Emotional tone of sensations.

The result of the influence of visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory-gustatory psychological releasers on certain sense organs is sensations. Sensations not only carry information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of stimuli arriving at external receptors, but are also always accompanied by one or another emotional tone, signaling to a person about the significance of these stimuli for his life. A positive emotional tone encourages a person to maintain the impact of the stimulus, and a negative tone encourages a person to interrupt it. Thus, the emotional tone of the tactile sensations that arise in a person who comes home from a cold street in winter and leans against warm stove, makes you want to cuddle closer to it, and the emotional tone of the sensations that arise when you come into contact with fire makes you want to quickly pull your hand away.

Accordingly, if a person receives positive releasers from a natural object, then he strives to preserve the emerging positive emotional tone of sensations and continue interaction with this natural object, and if negative releases are received, to avoid contact with it.

Thus, in the process of forming an attitude, sensations act as a kind of “filter”: positive ones contribute to the further formation of a positive attitude, and negative ones “block” it.

The impact of behavioral (vital) releasers is processed somewhat differently. In this case, the most important role is played by the comparison mechanism, on the basis of which parallelism with a person is established. Sometimes the very fact of such parallelism already contributes to a positive attitude towards a natural object.

For example, it is enough to see the funny, waddling gait of a penguin, decorated with a strict tailcoat and a snow-white shirtfront, so reminiscent of the clothes of noble English lords, to experience a feeling of tenderness.

“She (the monkey) slept, turned on her side, at one end of the cage, where she made herself a comfortable bed of dry banana leaves. Served as a pillow for her own hand, and the blanket was an old bag she received from us, with which she carefully covered herself, tucking the ends under her arms.

Wow! - Fon exclaimed in surprise. - She sleeps like a person.

Yes, yes,” the council members picked up, “she sleeps like a person!”

Once the parallelism is established, the vital manifestations or behavior of a natural object are usually assessed by analogy with a person. For this assessment, criteria are used that are based on ethical standards of human ethics.

For example, a small lap dog “boldly” rushes at a huge Great Dane running up to its owner, bursts into barking, trying to intimidate the “enemy” and “save” the owner. Such self-sacrifice and devotion, from the point of view of human ethics, is an example of the behavior of a true friend.

If the vital manifestations or behavior of a natural object correspond to the ethical standards required of a person, they are given a positive emotional assessment; if they do not correspond, a negative one is given.

It should be noted that a contradiction often arises between human ethical principles, by which the behavior (vital manifestations) of a natural object is assessed, and environmental expediency. In this case, even environmentally appropriate behavior of a natural object causes a negative emotional reaction. For example, in some birds, in particular the white crane (Siberian Crane), two chicks hatch from their eggs, but the parents feed only one, dooming the second to death. This is ecologically advisable, since cranes are not able to feed two chicks and one of them is a “spare” in case of pathological development
second embryo. But, from the point of view of human morality, we're talking about about “infanticide”, which, of course, can contribute to the formation of a negative attitude towards Siberian Cranes.

_____________________________

1 DarrellJ. Hounds of Bafut. pp. 318-319.

It should be noted that in some cases, the vital manifestations or behavior of a natural object are irrelevant to ethical standards: for example, a cat washes its face with its paw - this behavioral act cannot be assessed as “moral” or “immoral”, as consistent or inconsistent with ethical standards.

The emotional assessment that arises under the influence of behavioral (vital) psychological releasers plays the same function in the formation of a subjective attitude towards a natural object as the emotional tone of sensations that arise under the influence of other releasers of the perceptual channel: positive causes a desire to continue interaction with this natural object, negative - avoid contact with him.

Thus, the mechanisms for processing behavioral (vital) releasers is the comparison of the vital manifestations and behavior of a natural object with human vital manifestations and behavior and their emotional assessment from the point of view of human ethical criteria.

As a result of the action of the described mechanisms for processing psychological releasers of the perceptual channel, a natural object becomes attractive or unattractive for a person. To an attractive natural object, a person develops attraction, that is, an as yet undifferentiated, unconscious or poorly realized need to interact with him.

Such attraction lays the foundation for the further formation of a positive attitude towards a given natural object. Firstly, it makes a person more sensitive, more sensitive to the effects of releasers of the perceptual channel, and secondly, it promotes the functioning of other channels. The formed attraction to a natural object can be expressed both in the search and collection of information about it (then further formation of the attitude occurs through the cognitive channel), and in a purposeful desire for practical interaction with it (then the attitude continues to form through the practical channel).

One of essential characteristics activity in solving problems is that the subjects’ assessments of the initial situation, its elements and possible actions in the situation underwent a number of changes in the search process.

Let us dwell specifically on the relationship between the subjective assessments of the subject (subjective scale of values) and objective value characteristics.

Possible dissociation of verbal and emotional assessments and the leading and regulating role of emotional assessments. Subjects' assessments of actions, elements, etc. can be twofold: verbal and nonverbal (emotional reactions).

When analyzing the process of search activity (subjects F.V., G.B., M.N.), cases of emotional consolidation (repeated emotional coloring) of actions or a sequence of actions and repeated return to them were observed, contrary to the previously produced “logical” proof of their incorrectness. We give as an example an excerpt from the verbal reasoning of subject F.V. (study II), which represents an assessment of the positively emotionally charged 4th attempt at a solution.

