ways actions with concepts - those that guarantee the avoidance of mistakes, people have developed rules for actions with concepts, which are called logical operations of thinking.

Logical operations of thinking - These are mental actions with concepts, as a result of which new knowledge, and true knowledge, is obtained from generalized knowledge presented in the corresponding concepts. The basic logical operations of thinking are as follows: comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization And specification.

Comparison is a logical operation as a result of which two or more different objects are compared with each other in order to establish what is common and different in them. The identification of common and different is the result of a logical comparison operation. Comparison - this is an operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them.

Analysis - This is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts.

Analysis is a logical operation of dividing a complex or composite object into separate parts, the elements of which it consists. Sometimes the connections that exist between parts or elements are also clarified in order to determine how the corresponding complex object is internally arranged.

Synthesis call the logical operation of combining parts or elements into a complex whole. As in the case of analysis, this is sometimes done in order to further determine how a complex whole is structured, by what special properties it differs from the elements of which it is composed. Synthesis - This is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking.

It rarely happens in human thinking that it includes only one logical operation. Most often, logical operations are present in a complex manner.

Abstraction is called such a logical operation, as a result of which any particular property of one or several different objects is isolated and considered, moreover, a property that in reality does not exist as separate and independent from the corresponding objects. Abstraction - a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects and phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.

Generalization- this is a logical operation, as a result of which some particular statement, valid in relation to one or several objects, is transferred to other objects or acquires a generalized, rather than private, character. Generalization - This is the unification of many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic.

Specification - this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific.

Specification is a logical operation opposite to generalization. It manifests itself in the fact that a certain general statement is transferred to a specific object, that is, properties inherent in many other objects are attributed to it.

Participating in a holistic process of thinking, logical operations complement each other and serve the purpose of such transformation of information, thanks to which it is possible to quickly find the desired solution to a certain problem. All processes of thinking and all logical operations included in it have an external organization, which is usually called forms of thinking or inferences.

Everyone doubts their memory and no one doubts their ability to judge.

La Rochefoucauld

Concept of thinking

Thinking is a cognitive process characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

We resort to thinking when we cannot obtain information relying only on the work of the senses. In such cases, you have to obtain new knowledge through thinking, building a system of inferences. So, looking at a thermometer hung from outside windows, we find out what the air temperature is outside. You don't have to go outside to gain this knowledge. Seeing the treetops swaying strongly, we conclude that there is wind outside.

In addition to the two usually recorded signs of thinking (generalization and indirectness), it is important to point out two more of its features - the connection of thinking with action and speech.

Thinking is closely related to action. A person cognizes reality by influencing it, understands the world by changing it. Thinking is not simply accompanied by action, or action by thinking; action is primary form existence of thinking. The primary type of thinking is thinking in action or by action. All mental operations (analysis, synthesis, etc.) arose first as practical operations, then became operations of theoretical thinking. Thinking originated in work activity as a practical operation and only then emerged as an independent theoretical activity.

When characterizing thinking, it is important to point out the connection between thinking and speech. We think in words. The highest form of thinking is verbal-logical thinking, through which a person becomes able to reflect complex connections, relationships, form concepts, draw conclusions and solve complex abstract problems.

Human thinking is impossible without language. Adults and children solve problems much better if they formulate them out loud. And vice versa, when in the experiment the subject’s tongue was fixed (clamped between his teeth), the quality and quantity of solved problems deteriorated.

It is interesting that any proposal to solve a complex problem causes distinct electrical discharges in the subject’s speech muscles, which do not appear in the form of external speech, but always precede it. It is characteristic that the described electrical discharges, which are symptoms of inner speech, arise during any intellectual activity (even that which was previously considered non-speech) and disappear when intellectual activity acquires a habitual, automated character.

Types of thinking

Genetic psychology distinguishes three types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical.

The peculiarities of visual-effective thinking are manifested in the fact that problems are solved with the help of a real, physical transformation of the situation and manipulation of objects. This form of thinking is most typical for children under 3 years of age. A child of this age compares objects, placing one on top of another or placing one next to another; he analyzes by breaking his toy into pieces; he synthesizes, putting together a “house” from cubes or sticks; he classifies and generalizes by arranging cubes by color. The child does not yet set goals and does not plan his actions. The child thinks by acting. The movement of the hand at this stage is ahead of thinking. That’s why this type of thinking is also called manual thinking. One should not think that visual-effective thinking does not occur in adults. It is often used in everyday life (for example, when rearranging furniture in a room or when it is necessary to use unfamiliar equipment) and turns out to be necessary when it is impossible to fully foresee the results of some actions in advance.

Visual-figurative thinking is associated with operating with images. It allows you to analyze, compare and generalize various images, ideas about phenomena and objects. Visual-figurative thinking most fully recreates all the diversity various characteristics subject. The image can simultaneously capture the vision of an object from several points of view. In this capacity, visual-figurative thinking is practically inseparable from imagination.

In its simplest form, visual-figurative thinking appears in preschoolers aged 4-7 years. Here practical actions seem to fade into the background, and when learning an object, the child does not necessarily have to touch it with his hands, but he needs to clearly perceive and visually imagine this object. It is clarity that is a characteristic feature of a child’s thinking at this age. It is expressed in the fact that the generalizations that the child comes to are closely related to individual cases, which are their source and support. The child comprehends only the visually perceived signs of things. All evidence is visual and concrete. Visualization seems to outstrip thinking, and when a child is asked why a boat floats, he can answer: because it is red or because it is Bovin’s boat.

Adults also use visual and figurative thinking. So, when starting to renovate an apartment, we can imagine in advance what will come of it. Images of wallpaper, color of the ceiling, coloring of windows and doors become means of solving the problem. Visual-figurative thinking allows you to come up with an image of things that are invisible in themselves. This is how images of the atomic nucleus, the internal structure of the globe, etc. were created. In these cases, the images are conditional.

