3.3.4 Meteorological satellites The meteorological situation affects not only peaceful but also military activities. Not to mention the need to take into account weather conditions when planning training or combat activities of the armed forces, the presence or absence

Chapter XI. Ship navigation instruments and communications § 52. Electrical and radio navigation instruments

Chapter XI. Ship navigation devices and communications § 52. Electrical and radio navigation devices On each ship to follow the intended course, select a route, control location on the open sea, taking into account changing navigation and hydrometeorological conditions

technical means used in the practice of observing the weather and obtaining quantitative characteristics of the state of the atmosphere. The main types of observations of the meteorological conditions of the take-off and landing of an aircraft and its flight along the route are carried out using the following meteorological data and data.
Anemometer- used to determine air speed. To measure the horizontal component of wind speed, regardless of its direction, it is used with a pinwheel - a receiving part in the form of four hollow hemispheres attached to vertical axis. The measurement error of anemometers is 0.1 m/s or less. In atmospheric research, a nanometric anemometer is used (velocity air flow determined by the difference between dynamic and static pressures - air pressure receivers) and hot-wire anemometers (flow rate is determined by the degree of cooling and, therefore, changes in the ohmic resistance of the heated material placed in it electric shock metal thread). To simultaneously measure wind speed and direction, anemorbometers are used, which are a combination of an anemometer and a wind vane of one type or another, oriented in the direction of the wind. Pressure is measured using barometers and aneroids. In aviation meteorology greatest distribution received mercury barometers of cup and siphon-cup types, the principle of operation of which is based on balancing atmospheric pressure by the weight of a column of mercury located in a vertical tube. Barometers of this type used in aviation meteorology have an error in measuring absolute pressure of up to 0.2 hPa. Enough wide application found aneroids, the principle of operation of which is based on measuring the deformation (deflection) of the metal membrane covering the metal box, from which almost all of it was pumped out. Aneroids are less sensitive than liquid barometers and have a pressure measurement error of no better than 1 hPa.
To determine air humidity in aviation meteorology, aspiration psychrometers are mainly used, the operating principle of which is based on taking into account the cooling effect of a body when liquid evaporates from its surface. It consists of two thermometers placed in a protective metal frame and a fan that ensures that the thermometers are blown with the air being tested at a constant speed (about 2 m/s). One of the thermometers measures the temperature of the air being tested. The second one measures a certain conventional temperature - its receiving tank wrapped in cambric soaked in water. When water evaporates from the cambric surface, the receiving tank of the second thermometer cools. The degree of cooling depends on air humidity. Based on the readings of “dry” and “wet” thermometers, it is determined using special psychrometric tables.
Visibility recorder(RDV) - provides measurement and registration on the recorder tape of meteorological visibility range in daylight and darkness. The principle of operation is based on the comparison of two light fluxes from one light source: one of the fluxes passes through a given layer of the atmosphere and, using a prism reflector, returns to the device at , the second reaches the photocell through a special optical system inside the device. The measurement error reaches 2%.
Ground-based pulsed light cloud base height meter(IBO) - a device for determining the distance to the lower edge of the clouds by determining the time it takes a light pulse to travel the distance from the transmitter (emitter) to the lower edge of the clouds and back to the light pulse receiver. The instrumental error in measuring the height H of the lower edge of the clouds is within (10 + 0.1 H() m for heights from 50 to 1000 m.
Weather radar(MRL) is a specialized radar for obtaining information about the atmosphere and the processes occurring in it. The principle of operation is based on assessing the degree of attenuation of the received echo signal in comparison with the signal emitted by the MRL itself. The MRL is subject to specific requirements due to the characteristics of meteorological purposes: an exceptionally large range of changes in reflectivity; significant vertical and horizontal dimensions, usually exceeding the geometric dimensions of the probing pulse; relatively low speed of movement and large spaces, variability. All this requires high-power transmitters, high-sensitivity receivers, and antennas with high directivity. MRL antennas rotate in horizontal (from 0 to 360(°)) and vertical (from 0 to 90(°)) planes. MRL allows you to collect information from an area with a radius of up to 300 km.
Atmospheric radiosonde system(SPA) - a set of equipment for collecting information about air temperature and humidity, wind speed and direction various heights; consists of the following components: !!radio probe - a device that includes temperature, humidity and pressure sensors, as well as a device for converting ambient air parameters measured using these sensors into radio telemetry and transmitting it to the receiver ground device; rises into the atmosphere using a latex shell filled with hydrogen or helium to altitudes of 30-40 km; receiving ground device - including a radar for receiving radio signals from a radiosonde (also provides tracking of radiosondes at a distance of up to 200-250 km from the release point), determining its current coordinates, and a computer complex for processing telemetric information, processing data and issuing results.
Meteorological satellite- an artificial Earth for collecting information about the state of the atmosphere and equipped with equipment for measuring the intensity of radiation from the Earth and its atmosphere in various wavelength ranges. There are two types of meteorological satellites - polar orbital and geostationary. Polar-orbital satellites move in orbits passing through the polar regions and “view” the Earth in orbits. The viewing swath is 1000 km or more wide. To obtain regular information, it is necessary to have several satellites in orbit at the same time. Information from a series of successive orbits is compiled into “montages” that make it possible to analyze the state of the atmosphere above large areas. Geostationary meteorological satellites fly in orbits passing over equatorial regions, the angular velocity of their movement coincides with the angular velocity of the Earth, and the satellite is always above the same point on its surface. To obtain information across the globe, several satellites must be present in orbit. The frequency of information collection is 0.5 hours, which makes it possible to analyze in detail the development over time of processes in the atmosphere. The well-known domestic meteorological satellites are “Meteor”, foreign ones are “GOES”, “NOAA” (USA), GMS (Japan), “Meteo-sat” (European Space Agency), etc.