“... If I change, then I am left with only one elephant and that’s it. No, this option is clearly out of the question! . »

Nevertheless, in the 19th attempt, in which there is an “emotional solution” to the problem and a transition to an objectively correct general idea, the subject uses the 4th attempt, despite the fact that during its implementation he came to the conclusion that this solution option was inappropriate. As the analysis of the histories of problem solving showed, only objectively correct actions or actions that had an “indirect” objectively correct meaning were accompanied by emotional overtones, that is, actions that are carriers of an objectively correct principle. Consequently, it can be argued that emotions, acting as if against the verbally formulated results of individual intellectual processes, performed a positive function of correcting the search activity of the subjects to objectively correct actions. So, for example, the subject M.N., when solving the first etude, despite the negative outcomes of the 3rd, 4th and 5th attempts, emotionally reinforces their initial objectively significant action Krs8-b7! (Fig. 5), i.e., we can assume that the subject is increasingly asserting his emotional assessment of his correctness, despite the logical proof of the incorrectness of his attempts. Thus, in this case, the emotional

Rice. 5. Tasks for subjects

Solution to the sketch

1 KpcS-b71 Leb-b6+

2 Kpb7-a7i g7-g6

3 Le2-el" Kpa5-b5

4 Le1-e5+ Krb5-sb

5 Le5-eb+ Kr„

and white wins

Solution to the sketch

1 Cdl-g4 CC7-b6+

2 KreZ-f4 Bb6 gl

3 Ke5-f3 + Kpel-f1"

4 Cg4-h3 + Kpfl-f2

and white wins

Note: the chess studies that were offered to the subjects for solution are presented in the collection of A. Herbstmaia “Selected Chess Studies” M, 1964

nal assessments and perform the function of “guiding” objectively correct actions, opposing the verbally formulated results of individual intellectual operations. As for the subject F.V., he, unlike the subject M.N., after performing the objectively correct initial action Krs8-b7! refuses it as a result of the negative outcome of the 9th attempt, the structure of which it was part of, but on the 11th he returns to it again with repeated emotional consolidation and finding its meaning, and the subject G.B., in connection with the emotional assessment of the action of Krs8-b7!, returns to it six times in the process of its search activity, although the outcomes of the attempts are negative.

However, for what reasons is the emotional coloring of objectively correct actions carried out? In the future, we will reflect the mechanisms of “emotional development” of actions with objectively significant elements (emotional assessments of actions are generated from their predecessors), but we are also interested in the reasons for the emergence of the very first emotional activation in the process of solving a problem. Let's consider one of the special cases, namely, the conditions for the occurrence of the 1st emotional activation in subject F.V. (study II).

For the first time, the 4th attempt is positively emotionally colored; previous attempts are neutral in nature. This is caused, as one can assume, by the following factors: all three attempts do not contain objectively correct actions, only in the 1st attempt the move Cdl-е2 is the bearer of an objectively correct principle, since it represents the bishop’s withdrawal from the battle. However, this action does not have a positive emotional connotation for two possible reasons.

1. The structure of the attempt itself has neither subjective nor objective significance and does not evoke in the subject any emotionally charged associations associated with past “emotional experience”, as a result of which an objectively correct idea (saving the elephant) is not immediately emotionally evaluated.

2. The subject does not have the “emotional experience” that he acquires in the process of solving this problem directly, because the “indirectly” objectively correct action (move Cd 1-e2) is performed in the first attempt at solving it.

Next, the question arises: why do attempts, due to their negative outcomes, not have a negative emotional connotation? There are also several possible reasons for this. Firstly, these are the very first attempts at solving and the subject still has a lot of time, moreover, they are always subjectively regarded as familiarization with the situation, therefore, their negative outcome does not particularly upset the subject. In addition, much depends on the structure of the attempt, on the preliminary plan and on what meaning the subject puts into this particular attempt, because there may be cases when, starting the next solution attempt, the subject is almost sure in advance that this combination will not lead him to positive result, and its implementation occurs solely for testing purposes. In the 4th attempt, the subject performs two objectively correct actions (Cb6:gl and Ke5-f3+), and in his verbal reasoning he does not in any way express his attitude towards these actions, however, in the process of their implementation, emotional activation arises.

Here is an excerpt from the subject's speech:

“... So, now White - king e3 on d3, black with bishop from b6 captures on gl, white knight from e5 on f3 with check, then black retreats with king to 12 . . . »

The mechanism of occurrence of emotional activation, as can be assumed, lies in past emotional experience. Performing objectively correct actions in a given structure of an attempt, the subject on a purely emotional level notes, for example, the successful location of the horse, based on his past, not only intellectual, but also emotional experience, because in his practice he encountered, albeit remotely, a similar combination that led him to success and, therefore, was positively emotionally “fixed”. In this case, we are talking specifically about the “emotional level” because the 4th attempt did not lead

test subject to a positive result and upon completion her implementation, he refused it.

Here is an excerpt from the subject’s written report, taken after solving the problem:

“... when I first made the knight move on f3, for some reason it seemed to me that this was a successful and necessary move, however, I did not come to a solution to the problem, but later I returned to it several times, and this also helped solve task... I even think that I’ve come across something similar before...”