Verbal-logical, or abstract, thinking represents the latest stage in the development of thinking. Verbal-logical thinking is characterized by the use of concepts and logical constructions, which sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (for example, value, honesty, pride, etc.). Thanks to verbal and logical thinking, a person can establish the most general patterns, foresee the development of processes in nature and society, and generalize various visual materials.

In the process of thinking, several operations can be distinguished - comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction and generalization. Comparison - thinking compares things, phenomena and their properties, identifying similarities and differences, which leads to classification. Analysis is the mental dissection of an object, phenomenon or situation to isolate its constituent elements. In this way, we separate out the irrelevant connections given in perception. Synthesis is the reverse process of analysis, which restores the whole by finding significant connections and relationships. Analysis and synthesis in thinking are interconnected. Analysis without synthesis leads to a mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of its parts; synthesis without analysis is also impossible, since it must restore the whole from the parts isolated by analysis. Some people have a tendency towards analysis in their way of thinking, others towards synthesis. Abstraction is the selection of one side, property and abstraction from the rest. Beginning with the isolation of individual sensory properties, abstraction then moves on to the isolation of non-sensory properties expressed in abstract concepts. Generalization (or generalization) is the discarding of individual characteristics while maintaining common ones, with the disclosure of significant connections. Generalization can be accomplished through comparison, in which common qualities are highlighted. Abstraction and generalization are two interconnected sides of a single thought process, with the help of which thought goes to knowledge.

The process of verbal-logical thinking proceeds according to a certain algorithm. Initially, a person considers one judgment, adds another to it, and makes a logical conclusion based on them.

1st proposition: all metals conduct electricity. 2nd judgment: iron is a metal.

Conclusion: iron conducts electricity.

The thinking process does not always follow logical laws. Freud identified a type of illogical thought process that he called predicative thinking. If two sentences have the same predicates or endings, then people unconsciously associate their subjects with each other. Advertisements are often designed specifically for predictive thinking. Their authors might, for example, claim that “great people wash their hair with Head and Shoulders shampoo,” hoping that you will argue illogically, something like this:

■ Prominent people wash their hair with Head and Shoulders shampoo.

■ I wash my hair with Head and Shoulders shampoo.

■ Therefore, I am an outstanding person.

Predicative thinking is pseudological thinking, in which various subjects are unconsciously associated with each other based on the presence of one common predicate.

Educators began to express serious concern about the poor development of logical thinking in modern teenagers. A person who does not know how to think according to the laws of logic and critically comprehend information can be easily fooled by propaganda or fraudulent advertising.

Development Tips critical thinking

■ It is necessary to distinguish those judgments that are based on logic from those that are based on emotions and feelings.

■ Learn to see positive and negative sides in any information, take into account all the “pros” and “cons”.

■ There is nothing wrong if you doubt something that does not seem entirely convincing to you.

■ Learn to notice inconsistencies in what you see and hear.

■ Hold off on drawing conclusions and decisions if you do not have sufficient information.

If you apply these tips, you will have a much better chance of not being scammed.

It should be noted that all types of thinking are closely interconnected. When starting any practical action, we already have in our minds the image that remains to be achieved. Separate types of thinking constantly transform into each other. Thus, it is almost impossible to separate visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking when you have to work with diagrams and graphs. Therefore, when trying to determine the type of thinking, one should remember that this process is always relative and conditional. Usually all types of thinking are involved in a person, and we should talk about the relative predominance of one or another type.

Another important feature according to which the typology of thinking is built is the degree and nature of the novelty of information that is comprehended by a person. There are reproductive, productive and creative thinking.

Reproductive thinking is realized within the framework of reproducing in memory and applying certain logical rules, without establishing any unusual, new associations, comparisons, analysis, etc. Moreover, this can happen both consciously and on an intuitive, subconscious level. A typical example of reproductive thinking is solving standard problems using a predetermined algorithm.

Productive and creative thinking are united by such features as going beyond the limits of existing facts, highlighting hidden properties in given objects, identifying unusual connections, transferring principles, methods of solving a problem from one area to another, flexible change of methods for solving problems, etc. If such actions give rise to new knowledge or information for the student, but are not new to society, then we are dealing with productive thinking. If, as a result of mental activity, something new appears that no one has thought of before, then this is creative thinking.

the activity of human consciousness ("I") in interacting with the outside world in the process of life.

M. functions as a way of understanding the world and an instrument of influencing it. M. as a mental complex operates with such an arsenal as concepts, images, memory, and imagination. Usually, the main form is verbal (verbal) M. and extra-linguistic forms of M., for example, figurative representations. These forms or types of M. coexist and are combined in mental activity. Studies of m. in deaf-mutes show that m. can be carried out without the basis of a specific language, or more precisely, without being verbal. At the same time, without “language” as a system of signs (the same “sign language” of the deaf and dumb) M. is not possible. Verbal M. is the highest type of M. in general. The pattern is obvious: the richer a person’s vocabulary, the better her command of language, the more flexible and broader her language (and vice versa). It is thanks to words (signs of abstract concepts) that complex and often contradictory knowledge and ideas about the world are consolidated in the minds of people. Units of “vocabulary memory” are used by the psyche in the process of memory, along with images, impressions of smells, temperature, and other stable sensations. Words, phrases, models of syntax, word formation and inflection, and other ideas about language and language skills (plus foreign languages ​​as additional tools for the verbal form of language) are in the “archive” of long-term memory of the neocortex (“new brain”). But this is not all the information (content) and not all the tools and capabilities of M.