Aviation: Encyclopedia. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia. Chief Editor G.P. Svishchev. 1994 .

See what “Meteorological instruments and equipment” is in other dictionaries:

meteorological instruments and equipment Encyclopedia "Aviation"

meteorological instruments and equipment- meteorological instruments and equipment technical means used in the practice of observing the weather and obtaining quantitative characteristics of the state of the atmosphere. Main types of observations of meteorological conditions of takeoff and... ... Encyclopedia "Aviation"

A device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The most common are liquid (mercury) barometers, deformation barometers - aneroids and hypsothermometers. In a mercury barometer, atmospheric pressure is measured by the height of the mercury column in a sealed... ... Encyclopedia of technology

- (from the Greek atmos steam and sphaira ball) gaseous (air) medium around the Earth, which rotates with the Earth as a single whole. A. consists of air, nitrogen, oxygen and small amounts of other gases (see table). The nature… … Encyclopedia of technology

atmosphere Encyclopedia "Aviation"

atmosphere - Vertical distribution temperature, pressure and density of the atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere (from the Greek atmós steam and spháira ball) gaseous (air) medium around the Earth, which rotates with the Earth as a single whole. A. consists... Encyclopedia "Aviation"

A device for measuring wind speed and gas flows by the number of revolutions of a rotating turntable. Main types of anemometer: vane, used in pipes and channels ventilation systems for measuring the speed of directional air flow; cup... Encyclopedia of technology

A device launched into the atmosphere on a small balloon to automatically measure different heights air pressure, temperature and humidity, and sometimes also wind speed and direction and transmitting the results via radio to Earth. Contains sensors... Encyclopedia of technology

- (from the Greek anemos wind, the words “rumb” (from the Greek rhombos spinning top, top, circular motion, rhombus) and metreo I measure) (see Meteorological instruments and equipment). Aviation: Encyclopedia. M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia. Chief Editor… … Encyclopedia of technology

- (see Meteorological instruments and equipment). Aviation: Encyclopedia. M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia. Editor-in-Chief G.P. Svishchev. 1994 ... Encyclopedia of technology

The era of great discoveries and inventions, which marked the beginning of a new period in human history, revolutionized the natural sciences. The discovery of new countries brought information about a huge number of physical facts previously unknown, starting with experimental evidence of the spherical shape of the earth and the concept of the diversity of its climates. Navigation of this era required great development of astronomy, optics, knowledge of the rules of navigation, the properties of the magnetic needle, knowledge of the winds and sea currents of all oceans. While the development of merchant capitalism served as an impetus for increasingly distant travel and the search for new sea routes, the transition from old craft production to manufacture required the creation of new technology.