Consequently, based on the subject’s statement, a hypothesis about an emotionally charged association is possible, as a result of which one or another action in the process of solving a problem is emotionally charged. The hypothesis put forward is also supported by the fact that the subjects’ retrospective reports are based on emotionally charged periods of searching for a solution to the problem, i.e., mainly emotionally charged information is remembered, which is used in subsequent activities.

Due to the fact that the subject repeatedly returns to the emotionally anchored 4th attempt, despite the verbally formulated assessment of its incorrectness (“... no, this option, apparently, disappears!”), it can be argued that emotional assessments turned out to be more “true” in this case than verbal assessments, for, as we have already said, only objectively correct actions were positively emotionally colored.

It should be noted that in subjects F.V., G.B. and M.N., when solving etudes I and II, finding the meaning of all objectively difficult and significant actions was preceded by bright emotional reactions and, on the contrary, no emotional coloring of objectively incorrect or insignificant actions arose.

Consequently, in the process of search activity a subjective scale of values ​​was formed, which completely coincided with the objective scale. From this we can conclude that emotions clearly reflected the objective complexity of the problem and were a necessary mechanism for finding its solution.

Negative functions of emotional assessments (discrepancy between subjective and objective scales of value characteristics). As has been shown, emotional mechanisms are necessary to achieve an objectively correct solution to a problem. However, emotional activation also takes part in the search process in cases where intellectual tasks remain unsolved. In this regard, the question arises, what role do emotions play in the process of search activity that does not lead to an objectively correct result?

To solve this problem, a special experiment was carried out, which consisted of the following: test subject G.K., a 3rd category chess player, was offered a chess game to solve

etude I, which was solved by subjects F.V., G.B., M.N. and which only first-class students could solve.

Let us analyze the process of searching for a solution to the sketch by the subject

As the history of solving the problem shows, emotional mechanisms played a negative role in the course of search activity.

In the 5th attempt, the subject gives a positive emotional connotation to the move Re2-e5+, which is objectively incorrect. Starting the 6th attempt with this very move, the subject gives a repeated and even stronger emotional coloring. Thus, there is an increase in the emotional assessment of an objectively incorrect action performed in various, also objectively incorrect, combinations. In the 15th attempt, a positive emotional assessment occurs of an objectively correct, but not significant action - Crab-b5, performed in an objectively incorrect situation. Hence, there is a discrepancy between the subjective and objective scales of values. In the 16th attempt, the subject for the third time gives an emotional coloring to an objectively incorrect action - the move Re2-e5+. In other words, the subject is firmly “attached” to this action and, considering it especially significant for finding a solution to the problem, uses it in various combinations.

Of particular interest is the 17th attempt, in which the subject actually solved the problem, i.e. committed the most difficult and objectively correct actions in an objectively correct combination. The subject only had to make a few more minor half-moves, and the problem would have been completely solved. However, at the very moment when the subject seems to be on the verge of a decision, he refuses the actions taken, declaring that in the current situation White will not achieve a win. This phenomenon is caused by the fact that, on an emotional level, the actions taken that are objectively correct are not reflected, the subject does not evaluate them emotionally and, therefore, they are not “consolidated,” as a result of which the meaning of these actions for the subject is not revealed.

In the 20th attempt, the subject makes a combination in which he uses emotionally charged actions - Le2-e5+ and Crab-b5. The attempt has a bright positive emotional connotation, and as a result, based on emotional mechanisms, there is a sharp reduction in the search zone and its consolidation in an objectively incorrect area, because in the 20th attempt, where the subject expresses the following thought “... yes, this is the situation more or less suitable. . . ”, an “emotional solution” to the problem is observed.

The 21st and 22nd attempts are a positively emotionally charged test and the final implementation of the found solution idea.

Thus, based on the analysis of the process of search activity, we can conclude that the emotional activation that arises in this process carries not only positive functions.

Emotional mechanisms can fix the subject on objectively incorrect actions or highlight objectively correct actions that do not have a predominant importance for finding a solution, i.e. there is a discrepancy between the objective and subjective scales of values. In both cases, an objectively correct solution to the problem is not achieved. Consequently, the concept of “qualification level” in a particular area of ​​mental activity (which includes past intellectual experience, the ability to analyze a situation, the ability to operate with elements of this situation, etc.) also includes emotional assessments corresponding to the objective significance of certain actions in the situation. Based on the foregoing, the following main conclusions can be drawn.

1. At certain stages of the process of searching for a solution to a problem, emotional assessments, speaking against verbally formulated assessments of the results of intellectual operations, perform a positive function of “correction” of search activity to objectively correct actions, i.e. emotional assessments turn out to be more “correct” than verbalized assessments.

2. To find an objectively correct solution to a problem, one of the necessary conditions is the coincidence of the subjective and objective scales of value characteristics.

3. Formation of the subjective significance of the action

Based on the analysis of histories of problem solving, it can be argued that during the search activity of the subjects, there is a change in emotional assessments, and sometimes their increase. The process of increasing emotional assessments in subjects F.V., M.N. and G.B. was observed in relation to actions with objectively significant elements Le2 - etude I and Cdl-etude II (Fig. 6).

As was shown in § 1, this process prepares the emergence of a new objectively correct general plan and, as a result, the solution of the problem.