M.'s organ is the brain, more precisely the neocortex. The neocortex (“new brain”) is the evolutionarily last part of the brain located in the head. Two other major brain regions are the reptilian complex (RC) and the diencephalon, the limbic system (LS). The subconscious is located in the CR - the hereditary genetically total experience of a living being, inherited from living beings that came before it. The CR includes: spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons (brain stem), cerebellum (connected with the neocortex), midbrain. The LS is separated from the neocortex of the CR. The LS contains the contents of the subconscious (CR) and information from the waking consciousness (neocortex). These meetings lead to the emergence of strong emotions: love, fear, hatred, courage, depression, feelings of joy, pleasure. The drug is responsible for the motor functions of the body - metabolism, temperature, sleep, food intake, sexual behavior, etc.

The drug has its own memory, the ability to accumulate short-term information. Here sensory information about the surrounding world is accumulated, i.e. information that is transmitted to the LS by body sensors - ears, nose, eyes, skin. The most important sensors are the eyes; up to 90% of the information received by a person is visual.

There is no constant connection between consciousness and subconsciousness. Such a connection occurs only in a dream and in some special situations (alcohol intoxication, taking certain drugs, during puberty). Usually, it is in a dream that information from the subconscious (SC) appears in the LS, which in the LS is processed, filtered and transferred to the long-term memory ("archive") of the neocortex - to consciousness.

The oldest part of the brain is the CR. This part not only controls breathing, blood circulation, and movement of muscles and muscles of the body, but also ensures coordination of hand movements when walking and gestures during speech communication. The CR is connected to the neocortex by both “ascending” and “descending” pathways through which information is exchanged.

The following information has been and is being collected in the Kyrgyz Republic: a) personal genetic (hereditary), which determines the main “project” of human development - body shape, voice, gait, temperament, character, intelligence, gestures, as well as congenital diseases (arthritis, vascular spasms, migraine, etc.), b) archaic, coming from very ancient eras of the content of the memory of the Kyrgyz Republic. (they are also called “prototypes”), as well as personal genetic information recorded in DNA, inherited genetic material, and the memory of the CR is independent and works independently of the short-term memory of the LS and long-term memory of the neocortex, c) constantly received by sensory receptors (eyes, nose, ears, skin) information about the world around us and changes in it.

The most difficult problem is the archaic “prototypes” in the memory of the Kyrgyz Republic. Some experts stated that in many cultures of the West and East there are very old myths and legends about dragons, i.e. lizards, dinosaurs that became extinct in the West many millions of years ago, when there were no people yet. When the remains of dinosaurs were found and described, legends and myths about dragons had already existed for many centuries. Where do they get information about giant reptiles? It is believed that it came into myths and legends about dragons from the brain (CR) of people who created myths about dragons, using the “archive” of the memory of the CR, its section of archaic “prototypes”. The diencephalon, LS includes: hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, olfatorius cortex, hippocampus. Each of these parts of the drug has its own functions and tasks. For example, the thalamus processes the so-called. afferent - just nascent, initial - excitations. These excitations (about which in everyday life they say that “something flashes in the head”) are defined as preconsciousness and the basis for the appearance of emotions. Primary reactions or initial emotions do not remain in the thalamus for a long time, but are transmitted to the neocortex, that is, they enter consciousness. Important functions are performed by the amygdala, a small almond-shaped attachment to the LS. This is the center of the emergence of various aggressions and fears, which are interconnected. The hippocampus provides the ability to remember or remember, also interrelated. Once upon a time, the hippocampus was exclusively a short-term store of odor memory, which was required when chasing prey, navigating the forest, and finding and choosing a sexual partner. U modern man- this is the general short-term memory, where sensory perceived impressions and stimuli are briefly collected, as well as the content of the subconscious, coming here from the CR (usually during sleep). The hippocampus processes all this information, selects and transfers what is most important to the long-term memory of the neocortex.

The neocortex (or “new brain”) appeared relatively recently, later than LS and, of course, CR. In higher animals, including humans, the neocortex is responsible for two fundamental functions of all living things: initiative and caution. The neocortex contains the characteristic human cognitive functions, M.

The “new brain” is divided into 5 parts: the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, the main posterior lobe and the cerebellum (closely connected with the CR). Actually, when we talk about human muscle, we mean precisely the activity of the neocortex.

The centers of such important abilities and functions of the brain as thinking, feeling, and evaluation are concentrated in the frontal lobe. In the anterior part of the frontal lobe there is also a motor speech center, which for “right-handers” is in the left hemisphere, and for “left-handers” it is in the right hemisphere.

The frontal lobe has numerous connections with the thalamus and other parts of the LS. Here, excitations are associated with various ideas and are then recognized as emotions. It is due to the growth of connections between sensors and emotional arousals that multilateral mental development develops—abstract representations and combined judgments.

The main posterior lobe of the neocortex is the part of the brain where the color, size and shape of objects, movement and distance between them are established. This part of the brain identifies various objects.

This is where this one is located important function consciousness, such as distinguishing similar objects, for example, a bird and an airplane in the air. This is done using the so-called. "fields of memories" Disturbances in the posterior lobe of the neocortex lead to distortions in perception visual information, for example, to geometric wave-like disturbances in the visual field, a “black spot” in the middle of the visual field, visual quirks - objects visible on the ground are perceived as floating in the air, etc.

The temporal lobe of the “new brain” links auditory impressions with visual ones. Damage to this part of the brain can lead to aphasia, the loss of the ability to perceive speech. Patients with damage to this part of the brain:

Fully understand spoken speech, but do not perceive written speech,

Understand written speech, but do not perceive sounding speech,

Can name objects, but not know the name of the color.

These medical observations prove that there are 3 separate “boxes” in the human brain - for reading, writing and listening to spoken language. Reading, writing and recognizing sound words are different abilities.

The temporal lobe is a powerful store of long-term memory, i.e., it allows a person to think about the future.