This period was called the Age of the Renaissance, but its achievements went far beyond the revival of ancient sciences - it was marked by a real scientific revolution. In the 17th century the foundations of a new one were laid mathematical method analysis of infinitesimals, many basic laws of mechanics and physics were discovered, a telescope, microscope, barometer, thermometer and other physical instruments were invented. Using them, experimental science quickly began to develop. Heralding its emergence, Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most brilliant representatives new era, said that “...it seems to me that those sciences are empty and full of errors that do not end in obvious experience, i.e. unless their beginning or middle or end passes through one of the five senses.” God's intervention in natural phenomena was considered impossible and non-existent. Science came out from under the yoke of the church. Along with the church authorities, Aristotle was also consigned to oblivion - from the middle of the 17th century. His creations were almost never republished and were not mentioned by naturalists.

In the 17th century science began to be created anew. That new science

had to win the right to exist, aroused great enthusiasm among scientists of that time. So, Leonardo da Vinci was not only a great artist, mechanic and engineer, he was a designer of a number of physical devices, one of the founders of atmospheric optics, and what he wrote about the visibility range of colored objects remains of interest to this day. Pascal is a philosopher who proclaimed that a person’s thought will allow him to conquer mighty forces nature, an outstanding mathematician and creator of hydrostatics - the first to experimentally prove the decrease in atmospheric pressure with height. Descartes and Locke, Newton and Leibniz - the great minds of the 17th century, famous for their philosophical and mathematical research - made major contributions to physics, in particular to atmospheric science, which was then almost inseparable from physics.

This revolution was led by Italy, where Galileo and his students Torricelli, Maggiotti and Nardi, Viviani and Castelli lived and worked. Other countries also made major contributions to meteorology at the time; it is enough to recall F. Bacon, E. Mariotte, R. Boyle, Chr. Huygens, O. Guericke - a number of outstanding thinkers.

Herald of the new scientific method was F. Bacon (1561 - 1626) - “the founder of English materialism and all experimental science of our time,” according to Karl Marx. Bacon rejected the speculations of scholastic “science”, which, as he rightly said, neglected natural science, was alien to experience, was shackled by superstition and bowed to the authorities and dogmas of faith, which tirelessly spoke of the unknowability of God and his creations. Bacon proclaimed that science would be led forward by the union of experience and reason, purifying experience and extracting from it the laws of nature interpreted by the latter.

In Bacon's New Organon we find a description of a thermometer, which even gave some reason to consider Bacon the inventor of this device. Bacon also wrote ideas about common system winds globe, but they did not find a response in the works of authors of the 17th - 18th centuries who wrote on the same topic. Own experimental work Bacon compared to his philosophical studies are, however, of secondary importance.

Galileo did the most for experimental science in the first half of the 17th century, including meteorology. What he gave to meteorology previously seemed secondary in comparison, for example, with Torricelli's contribution to this science. Now we know, however, that in addition to the ideas he first expressed about the weight and pressure of air, Galileo came up with the idea of ​​the first meteorological instruments - a thermometer, a barometer, a rain gauge. Their creation laid the foundation for all modern meteorology.

Rice. 1. Types of mercury barometers: a - cup, b - siphon, c - siphon-cup.

Rice. 2. Station cup barometer; K is the ring on which the barometer is suspended.

Meteorological booth

Purpose. The booth serves to protect meteorological instruments (thermometers, hygrometers) from rain, wind and sunlight.