Thus, a process of “emotional development” takes place, in connection with the actions of objectively significant elements in the search for a solution, which we will analyze.

Solution to Etude I. First of all, let us trace the fate of the emotional coloring of actions with an objectively significant element (Le2) for all subjects.

Subject F.V.

2. Non-linearity of emotional coloring (the presence of actions with an element, the emotional coloring of which is not registered).

Rice. 6. Subject M.N. Study I. Anticipatory emotional assessment of objectively significant actions Krs8-b7! and Krb7-a7!

Subject G.B.

1. Increase in emotional coloring.

3. No changes in the sign of emotional coloring were observed. Subject M.N.

1. Increase in emotional coloring.

2. Nonlinearity of emotional coloring.

3. No changes in the sign of emotional coloring were observed. Consequently, the fate of the emotional coloring of actions with

element Le2 to the given parameters is unambiguous for all subjects. In etude I there is an objectively significant (valuable) action with the element of the situation Le2 (as a component of the correct plan for achieving

goals) - Le2-el!! In all three subjects, periods of significant emotional activation were associated with it. In order to trace the birth of the subjective significance of this action, we will consider sequentially all the actions that the subjects perform with this element (reflected in verbal reasoning).

In the process of searching for a solution to the problem subjects F.V. For the first time, the action with the element Le2 (Le2-e5+) becomes emotionally colored in the first attempt at solving, because it is with this element that the subject achieves the realization of the original plan, albeit with weak protection of the “enemy.” It can be assumed that the subject had an emotionally charged association caused by his past emotional experience, which explains the emotional coloring of the first attempt at a solution 3 . In the second attempt, the action with the rook has not a direct, but an indirect emotional coloring, because it is performed and emotionally colored in combination with the objectively correct move Rg6-b6. As a result, there is an emotional consolidation of a specific action with an element, namely: Le2-e5+.

The 3rd and 4th attempts do not contain an action with the rook and do not have any emotional overtones at all, since they are even an incomplete repetition of the previous solution attempts: the 3rd is a repetition of the 1st, and the 4th is a repetition of the 2nd.

The 5th attempt contains an action with the element (Re2-e5+), but also does not have an emotional connotation, because it is, again, a repetition of the 1st attempt.

The 6th attempt, like the action with the element (move Re2-e5+), included in its structure, does not have an emotional connotation due to the fact that the attempt is made by the subject as obviously unacceptable, because he is sure in advance (this is reflected in his verbal reasoning ) that the combination will not lead to a positive result and its implementation is carried out solely for testing purposes.

In the 7th attempt, the subject performs an interesting combination of actions with the element - check with the move Re2-e5+, which was already emotionally fixed in previous attempts at solving it, and a return to the original square (move Re5-e2), i.e., giving the tempo to Black. Such a combination, as we have already said, contains an objectively correct meaning (giving tempo to Black, because the objectively correct action is the rook move Re2-el!! and is “waiting”, putting Black in a zugzwang position). The entire combination of actions with an element in the 7th attempt has a positive emotional connotation.

As a result, this combination is emotionally consolidated, which is expressed in its use by the subject in subsequent attempts to solve - in the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 15th. All these attempts, except the 8th and 10th, are positive.

An analysis of possible mechanisms of emotionally charged association is carried out in § 2.

Rice. 7. Subject FV. Study I. Emotional assessment of the generalized operating principle of Le2-eZ

a certain emotional coloring, where actions with an element are colored either directly or in a certain combination. The 8th attempt at solving is not emotionally charged due to the fact that it is a repetition of the previous 7th attempt. The 10th attempt is not emotionally charged based on the same mechanisms, because it consists of a combination of previous attempts - the 2nd and the end of the 9th.

In the 15th attempt, the subject performs his tactical maneuver with the rook after the initial four objectively correct half-moves.

Dov. It can be assumed that this combination acted as a kind of base that prepared the move Re2-e3, which the subject makes in the 16th attempt. Although the move Le2-eZ does not directly lead to achieving the goal, it had great subjective significance for the subject, which was expressed in the significant emotional coloring of this action preceding its naming (Fig. 7). The fact is that finding the action Re2-eZ contributed significantly to solving the problem, because it contains some objectively correct meaning (implements a tactical technique - give tempo to Black). The subject “felt” that there was a certain rational idea here, that is, he assessed the significance of the action on a purely emotional level. The move Re2-e3 is generated by a combination of two rook moves Re2-e5+ and Re5-e2, which the subject makes in previous attempts, in other words, Re2-e3, as it were, combines two actions Re2-e5+ and Re5-e2, because providing the tempo to Black achieved in this case by one action, not two.

Thus, first a positive assessment of some values a certain action. The initial bearer of this meaning may be an action that cannot directly achieve the goal. Only then is such a carrier of positively assessed value found, with which the goal can be achieved.

In the next branch of the 16th attempt, the subject, based on the move Le2-e3, makes the objectively correct move Le2-el! However, the meaning of this action is not realized by the subject, because it is performed in an objectively incorrect combination.