The parietal lobe of the “new brain” deals with subtle and sophisticated perception, touch of various kinds. This part of the brain distinguishes the weight, shape and structure of objects in a person's hand (when we are not looking at them with our eyes). The main function of the parietal lobe is to ensure recognition of objects that we cannot see.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the skull. It has various connections with the head and spinal cord, i.e. it is the connecting link between the neocortex and the CR. The main function of the cerebellum is to transform movement intentions into a specific sequence, a chain of movements. This is not only general body movements, but also the harmonious interaction of the muscles of the head, torso, and limbs. In addition, the cerebellum synchronizes and coordinates all body movements with eye movements.

The overall picture of the human brain and its parts is clear, as is the place and relationship between the conscious and subconscious. It remains only to note that people’s consciousness has a limited capacity. Its “conductivity”, throughput, is 16 bits of information per second. The current moment, i.e. the period of time during which impressions are perceived as a certain semantic whole, is 10 seconds. In addition, in addition to this narrowness of consciousness, emotions act on it: they weaken or even block (darken) consciousness.

The term M refers to the process of cognition of the world, including the “I” itself, and the process of complex interaction and mutual influence with surrounding activities in various temporal aspects of information (communication) and emotional layers. There are such characteristics of m. as everyday, scientific, dictionary (verbal), figurative, productive and unproductive, etc. See also PERCEPTION, MODALITY, FREUDISM.

THINKING

one of the highest manifestations of the psyche, the process of cognitive activity of an individual, the process of modeling non-random relations of the external world, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality; this is an analysis, synthesis, generalization of the conditions and requirements of the problem being solved and methods for solving it. In this continuous process, discrete mental operations are formed, which thinking generates, but cannot be reduced to.

Thinking as a process is inextricably linked with thinking as an activity of the individual - with motivation, abilities, etc. At each stage of mental development, a person implements a thinking process, based on already established motives and abilities; further formation of motives and abilities occurs at subsequent stages of the thinking process.

Thinking is the subject of complex, interdisciplinary research. In particular, physiology studies the brain mechanisms through which acts of thinking are realized. Cybernetics considers thinking as information process, recording the common and different in the operation of a computer and in the mental activity of a person. Psychology studies thinking as a cognitive activity, distinguishing its types depending on the levels of generalization and the nature of the means used, their novelty for the subject, the degree of his activity, and the adequacy of thinking to reality.

There are different types of thinking: verbal-logical, visual-figurative, visual-effective. The following are also distinguished: theoretical and practical (empirical) thinking; logical (analytical) and intuitive; realistic - and autistic, associated with escape from reality into internal experiences; productive and reproductive; involuntary and voluntary.

Thinking often unfolds as a process of solving a problem, where conditions and requirements are identified. The task must not only be understood, but also accepted by the subject - correlated with his need-motivational sphere.

Mental activity is stimulated by motives, which are not only the conditions for its development, but also influence its productivity. Thinking is characterized by the unity of the conscious and unconscious. Emotions play a major role in mental activity, providing control over the search for a solution to a problem. The product of thinking can be the goals of subsequent actions.

An important branch of the psychology of thinking and personality is the study of goal formation. Here we study:

1) turning a requirement received from outside into a real goal;

2) choosing one of the available claims;

3) the ratio of voluntary and involuntary goal formation;

4) time dynamics of goal formation;

5) transformation of unconscious anticipations into conscious goals;

6) identifying intermediate goals.

In the context of the problems of joint activities and communication, thinking is studied in the structure of interpersonal relationships. It acts as an interpretation of the reactions and movements of other people, as an interpretation of the results of objective actions and activities in general, as an understanding of the speech production of other people. Interpersonal cognition includes the formation of ideas about the way of thinking of other people, the style of their thinking; about what another person thinks about the subject of thinking, and about what he thinks about what the subject thinks about himself (-> reflection), etc.

Thinking is an integral part and special object of a person’s self-awareness, the structure of which includes:

1) understanding oneself as a subject of thinking;

2) differentiation of “one’s own” and “other people’s” thoughts;

3) awareness of an unsolved problem as one’s own;

4) awareness of your attitude to the problem.

It is considered proven that verbal-logical thinking is the latest product of the historical development of thinking and that the transition from visual to abstract thinking constitutes one of the lines of this development. Visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking are successive stages of the development of thinking.

THINKING

Indirect - based on the disclosure of connections, relationships, mediations - and generalized knowledge of objective reality [Rubinshtein S.L., 1940]. M. is a reflection of significant connections and relationships between objects of reality. Mental reflection is specific due to its generality and indirectness, which allows M. to go beyond the immediate given. M. is the highest form cognitive activity human, it includes synthesis and analysis, generalization and abstraction, the ability to abstract and highlight specific features, distinguish between the essential and the inessential. Cognitive activity occurs at two levels of mental reflection: the first is those connections and relationships, generalizations, mediations that are accessible to sensory knowledge; the second is associated with penetration into cause-and-effect dependencies that do not lie on the surface, inaccessible to the senses. These are the levels of image and thought, between which there are transitional links.

Specific symptoms and syndromes of thought disorder are determined clinically and pathopsychologically; their qualifications play an important role in the differential diagnosis of mental disorders.

M. ABSTRACT. M., operating with complex abstract concepts and conclusions, allowing one to mentally isolate and turn into an independent object of consideration individual aspects, properties or states of an object or phenomenon. Such an isolated and independent property is an abstraction underlying the processes of generalization and concept formation. The identification of meaningful abstractions that have relative independence corresponds to theoretical mathematics, capable of creating rationalistic schemes, while formal abstractions isolate the properties of an object that do not exist on their own and independently of it, and correspond to the empirical level of mathematics.

M. AMBIVALENT (lat. ambi - on both sides, valens - strong). Characterized by the simultaneous coexistence of mutually exclusive, opposing tendencies, contradictory thoughts. It is based on the ambivalence highlighted by E. Bleuler (see).