Materials:

• - wooden blocks 50 x 50 mm, length up to 2.5 m, 6 pcs.;
• - plywood plates 50-80 mm wide, up to 450 mm long, 50 pcs.;
• - hinges for vents, 2 pcs.;
• - boards no thicker than 20 mm for making the bottom and roof of the booth;
• - White paint, oil or enamel;
• - material for the ladder.

Manufacturing. The body is knocked together from the bars. The corner bars should form the high legs of the booth. Shallow cuts are made in the bars at an angle of 45°, plywood plates are inserted into them so that they form the side walls and no gaps are visible through the opposite walls of the booth. The frame of the front wall (door) is made of slats and hung on hinges. Back wall The booths and door are mounted from plywood plates in the same way as the side walls. The bottom and roof are made from boards. The roof must overhang on each side of the booth by at least 50 mm; it is installed obliquely. The booth is painted white.

Installation. The booth is installed so that its bottom is 2 m above the ground. Near it, a permanent ladder is constructed from any material of such a height that the face of the observer standing on it is at the height of the middle of the booth.

Eclimeter

Purpose. Measuring vertical angles, including the heights of celestial bodies.

Materials:

• - metal protractor;
• - thread with a weight.

Manufacturing. The edges of the base of the protractor are bent at right angles; small sighting holes are punched on the bent parts at the same distance from the horizontal diameter of the protractor. The digitization of the protractor scale changes: 0° is placed where 90° usually stands, and 90° is written in the places 0° and 180°. The end of the thread is fixed in the center of the protractor, the other end of the thread with a weight hangs freely.

Working with the device. Through two sighting holes, we point the device at the desired object (a celestial body or an object on Earth) and read the vertical angle along the thread. You cannot look at the Sun even through small holes; to determine the height of the Sun, you need to find a position such that the sun's ray passes through both sighting holes.

Hygrometer

Purpose. Determination of relative air humidity without the help of tables.

Materials:

• - board 200 x 160 mm;
• - slats 20 x 20 mm, length up to 400 mm, 3--4 pcs.;
• - 5--7 light human hair 300--350 mm long;
• - a weight or other weight weighing 5-7 g;
• - light metal pointer 200--250 mm long;
• - wire, small nails.

Women's hair is needed, it is thinner. Before cutting off 5-7 hairs, you need to thoroughly wash your hair with shampoo for oily hair (even if your hair is non-greasy). There must be a counterweight on the arrow so that the arrow, when placed on a horizontal axis, is in indifferent equilibrium.

Manufacturing. The board serves as the base of the device. A U-shaped frame with a height of 250-300 and a width of 150-200 mm is mounted on it. The crossbar is attached horizontally at a height of about 50 mm from the base. The arrow axis is installed in the middle of it; this could be a nail. The arrow should be put on it with a sleeve. The bushing should rotate freely on the axis. External surface The bushing should not be slippery (you can put a short piece of thin rubber tube on it). Towards the middle top crossbar hair is attached to the frame, and a weight is suspended from the other end of the hair bundle. The hair should touch the side surface of the sleeve; you need to make one full turn with it. An arc-shaped scale is cut out of cardboard or any other material and attached to the frame. The zero division of the scale (complete air dryness) can, with a certain degree of convention, be applied where the needle of the device stops after being placed in the oven for 3-4 minutes. Mark the maximum humidity (100%) according to the indication of the arrow of the device placed in a closed plastic film a bucket with boiling water poured into the bottom. Divide the interval between 0% and 100% by 10 equal parts and sign tens of percent. It’s good if you can control the readings of the hygrometer by checking it with the psychrometer at the weather station.

Installation. It is convenient to keep the device in a meteorological booth; if you want to know the humidity in the room, place it in the room.

Equatorial sundial

Purpose. Determination of true solar time.

Materials:

• - square board with a side from 200 to 400mm;
• - a wooden or metal stick, you can take a 120mm nail;
• - compass;
• - protractor;
• - oil paints two colors.