In the next 17th attempt, which is built on the basis of the 16th attempt b, rook action Re2-el!! is not emotionally colored, because an objectively correct action is again performed in an objectively incorrect combination and the finding of its meaning again does not occur. And only in the 18th attempt in an objectively correct combination does the subject evaluate the move Re2-ell! verbally and emotionally, finally finding its meaning in combination with the objectively correct move Krb7-a71

Here is an excerpt from the subject’s speech report:

". . . (which means something needs to be done, some kind of intermediate move! But if now it’s really done rmosec.rv sec, (pause) 1st sec. |25 sec. ^y > of course!!! King on a7, after So I take the 13° river and move the rook to I? 5 river "-el!!..." (j- the moment of emotional arousal).

The final formation of the meaning of the action Le2-ell! for 35 sec. precedes the moment of occurrence of the most significant emotional activation in the course of solving the problem, expressed in an increase in heart rate by 30 beats/min and a drop in electrocutaneous resistance by 6 kohms (Fig. 8), which is an “emotional solution” to the problem (causes a sharp collapse of the search zone) and which acts as a climax

Rice. 8. Subject F.V. Study I. Anticipatory emotional assessment objectively meaningful action(specific carrier of the generalized principle) Le2-e!!!

“emotional development” in the subject, in connection with the performance of actions with the objectively significant element Le2.

Let us consider a similar process of “emotional development” in subject G.B.

The 1st emotional reaction associated with the analyzed element occurs only in the 9th attempt, i.e. at a certain stage research activities. Before this period there are

rook actions in the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th attempts. All these actions represent various options operations with the element - checks to the black king from the squares e5, eb, as well as waiting moves, which from an objective point of view is correct.

However, these actions, which are carriers of an objectively correct principle, are not emotionally colored due to the fact that they are performed during the period of “mechanical” calculation, and the subject does not subjectively evaluate them as significant (for more details on the specifics of the method of “mechanical” calculation, see § 4). And on the contrary, actions with an objectively significant element Le2 immediately become emotionally colored as soon as the subject chooses a new solution tactic and rethinks the original situation. The subject abandons the method of “mechanical” calculation after the 7th attempt at solving and the 8th attempt already has an emotional connotation that arises for the first time in the process of solving the problem, but the 8th attempt does not contain operations with the rook, so it can be argued that that actions with an element are colored immediately after choosing a new solution tactic, because this emotional coloring arises in the 9th attempt.

The 9th attempt contains two actions with an element - the moves Re2--e5+ and Re5-el. Such a combination is not objectively correct, but it contains the idea of ​​​​giving tempo to the black pieces, which is an objectively correct technique, therefore, the actions with the element in this attempt contain valuable objective meaning.

The 10th attempt does not contain any actions with the element, and in the 11th the subject performs an objectively significant action Le2-el!!, which follows from the combination with the element performed by the subject in the 9th attempt, because the move Le2-el!! also contains the idea of ​​​​providing tempo to Black and, in terms of tactics, combines two actions Re2-e5+ and Re5-el (we observed a similar preparation for the formation of the meaning of the move Re2-el!! in the subject F.V. when solving this problem) . The action with an element, which is objectively correct, has an even brighter emotional connotation in the 11th attempt than in the 9th (increased heart rate from 70 beats/min to 90 beats/min and a drop in electrocutaneous resistance by 3.5 kom at 9 -th attempt, in the 11th attempt the heart rate increased from 65 beats/min to 95 beats/min and the electrocutaneous resistance dropped by 5 kohms). Nevertheless, the formation of the meaning of the move Re2-el!! in the 11th attempt it did not happen, because it is performed in a completely incorrect combination; its assessment as significant occurs on a purely emotional level.

In the 12th attempt, the subject performs an objectively correct action with the analyzed element for the second time - Le2-el!! in a combination that is objectively correct in relation to the sequence of actions with the elements of the situation, but contains one erroneous action with a significant element, namely: Krb7-c7 instead of the necessary Krb7-a7! Performing action Le2-e!!! in the new one,

a more correct combination, in contrast to the 11th attempt, causes a repeated emotional coloring of this action, i.e., there is an even stronger emotional consolidation of the objectively correct action and the operation with the element that is especially significant for solving the problem.

In the 13th attempt, the actions of the rook are not emotionally charged, because, due to the negative outcome of the 12th attempt, the subject returns to the previously analyzed combinations, and as a result, the 13th attempt is built on the basis of the 5th attempt a and the 11th attempts that do not contain any objectively significant information.

When starting the 14th attempt, the subject immediately performs five objectively correct actions, including the operation with the rook (move Re2-el!!). At the beginning of this attempt, the subject forms the meaning of another objectively correct action - Krb7-a7!, which, in turn, gives rise to the formation of the meaning of the action Le2-el!!, because the initial combination of the 14th attempt is now absolutely objectively correct.

Objectively correct action Krb7-a7! in combination with the action of Re2-el 11 has a bright emotional coloring, therefore, we can say that the move Re2-el!! becomes emotionally charged three times in the process of solving a problem.

The final formation of the meaning of the actions of Krb7-a71 and Le2-eSh at the beginning of the 14th attempt for 20 sec. is preceded by an “emotional solution” to the problem, which evokes for 4.5 minutes. an increase in vegetative shifts, expressed (during this period) in a drop in electrocutaneous resistance by 8.5 kohms and an increase in heart rate from 70 to 110 beats/min. Both reactions occurred simultaneously (Fig. 9).