M. ARCHAIC operates with outdated concepts and ideas characteristic of man at ancient stages of development and often associated with ancient myths. Broadly includes judgments based on prejudices and misconceptions. An example of M.a. are archaic forms of delirium (see).

M. ATACTIC (Greek ataxia - disorder, lack of coordination) [Ostankov P.A., 1927]. Determination of thought disorders characteristic of schizophrenia. Characterized by paralogical constructions. The speech of patients is devoid of semantic meaning and is inaccessible to the understanding of others, even if its grammatical structure is apparently correct. Patients often use neologisms, the number of which can be so significant that their speech has the character of neoglossia. Most researchers understand ataxic thinking as a schizophrenic disorder of thinking, but F.I. Sluchevsky considers these concepts to be unequal and, along with ataxic thinking, identifies the syndrome of schizophasia in fragmentation.

M. AUTISTIC (Greek autos - himself). Pathological thinking, which proceeds according to the laws of autistic logic (see Autism), when judgments are determined primarily by the world of the patient’s internal experiences, his emotions and attitudes and are not sufficiently correlated with reality, are divorced from reality.

Syn.: M. dereistic (Latin de - elimination, negation of something, res - thing).

M. BESPYAZNOE is characterized by loss of the ability to form associations and fragmentation. Separate images, perceptions, concepts are not connected with each other. It is impossible to form even the simplest, mechanical associations based on similarity and contiguity in time and space. The purposefulness of thinking is grossly impaired. There is a loss of the mental task, M. does not reflect the real surrounding reality. High exhaustion of mental processes. Speech consists of a chaotic collection of words and fragments of sentences. M.b. observed in acute exogenous psychoses.

Syn.: asthenic, adynamic associative ataxia [Osipov V.P., 1923], asthenic confusion [Sluchevsky F.I., 1975], M. incoherent.

M. VISCOUS. One of the forms of inert M. It is characterized by thoroughness, a tendency to detail, the inability to separate the main from the secondary, stiffness, and the inability to leave a certain circle of ideas and switch to something else. M.v. characterized by rigidity and lack of lability. Combined with general progressive oligophasia. Most typical of epileptic dementia.

M. GOLOTYMICHESKOYE. See M. holothymic.

M. GOLOTIMNOE. (Greek golos - whole, entirely, thymos - feeling, mood). M., caused by a dominant affective background, for example, mania or depression.

Syn.: Bleuler's holothymic (holothymic) thinking.

M. DEREISTICAL. See M. artistic.

M. DOUBLE. A type of fragmentation M. The patient perceives his own thoughts as if detached, alienating himself from them. Manifestation of mental automatism.

M. SLOW DOWN. It is characterized by a slowdown in the pace of thought processes, a decrease in the number of ideas, ideas, and low mobility. There is a kind of stuckness on one thought (monoidism). M.'s orientation suffers - it is difficult for the patient to complete his reasoning. It is often combined with other manifestations of bradypsychism, manifested in speech, motor skills, and affective reactions. It is observed in depressive states, but without connection with affective hypothymic phenomena it can occur in postencephalitic parkinsonism (with damage to the subcortical formations of the frontal regions and brain stem) and in schizophrenia, combined with mutism and emotional-volitional changes, poverty of motives.

Syn.: M. inhibited.

M. INHIBITED. See M. slow.

M. INERT. A group of syndromes of thinking disorders, the main symptom of which is insufficient mobility of mental processes. To M.i. include M. viscous, M. perseveratory and M. with stereotypies.

M. INCOGERRENT. See M. incoherent.

M. CATATIMIC. See M. catathymic.

M. KATATHYMNOE (Greek katathymeo - to lose heart, to become despondent). M., caused by the presence of affectively charged complexes of ideas (see Catathymia, Catathymic Delirium). Observed during paranoid developments.

Syn.: Mayer catathymic (catathymic) thinking.

M. SPECIFIC. M., operating with specific concepts. It is pathological in those cases when all mental activity is determined and limited to the formation of concrete concepts and judgments that are not a stage on the path to abstract thought. In these cases, they speak of an insufficient level of mental activity, dementia.

M. MAGICAL. A variety of M. archaic. Characterized by fantasies and superstitious ideas about some kind of supernatural magical powers.

M. VIOLENT is characterized by the involuntary emergence in the patient’s mind of thoughts that are alien to him in content. Observed in Kandinsky-Clerambault syndrome.

M. FIGURATIVE operates with visual sensory representations.

M. CIRCUMSTANCES. See M. viscous.

M. PARALOGICAL (Greek paralogos - contrary to reason, unreasonable). M., defective in its premises, evidence, and sometimes in causal relationships. Characteristic is “crooked logic” with good intellectual and mnestic data. Pathological tendency to paralogisms. Paralogism is incorrect, false reasoning, a logical error in inference that occurred unintentionally and is a consequence of violations of the laws and rules of logic [Kondakov N.I., 1975]. M.p. in mentally ill patients is explained in accordance with the law of participation by the identification of two objects of thinking with a partial coincidence of their characteristics. Observed in schizophrenia, paranoid developments.

M. PERSEVERATORY. A variety of M. inert. It is characterized by a tendency for any thoughts, ideas, images, words or phrases to get stuck in the patient’s mind, regardless of changes in the situation and violation of the goal of the activity. At the same time, the purpose of mental activity is weakened. Observed as part of gross organic pathology of the brain (with severe cerebral atherosclerosis, senile dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Pick's disease).

M. PRIMITIVE. M., operating with primitive, concrete judgments with the inaccessibility of generalization and abstraction, poor in logical operations. Observed in oligophrenia.