Manufacturing. Board - the base of the clock is painted in one color. A dial is drawn on the base using paint of a different color - a circle divided into 24 parts (15° each). 0 is written at the top, 12 at the bottom, 18 at the left, 6 at the right. A gnomon is fixed in the center of the clock - a wooden or metal pin; it needs to be strictly perpendicular to the dial. Installation. The clock is placed at any height in a place as open as possible, not protected from sunlight by buildings or trees. The base of the watch (bottom of the dial) is located in the east-west direction. Top part the dial is raised so that the angle between the plane of the dial and horizontal plane was 90° minus the angle corresponding to the geographical latitude of the place. Working with the device. The time is read on the dial by the shadow cast by the gnomon. The hours will run from the end of March to September 20-23.

The clock shows true solar time, do not forget that it differs from the one by which we live, in some places quite significantly. If you want the clock to work in winter, make sure that the gnomon passes through the base board, it will serve as a support in its inclined position, and draw a second dial on the underside of the base; only on it the number 6 will be on the left, and 18 on the right. -- Note ed.

Purpose. Determination of wind direction and strength.

Materials:

• - wooden block;
• - tin or thin plywood;
• - thick wire, 5-7 mm;
• - plasticine or window putty;
• - Oil paint;
• - small nails.

Manufacturing. The weather vane body is made from wooden block 110--120 mm long, which is shaped like a truncated pyramid with bases 50 x 50 mm and 70 x 70 mm. Two tin or plywood wings in the form of trapezoids about 400 mm high, with bases of 50 mm and 200 mm, are nailed to the opposite side faces of the pyramid; tin fenders are better, they do not warp from dampness.

A hole with a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the pin on which the weather vane will rotate is drilled in the center of the block (not through!). It would be good to insert something solid inside the hole, at the very end, so that when the weather vane rotates, the hole does not drill out. A wire is driven into the end part of the weather vane, on the side opposite the wings, so that it protrudes 150-250 mm, and a ball of plasticine or window putty is placed on its end. The weight of the ball is selected so that it balances the wings so that the weather vane does not tip back or forward. It would be good if, instead of plasticine or putty, you could select and secure another, more reliable counterweight to the wire. It is bent from wire and inserted vertically into the upper surface of the weather vane bar, above the axis of its rotation, a rectangular frame 350 mm high. and 200mm wide. The frame must be located perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the weather vane. A tin or plywood board weighing 200 g and measuring 150 x 300 mm is hung on the frame on loops (wire rings). The board should swing freely, but should not move from side to side. A plywood or tin scale of wind strength in points is attached to one of the side posts of the frame. All wooden and plywood parts (and others if desired) are painted with oil paint.

Installation. According to the standard, the weather vane is installed on a pole dug into the ground or on a tower above the roof of a building at a height of 10 m above ground level. It is quite difficult to comply with this requirement; you will have to proceed from the possibilities, taking into account the visibility of the device from a height of human height. The axis of the weather vane must be installed vertically on a pole, on the sides of which there should be pins indicating eight directions: N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW. Of these, only one, directed to the north, should have a clearly visible letter C.

Working with the device. Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is blowing, so it is read by the position of the counterweight, not the wings of the weather vane. The strength of the wind in points is read by the degree of deflection of the weather vane board. If the board oscillates, its average position is taken into account; when isolated strong gusts of wind are observed, the maximum wind force is indicated. So, the entry “SW 3 (5)” means: southwest wind, force 3, gusts up to force 5.

Meteorological stations

Hair hygrometer: 1 -- hair; 2 -- frame; 3 -- arrow; 4 -- scale.

Film hygrometer: 1 -- membrane; 2 -- arrow; 3 -- scale.

Meteorological instruments used by R. Hooke in the middle of the 17th century: barometer ( A), anemometer ( b) and compass ( V) determined the pressure, speed and direction of the wind as a function of time, of course, if there was a clock. In order to understand the causes and properties of movement atmospheric air, numerous and sufficient precise measurements, and therefore quite cheap and accurate instruments. Image: Quantum

Internal structure of an aneroid.

Location of weather stations on Earth

Images from space weather stations