After the “emotional decision” (as always in such cases), a sharp collapse of the search zone and finding a solution to the problem was observed. Consequently, the increase in emotional arousal can be interpreted as “anticipation” of the final decision at the emotional level.

Based on the data obtained, we can conclude that the process of “emotional development” associated with the objectively significant element Cdl, as well as with the element Le2, is closely related to the development of its meaning. Nevertheless, in the mechanisms of formation of the meaning of the element Cdl there are individual characteristics for each subject, namely: the sign of the emotional assessment of actions with an objectively significant element changed in subject F.V. depending on the operations performed with this element, and objectively correct actions (“preservation”) were assessed positively, and objectively incorrect ones were assessed negatively ( "victim"). For subject G.B., the sign of the emotional assessment of actions with the element remained constant - positive, because these actions were directly or indirectly objectively correct.

Rice. 9. Subject G.B. Study I. Emotional anticipation of the final solution to the problem

Subject F.V., based on assessments of specific actions with an element (negative emotional assessments of the “victim”), re-evaluates general principle(rejection of the idea of ​​the possibility of a sacrifice that arose at the beginning and the conclusion about the need to preserve the element, which is the “key” to solving the problem).

For subject G.B., the same action with an objectively significant element was performed in the aspect of different general intentions of the solution. This is due to the fact that the subject attached a different meaning to both the element itself and the direct action with it in each individual case.

If subjects F.V. and G.B. experienced an increase in emotional assessments of actions with the Cdl element during search activity, then subject M.N. experienced a similar phenomenon, in in a broad sense, is not observed, although in the process of its activity there is a repeated emotional consolidation of an objectively significant action with this element. However, the subject M.N. observed a peculiar correlation of emotional assessments of a specific action with an objectively significant element and “direction”.

Summarizing the analysis of the process of “emotional development”, which was carried out on the basis of two tasks, we can draw the following main conclusion: for all subjects, the final formation of the meaning of actions with objectively significant elements of the situation Le2 (study I) and Cdl (study II) was preceded by an “emotional decision » task causing a sharp collapse of the search zone, which was as the culmination of “emotional development.”

Let's look in more detail at generation emotional assessments of actions with objectively significant elements.

Let us schematically represent the process of “emotional development” associated with actions with objectively significant elements Le2 (study I) and Cdl (study II) for each subject.

As can be seen from Diagram 1, each emotional assessment of a certain action with an element is generated by another one that precedes it. Indeed, a positive emotional assessment of an action with an element (not leading to a goal) serves as the basis for a positive emotional assessment of the combination of this action with another action that also does not lead to a goal, but as a result of this combination the subject identifies for himself what is objectively true

Scheme 1 subject f. V.

Indirect* positive emotional assessment of an objectively incorrect action with an element (move Re2 - e5+)	generates	a positive emotional assessment of the combination of actions with an element (moves Re2 - e5 + and Re5 - e2), containing an objectively correct generalized principle
	generates
a positive emotional assessment of an action with an element (move Re2 - e3), which combines two actions in a tactical sense (Re2 - e5+, Rv5 - e2) and contains the same generalized principle	generates	a positive emotional assessment of an objectively correct action with an element (move Re2 - el!") and the formation of its meaning.

* An indirect emotional assessment of an action means that this action is not directly emotionally charged, but is included in a whole sequence of actions that have a general emotional overtones.

Scheme 2, subject Mr. B.

Positive emotional assessment of the combination of actions with an element (moves Re2 -e5 + and Re5 - el), containing an objectively correct generalized principle	generates	a positive emotional assessment of an objectively correct action! Le2 - el!!, perfect
	generates	in an objectively incorrect combination
positive emotional assessment of the objectively correct action Le2 - e1M, performed in a combination close to the objectively correct one
	generates
		positive emotional
		assessment of objectively correct action
		action Le2 - EP, committed in volume of the correct combination, and the formation of its meaning.

meaning (principle). In turn, the emotional assessment of a combination of actions with an element gives rise to an emotional assessment of an action that combines the tactical meaning of the previous two actions in combination. And finally, a positive emotional assessment of an already objectively correct action is born directly from the emotional assessment of an action that contains an objectively correct generalized meaning.

Consequently, as can be observed in this case, a positive emotional assessment of an objectively correct action with an element is born from a positively emotionally charged combination of actions with this element, containing an objectively correct principle. Further, a positive emotional evaluation of an objectively correct action performed in an incorrect combination gives rise to a repeated emotional evaluation of an action with an element already performed in a combination close to the objectively correct one. And finally, there is an emotional assessment of an objectively correct action with an element, generated from its predecessor, performed in an objectively correct combination, and the formation of the meaning of this action with an element.

Scheme 3 subject M.Sc.

Positive emotional assessment of an action with the element Le2 - c2, containing	generates	a positive emotional assessment of a combination of actions with an element (moves Le2 - c2 and Rc2 - cl), containing the same principle
objectively true generalized principle
		generates
a positive emotional assessment of an objectively correct action with the element Le2 - el!i and the formation of its meaning.

Situation element Cdl

subject F.v.

Positive emotional evaluation of the 4th solution attempt, in which the subject retains element (layer)	generates	negative emotional assessments of the need to sacrifice an element (elephant) in connection with the implementation of the original general plan
	generates generates
positive emotional assessment of the need saving the element "in general"		positive emotional assessment of a specific objectively correct action with an element (moveCdl- g4 I) and the formation of its meaning.