M. TORN. It is considered as the most pronounced thought disorder in schizophrenia. It manifests itself as an incorrect, unusually paradoxical combination of ideas. Separate concepts, without any logical connection, are strung on top of each other, thoughts flow randomly. Accompanied by fragmentation of speech - semantic dissociation with a certain syntactic integrity. With a sharp degree of severity of fragmentation, the grammatical structure of speech also suffers ("word salad", "verbal okroshka"). According to B.V. Zeigarnik, fragmentation is an extreme degree of diversity - the patient’s judgments about some phenomenon flow in different planes, as if in different channels. A characteristic symptom of a monologue is inexhaustibility of speech in the absence of the need for an interlocutor.

M. RESONERSKOE (French raisonner - to reason). Characterized by a tendency to empty, sterile reasoning based on superficial formal analogies. It manifests itself in philosophizing that is inadequate to the real situation, verbosity and banality of judgments. The purpose of mental activity is relegated to the background, and the tendency to reasoning comes to the fore.

In schizophrenia, reasoning is due to the characteristics of the personal and motivational sphere inherent in the disease. It is also observed in epilepsy, oligophrenia and a number of organic diseases of the brain, where most often it is compensatory in nature and occurs against the background of intellectual disability.

M. SYMBOLIC. M., operating with complex symbols of images and concepts that are personally significant for the patient, but often inaccessible to others. It is distinguished by its unique originality and reflects the autistic position of the patient. In the understanding of M.s. importance is attached to the coexistence of the direct and figurative meaning of concepts in mental processes, characteristic of patients with schizophrenia [Popov E.A., 1949].

M. SHAPE-SHAPED. M., characterized by significantly pronounced instability of attention, instability of attitudes and constant changes in the purpose of thought processes. It is observed both in functional mental pathology (manic phase of MDP with a jump in ideas) and in some organic brain lesions (Huntington's chorea).

M. WITH STEREOTYPIES. M., occurring with a tendency to repeat the same acts of mental activity. The patient’s mental activity loses all meaning and is not connected with the solution of any problem. Stereotypes are not related to the previous mental activity, alien to previous mental tasks; they exist for a long time and do not change under the influence of a switch in the mode of his activity specially created by the doctor in a conversation with the patient.

It is observed in organic brain lesions (for example, standing whorls and the gramophone record symptom in Pick's disease) and in schizophrenia, mainly catatonic (verbigeration).

M. ACCELERATED. It is characterized by disturbances in the dynamics of thought processes and lability of judgment. There is a rapid, accelerated course of associations, superficial judgments, and usually low mental productivity. The phenomena of lack of attention are typical; with their significant severity, spasmodic M. is observed. Extremely sharp acceleration of thinking - whirlwind manic confusion. Due to the acceleration of the flow of associations, the object of reasoning is easily lost.

It is observed in the manic stage of MDP, as well as in manioform states of schizophrenic and exogenous organic origin.

M. FABULATING (lat. fabula - narration, history). It is characterized by the absence of a plot adequate to reality, the sequential development of events inherent in normal thinking, stories about fictitious events, and inventions. It is more correct to talk about confabulating M. It is observed in organic brain lesions that occur with both substitutive and unproductive confabulations (presbyophrenia, Alzheimer's disease), in hysteria (in the structure of hysterical phantasms), in delusional fantasies, which are one of the forms of psychogenic reactions, with paraphrenic syndromes of schizophrenic and involutional origin.

M. FANTASY. A state of “daydreaming” that occurs during periods of dreamy absent-mindedness. The direction of thinking is determined by affectively colored memories and desires. Spasmodic thinking is characteristic. It takes the form of assumptions and objections, questions and answers. Inclusions close to hallucinatory, such as illusions and hallucinations of the imagination, are observed. These kinds of states of involuntary thinking occur at a constantly changing level of consciousness.

M. SCHIZOPHRENIC. A generalizing concept that includes all types of thinking disorders inherent in schizophrenia (autistic, ambivalent, rational, paralogical, etc.).

M. JANUS (Janus in the mythology of the ancient Romans, the god of time, beginning and end, entrances and exits, was depicted with two faces facing in opposite directions). The coexistence of simultaneously opposite and contradictory thoughts, concepts, images. The concept is heterogeneous and can be attributed to schizophrenia (ambivalence of thinking), neuroses (see Neurotic antithesis). According to A. Rothenberg, it is characteristic of creative thinking.

M-ECHO. The main indicator of echoencephaloscopy is the ultrasound signal reflected from the medial structures of the brain. With volumetric processes in the brain, the magnitude of the M-echo will be greater in the affected hemisphere, with atrophic processes it will be less (provided that the lesion is asymmetric).

Thinking

I understand thinking as one of the four basic psychological functions (see function). Thinking is that psychological function that, following its own laws, brings the data of the content of ideas into a conceptual connection. This is apperceptive activity as such; it is divided into active and passive mental activity. Active thinking is a volitional action, passive thinking is only accomplished - it is a fact that has happened. In the first case I expose the content of the representations act of will judgments, in the second case, conceptual connections are formed, judgments are formed, which sometimes may contradict my intention, may not correspond to my goal and therefore do not evoke in me a sense of direction, although subsequently I can, with the help of an active, apperceptive act, reach recognition of their direction. According to this, active thinking would correspond to what I mean by directed thinking. /47- §17/ (Passive) thinking was inaccurately characterized in the above work as “fantasizing”. Now I would characterize him as intuitive thinking.

Simple stringing of ideas, called by some psychologists associative thinking, /116- P.464/ I consider it not thinking, but simply representation. We should talk about thinking, in my opinion, only where it is a matter of connecting ideas with the help of concepts, where, therefore, in other words, an act of judgment takes place - it makes no difference whether this act of judgment arises from our intention or not.