Based on Scheme 3, we can conclude that a positive emotional assessment of combinations of actions with an element, containing an objectively correct generalized principle, is generated from a positive emotional assessment of an action with this element, containing the same principle.

And further, as a result of an emotional assessment of a combination of actions with an element - an emotional assessment of an objectively correct action with it, because this combination contains the meaning (tactical technique) of a completed objectively correct action.

As can be observed in Diagram 4, the general positive emotional assessment of the attempt, which is built on preserving the element (i.e., the indirect emotional assessment of “preservation”), generates negative emotional assessments of the need to sacrifice this element, in connection with the implementation of the initial erroneous general plan. Negative emotional assessments, in turn, serve as the basis for direct positive emotional reinforcement of the conclusion about the need to preserve the element and, based on this emotional assessment, a positive emotional assessment of a specific action with this element, namely the move Cdl-g4!.

Consequently, the sign of emotional assessments changed depending on the operations performed by the subject with the element, and

subject d. b.

Scheme 6 subject M.Sc.

as a result positive emotions generated negative ones and, conversely, negative emotions generated positive ones.

Consequently, as diagram 5 shows, the initial idea of ​​preserving an element receives an indirect emotional assessment, because the preliminary plan of the attempt, the structure of which includes this idea, is assessed. This indirect assessment gives rise to a direct emotional assessment of the “preservation” of the element, which in turn gives rise to an emotional assessment of a specific objectively correct action with the element.

Scheme 6 shows that the emotional assessment of an objectively correct and significant action with an element of the situation in this case is prepared by an emotional assessment of the general idea of ​​preserving the element and then an emotional assessment of a specific “direction” of action with this element.

Thus, based on the analysis of the mechanisms for generating emotional assessments, the following conclusions can be drawn.

1. Each emotional assessment of the generalized meaning of a certain action and the action itself with objectively significant elements is prepared by another one that precedes it (except for the first emotional assessment).

2. Emotional assessments of specific actions with elements can be prepared not only by emotional assessments of previous actions with these elements, but also by emotionally charged combinations of actions with them, which are, as it were, indirect carriers of objectively correct meanings, as well as general emotional assessments of previous attempts to solve, preliminary plans these attempts, the “direction” of actions and simply the conclusions made in the process of search activity. Consequently, it is impossible to understand the history of emotional assessments of individual elements of the situation, abstracting from emotional assessments of attempts at a solution as a whole, assessments of the situation and assessments of both the general and preliminary intentions of the solution.

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Electrical brain stimulation. Stimulation of different parts of the brain through implanted electrodes often causes emotional experiences in patients, as well as peculiar behavioral changes in animals.
By stimulating various parts of the hypothalamus in a cat, for example, a “flight” reaction can be obtained, when the animal desperately seeks shelter. Stimulation of midbrain formations leads to activation with a positive or negative emotional connotation or to a state of calm. Irritation of the anterior and inferior surface of the temporal lobe causes a feeling of fear; anterior and posterior parts of the hypothalamus - anxiety and rage; partitions - pleasures; amygdala - fear, rage and anger, and in some cases pleasure.
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Brain destruction. Partially, the effect of damage to different parts of the brain was analyzed above, when the problem of the morphophysiological substrate of emotions was considered. The clinic of focal brain lesions provides a lot of information about how damage to the frontal lobes of the brain, the left and right hemispheres, affects the course of a person’s emotional experiences.
Along with this, there is a large body of experimental research on animals in which targeted destruction or removal of individual emotiogenic zones was carried out in order to identify the effects of this intervention.

Diagnosis of emotional experiences. The physiological manifestations of emotional experiences in a healthy person are widely studied in laboratory conditions. In this case, as a rule, the method of psychological modeling is used, i.e. either conditions are created that directly cause emotional stress in the individual (for example, critical remarks about his activities in the experimental conditions), or the subject is presented with external stimuli that obviously provoke the emergence of certain emotions (for example, photographs that cause disgust). When studying the physiological correlates of emotional experiences, data obtained at rest and during emotional stress are usually compared.

Study of facial expressions. By the expression on a person's face, you can often determine what feelings he is experiencing. Features of facial expressions when experiencing emotions are called facial expression. In the works of P. Ekman, a special technique for identifying emotions by facial expression was developed. There is an atlas of photographic standards of facial expression for 6 basic emotions: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise, joy. In addition, the anatomy of the facial muscles was studied in detail, 24 variants of reactions of individual muscles and 20 variants reflecting the work of muscle groups were identified. A direct comparison was made between the strength of the experience and the activity of the facial muscles.

Skin electrical activity (SEA), measured from the surface of the palm, is widely used as an indicator of a person's emotional states. By the value of EAC or GSR (galvanic skin response), you can determine the level emotional stress person (and the type of mathematical connection between the strength of emotions and the amplitude of GSR has been established). At the same time, it is almost impossible to determine from GSR qualitative characteristics experienced emotion, i.e. tell what emotion a person is experiencing. It is hypothesized that the phasic and tonic components of GSR may have different relationships to the quality and intensity of experienced emotions. Moreover, phasic GSR is to a greater extent an indicator of the intensity and to a lesser extent of the specificity of emotions

Reactions of the cardiovascular system. Changes in the activity of the heart, regardless of whether we are talking about a decrease or increase in heart rate, serve as the most reliable objective indicators of the degree of emotional stress in a person compared to other autonomic functions in the presence of two conditions: the emotional experience is characterized by strong tension and is not accompanied by physical activity .

Electroencephalographic (EEG) indicators of emotions. Experimental studies indicate that it is possible to identify EEG indicators of emotional stress. It has been established that the resting state is characterized by a predominance of synchronizing influences, which corresponds to a well-defined alpha rhythm.

Static EEG methods in assessing emotions. A special direction in the study of the physiology of emotions consists of studies that use statistical methods assessment of EEG spectra, spatiotemporal synchronization of biopotentials, evoked potentials, infraslow rhythmic brain activity.

Question 35

Classifications of emotional states

American researcher of emotions K. Izard believes that there are fundamental and derivative (forming a complex of derivatives) emotions. TO fundamental emotions the scientist attributed:

interest - positive emotional condition, promoting the development of skills and abilities, the acquisition of knowledge that motivates learning;

joy is a positive emotional state associated with the ability to sufficiently fully satisfy an actual need;

surprise is an emotional reaction to suddenly arising circumstances that does not have a clearly defined positive or negative sign. Surprise inhibits all previous emotions, directing attention to the object that caused it, and can turn into interest;

suffering - a negative emotional state associated with received reliable (or seemingly so) information about the impossibility of satisfying the most important needs of life, which until that moment seemed more or less probable;

anger is a negative emotional state, occurring in the form of affect, caused by the sudden emergence of a serious obstacle to the satisfaction of a need that is extremely important for the subject;

disgust is a negative emotional state caused by objects (objects, people, circumstances), contact with which conflicts with ideological, moral or aesthetic principles and attitudes;

contempt is a negative emotional state that arises in interpersonal relationships and is generated by a mismatch in the life positions, views and behavior of the subject with life positions, views and behavior of the subject of feeling. The latter are presented to the subject as base, not corresponding to moral standards;

fear is a negative emotional state that manifests itself when the subject receives information about possible threat his life well-being, real or imagined danger. In contrast to suffering, this is only a probable forecast of possible trouble;

shame is a negative emotional state, which is expressed in the awareness of the inconsistency of one’s own thoughts, actions, appearance with the expectations of others or with one’s ideas about appropriate behavior and appearance.

The presented classification of emotions distinguishes between positive and negative emotional experiences. Positive emotions and feelings arise when needs are met or the hope of their satisfaction. In the above list by K. Izard, positive emotional experiences of a person include joy and interest. Negative emotions and feelings arise when needs are not met. K. Izard attributed to them suffering, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame. Sometimes they also highlight vague emotions and feelings that arise in an unfamiliar situation and are characterized by instability and ease of change of positive and negative emotions. Uncertain emotions and feelings include surprise, confusion B.I. Dodonov, in his work “Emotions as Value,” noted that negative emotions perform a more important biological function compared to positive ones. Negative emotions are an alarm signal, a cry from the body that this situation disastrous for him. Positive emotion- a signal of the return of well-being. In life, situations are often observed when a person simultaneously experiences opposite emotions and feelings (joy - sadness, pleasure - suffering, etc.). The combination of two inconsistent, contradictory emotional relationships is called ambivalence.

Question

The meaning of the term "motivation". Dispositional and situational motivation

Motivation- motivation to action; a dynamic psychophysiological process that controls human behavior, determining its direction, organization, activity and stability; a person's ability to actively satisfy their needs.

Sometimes all the psychological factors that, as it were, from within a person determine his behavior, are called personal dispositions. Then, accordingly, they talk about dispositional And situational motivations as analogues of internal and external determination of behavior.

Dispositional and situational motivation are not independent. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and, on the contrary, the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the situation, or more precisely, its perception by the subject. In this case, his attention becomes selective, and the subject himself biasedly perceives and evaluates the situation based on current interests and needs. Almost any human action should therefore be considered as doubly determined: dispositionally and situationally.

The behavior of an individual in situations that seem to be the same appears to be quite diverse, and this diversity is difficult to explain by appealing only to the situation. It has been established, for example, that even to the same questions a person answers differently depending on where and how these questions are asked to him. In this regard, it makes sense to define the situation not physically, but psychologically, as it appears to the subject in his perception and experiences, i.e. the way a person understands and evaluates it.

The famous German psychologist K. Lewin showed that each person perceives and evaluates the same situation in his own way and different people these estimates do not coincide. In addition, the same person, depending on the state he is in, can perceive the same situation differently. This is especially typical for intellectually developed people who have extensive life experience and are able to extract a lot of useful things from any situation, to see it under different angles vision and act in it in various ways.

A person's momentary, actual behavior should not be considered as a reaction to certain internal or external stimuli, but as the result of the continuous interaction of his dispositions with the situation. This involves viewing motivation as a cyclical process of continuous mutual influence and transformation, in which the subject of action and the situation mutually influence each other, and the result of this is actually observable behavior. Motivation in this case is thought of as a process continuous choice and decision making based on weighing behavioral alternatives.