I call the ability for directed thinking intellect, the ability for passive or undirected thinking I call intellectual intuition. Further, I call directed thinking, intellect, a rational (see) function, because it subsumes the contents of ideas under concepts on the basis of a rational norm that I have realized. On the contrary, undirected thinking, or intellectual intuition, is an irrational function for me (see), because it judges and organizes the contents of my ideas according to norms that are not realized by me and therefore are not recognized as reasonable. In certain cases, however, I can subsequently understand that the intuitive act of judgment also corresponds to reason, although it has developed along a path that is irrational for me.

I do not consider thinking governed by feeling (q.v.) as intuitive thinking, but as thinking dependent on feeling, that is, thinking that does not follow its own logical principle, but obeys the principle of feeling. In such thinking, logical laws are present only in appearance, but in reality they are removed and replaced by the intentions of feeling.

THINKING

English thinking) is the mental process of reflecting reality, the highest form of human creative activity. M. insofar as the process of reflection of objects, insofar as it is a creative transformation of their subjective images in the human mind, their meaning and significance for resolving real contradictions in the circumstances of people’s life, for the formation of new goals, the discovery of new means and plans for their achievement, revealing the essence of objective forces nature and society.

M. is the purposeful use, development and increase of knowledge, possible only if it is aimed at resolving contradictions that are objectively inherent in the real subject of thought. In the genesis of M., the most important role is played by understanding (by people of each other, of the means and objects of their joint activity).

From the 17th century until the 20th century. M.'s problems were understood in the logic of empirical ideas about man and his inherent ways of relating to the outside world. According to this logic, capable of reproducing only the spatial interactions of “ready-made systems,” unchangeable cognitive abilities, as if eternally bestowed upon man by God or nature, are opposed to equally unchangeable properties of objects. The generic cognitive abilities included: contemplation (the ability of the sensory system to carry out their figurative-sensual reflection in contact with objects), memory and reflection (the subject’s ability to evaluate his innate forms of mental activity and correlate with them the facts of contemplation and conclusions of thought). M. remained the role of a registrar and classifier of sensory (in observation, in experience, in an experiment obtained) data. Here M. is, first of all, a process of generalizing them, carried out allegedly by abstracting from their unimportant features with the help of such mental operations as analysis and synthesis, comparison and classification. The understanding of knowledge as contemplation first of all (which is reflected in the main principle of sensationalism: Nihil est in intellectu, quod non prius fuerit in sensu - there is nothing in the mind that was not previously in sensations) initially doomed the mind and its ability to M. to an insurmountable separation from the very essence of objects: only subjective sensations, images of perception and ideas turned out to be the final object of the thinking mind.

On this basis, the concepts of mathematics developed in empirical, in particular in associative, psychology (D. Hartley, J. Priestley, I. A. Ten, G. Ebbinghaus, W. Wundt). Formal-logical, i.e., abstracted from the content, operational-machine actions of the subject with signs and other means of communication completely exhausted the psychological understanding of M., i.e., the substantive side of M. - its very subject - remained on the sensory-figurative, perceptual level. Psychology, building itself on the empirical concept of knowledge, had no choice but to accept as the mental realities that form psychology what in formal logic was understood as “concept,” “judgment,” and “inference.” As a result, the concept turned out to be a connection (association) of the name with the ideas about general qualities some set of objects. Judgment was defined as an associative operation that connects by affirmation or denial of the meaning of names, and inference was defined as a conclusion, a formally inevitable consequence from a number of similar associations. In psychology, materialism was reduced to the process of associative connections between traces of the past and existing sensory experience, becoming locked in a circle of purely subjective experiences, finally breaking away from its actual subject and deprived of its main ability: the creative synthesis of knowledge. Associationists therefore had to “supplement” M.’s ability with speculatively introduced abilities human psyche to “active operations”, to “creative synthesis”, etc.

As a reaction to the irremovable contradictions of the associative interpretation of M., however, on the same logical premises of naturalistic empiricism, its “atomistic” interpretation was born in behaviorism (E. Thorndike, J. Watson). According to this concept, in the activity of animals and humans, proceeding according to the “stimulus-response” principle, an internal interaction of speech skills arises, devoid of its external, signal-sound reactivity, which precisely forms the mental process called M.

The interpretation of M given by representatives of Gestalt psychology (M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka, K. Levin, etc.) came close to the philosophy of intuitionism (the flip side of naturalistic empiricism). From their point of view, inner world of a person is a hierarchy of integral mental forms that reproduce not just a set of external conditions and objects (as it seemed to empiricists), but namely the integrity of situations formed by human life. Then M. is a discretion (comprehension, insight) in the reflected forms of the real tendencies and possibilities of what is reflected, which are determined precisely by the integrity of the situation. Such discretion is possible due to the subject’s ability to recombine situational factors, preserving, however, the original integrity of the situation.

In the same way, later attempts at a naturalistic or intuitionistic interpretation of materialism (for example, the interpretation of materialism as a process of decoding information carried by neurophysiological processes) retained the original focus on the separation and complete opposition of materialism to the objective object of thought for the contemplative theory of cognition.

Dr. The approach to mathematics is based on the Marxist understanding of human life activity as a socio-historical process of objective activity that develops its basic social forms (forms of communication between people). The real process of people's lives, their work as an actual purposeful activity, as their conscious existence cannot. initially opposed to their own subject content - the objective world of nature. The birth of man in this historical process as a purposefully acting subject is at the same time the generation of the object of his activity, which, according to K. Marx’s definition, is no longer taken “only in the form of an object, or in the form of contemplation...”, but subjectively, “as human sensory activity, practice” . Thus, M. does not oppose the world as something initially separated from it; only subjective. M. develops as a person’s living, active ability to purposefully transform existence, its objective conditions and circumstances. On this new for psychology methodological basis since the 1920s owls developed. psychology.

M. is a process of goal and plan formation, that is, an ideal transformation of methods of objective-sensory activity, methods of purposeful attitude to objective reality, a process that occurs both during and before the practical change of these methods. M. is nothing more than the subjective side of that purposeful activity that practically changes the objective conditions, means and objects of human life and thereby shapes the subject himself and all his mental abilities.

But due to historical traditions, only “speech M” is usually considered as a mental process. (see M. discursive), in contrast to other types of thinking (see M. visual, M. visual-effective, M. practical and M. visual-figurative). But speech speech is only a special form of speech, standing out in the general structure of conscious, purposeful activity and becoming a special, relatively independent expression of its original and essential integrity due to the rapid development of the actual communicative means and speech activity itself. The immediate subject of speech activity is the consciousness (i.e., conscious being) of another person: the motives of his actions, his attention, understanding, knowledge, emotions, will, etc. However, in a civilized person, whose phylo- and ontogenesis has gone through everything stages, all historical stages of distinguishing and isolating various types of activity, the only universal means, that is, the means that identifies his consciousness with the consciousness of any other person and at the same time mutually changes it, turned out to be language. Even such universal methods and the means of identifying and mutually changing the psyche of individuals, such as the “language” of artistic plasticity, music and all other means of spiritual and practical activity, do not rise to the level of universality that is characteristic of the language of the people. And language, being a truly universal means of communication, and therefore the most important factor in the formation of individual consciousness, carries within itself, in each of its “elements” (in the lexical meanings of words, particles, individual phonemes, etc.) something common to all who speak a given language , the universal significance for them of the real objects of activity themselves. Along with this meaning, people present to each other, and therefore to themselves, the objective content of the objective world, revealed by the practice of joint activity of previous generations who created this language. From here follows the most important conclusion for understanding not only speech, but also M. in general: in the jointly shared life activity of people (in their objective-activity communication), addressing another (and oneself) with the help of universally significant means of communication and activity is assistance with this to others (or with the “other” in oneself), there is an attitude towards him as someone who understands or is able to understand the motives that prompted this assistance. Moreover, this appeal is assistance, and sympathy, and consciousness, i.e. actions, feelings and subjective images of reality, raised to the supra-individual (generic, universal) level due to the fact that the mediator (mediator) of assistance is no more and no less, as the cultural and historical universality of the objective world, unfolded before each of the participants in its meanings and meanings. The continuous, holistic, socially structured process of people’s purposeful assistance therefore turns out to be the measure of each individual’s own action, the basis for his reflection on his own life activity. The initial reflexivity of cooperation with other people (and only therefore - with oneself) creates and consistently, from one culture to another, develops its indispensable and strict form - dialogical M.

Dialogical communication is an external or internal dialogue that reveals different, and therefore contradictory, aspects of reality. It follows that moral, aesthetic, and intellectual definitions of the human psyche have their origin in the reflexive act of jointly shared objective activity; it is precisely this that is the system-forming factor or “substance” of M. However, its implementation in each individual thought process is a transformation of the universal significant forms, methods and means of communication culture into internal motives and goals of further action inherent only to a given individual here and now. In this case, the individual, discrete meanings of each of all the necessary words, signs, images, etc. merge into a special meaning of the objective situation. The meaningfulness of an action, its goals and motives is born, that is, as a consequence of the “translation” of the uniquely subjective state of the individual to the level of generic, universal, universal significance of the ways and means by which this state arose. However, only the continuity and integrity of the development of the culture of the people, revived and preserved, developed, continued by the uniqueness of the individual’s personal biography, transforms their supra-individual objective-discrete meanings into the conscious meaning of the motives and goals of action (behavior).

The meaning, the very process of understanding the contradictory circumstances of life, motivates actions, behavior, and all human life. Cooperation with others (and with oneself) at the level of meaning is the internal, subjective-personal, actually mental process of dialogue or dialogical M. See also Productive Thinking, Interview. (F. T. Mikhailov.)

Thinking

One of the highest psychic manifestations; the process of human cognitive activity, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality. Thinking as a process is inextricably linked with thinking as an activity of the individual. The term covers various types of activities (creativity, intellectual exercise, problem solving). It is believed that in every case we use thinking. Types of thinking have the following common features: Thinking is symbolic (words and images are involved). The thinking process is not observable, but its existence is inferred through logical conclusions. In the process of thinking, manipulation occurs with a certain semantic content.

THINKING

As G.S. said Auden: "Thinking, broadly defined, is almost the whole of psychology; narrowly defined, it seems to have nothing to do with it."

no relation." Given the subtle truth contained in this statement, perhaps we will be able to find a middle ground if we consider this term to mean, in the most in a general sense, any covert cognitive or mental manipulation of ideas, images, symbols, words, judgments, memories, concepts, perceptions, beliefs or intentions. In short, the term is used in such a way that it covers all mental activities associated with concept formation, problem solving, intellectual functioning, creativity, complex learning, memory, symbolic processing, imagination, etc. Few terms in psychology cast such a wide net and cover such a vast array of connotations and uses.

Some components, however, form the core of all usages, (a) Thought is used to denote symbolic processes; the term is not intended to refer to patterns of behavior explained by more modest processes, such as in rats learning a simple maze. (b) Thinking is treated as a hidden or implicit process that is not directly observable. The presence of a thought process is inferred either from the messages of the one who carried out this process, or from the observation of behavioral acts, for example, a correctly solved complex problem, (c) It is usually believed that thinking involves the manipulation of certain theoretically distinguished elements. One can only guess what exactly these “elements of thought” are. Various theorists have suggested that these are muscle components (Watson), words or components of language (Whorf), ideas (Locke), images (Titchner), judgments (Anderson), operations and concepts (Piaget), scripts (Skenck), etc. Note that some of these hypothetical units are quite elementary, others are quite comprehensive. Regardless, these are all serious proposals, and they all have at least some evidence of being used in the thinking process.

To define the form of thinking being discussed, qualifying words are often used. Some of these specialized terms are listed below, others can be found according to the alphabetical order of the defining term.