This is the science of the patterns and mechanisms of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (or phenomena).
Psychology is the science of the soul (from ancient Greek).
The term psychology first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. The subject of psychology is essential natural connections and mechanisms. The object of psychology is the psyche and the world of mental phenomena. (Konstantinov Viktor Veniaminovich)
According to the textbook: The subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena of both one specific person and mental phenomena observed in groups and collectives.
The task of psychology is the study of mental phenomena.
Structure of mental phenomena:
Mental processes: cognitive (sensations, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, attention), emotional (excitement, joy, indignation, anger, etc.), volitional (decision making, overcoming difficulties, struggle of motives, managing one’s behavior and etc.).
Mental states (excitement, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency, etc.).
Mental properties (direction, temperament, ability, character).
The most popular approach to studying a person in Russian psychology is the approach of B.G. Ananyev. Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev developed a fundamentally new psychological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible to highlight not only new sections in psychology, but also to take a new look at the person himself. Ananiev noted that the problem of man becomes a common problem for all science as a whole.
Ananiev identified 4 basic concepts in the system of human knowledge:
Individual– this is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo Sapiens. (The biological essence of a person, in which primary and secondary properties are distinguished: primary properties: age, gender, individual-typical characteristics, constitutional (body composition), neuro-psycho-physiological, characteristics of GNI, temperamental characteristics. They determine secondary properties, i.e. e. psycho dynamics physiological functions, the structure of the individual’s organic needs. The integration of these properties is realized in temperament and inclinations).
Personality– the individual as a subject social relations and conscious activity (characterizes a person as a social being).
Subject of activity– the average m/d of an individual and a personality – this concept brings together the whole biological principle and the social essence of a person.
Subject– this is an individual, as a carrier of consciousness, with the ability to act.
Individuality is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and inimitability.
Conclusion: a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence:
Individual + subject + personality = individuality.
Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.
(Man is a multifaceted phenomenon. His study must be holistic. Therefore, one of the main methodological concepts used to study man is the concept of a systems approach. It reflects the systemic nature of the world order: any system exists because there is a system-forming factor (the man himself). )
*Methodological basis human studies
Basic Concepts
An individual is a person as a representative of a species, having the natural and bodily existence of a person.
The subject of activity - a person as a subject of activity is defined in terms of and when included in a specific activity, a person as a bearer of objective-practical properties (abilities)
Personality - a person as a representative of society, inclusion in the system of social interaction and action, who freely and responsibly determines his position among other people
Individuality - a person as a unique, original personality possessing only the qualities and characteristics inherent in a single originality that realize themselves creative activity(Ananiev: personality is the pinnacle of human characteristics) – the depth of personal manifestations.
Universe - /Slobodchikov, Issaev/ highest level spiritual development man, man as a link in the macrocosm, a man aware of his place in the world.
Man as an individual
1. property: Primary
– neurophysiological property
– functional asymmetry of the brain
– constitutional features (physical self)
– a sign of sex or sexual demorphism
– age and phase of life
2. property: Secondary
– dynamics of psychophysiological functions (changes during development, inheritance of functional mechanisms)
– structure of an individual’s organic needs
– need for security
all these properties are manifested in inclinations and temperament
Research methods: observation, survey, tests, experiment, modeling.
2
The concept of the psyche. The main stages of mental development
Psyche- this is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the subject’s active reflection of the objective world in the construction (by the subject) of a subjective image of this world and self-regulation on this basis of his behavior and activities.
From this definition it follows:
1) Psyche is a property only of living matter, highly organized matter, i.e. it appears at a certain stage of the living world.
2) is the ability to actively reflect objective reality.
3) – to actively reflect – means to create your own subjective image of this world, i.e. the world doubles (the cockroach has its own world, the dog has its own, the man has his own world).
4) – in accordance with this subjective image, a living organism builds its behavior and activity.
Basic functions of the psyche:
To determine the functions of the psyche, it is necessary to list all the forms and characters of its manifestation, and this is very difficult to do, but to more accurately determine the functions of the psyche in the interaction of a living organism with environment seems possible. From this point of view, the following functions can be distinguished:
1. The function of mental reflection of objects in the world;
2. Preserving the integrity of the body (constancy of the internal environment with external environment– homeostasis);
3. Regulation of behavior and activity.
All these functions are interconnected and are elements of the integrative function of the psyche, which is to ensure the adaptation of a living organism to environmental conditions.
Evolution of the psyche.
There are a number of points of view and approaches to the problem of the evolution of the psyche:
1. Theological approach (religious) (theology is the science of God). The psychic (soul) is given from God and there can be no talk of any evolution.
Idealistic point of view.
2. Vulgar materialistic direction. Empedocles - ancient gr. The doctor, he said that the world went through 4 stages: 1 – chaos (various parts of the body floated), 2 – freaks, 3 – same-sex organisms, 4 – modern man.
Darwin's theory of evolution comes with great reservations.
3. The scientific view or scientifically materialistic view suggests that the world developed in a process of long evolution, but in leaps and bounds, i.e. intermittently, gradually.
4. Cosmogonic hypothesis (cosmic origin)
In psychology, there are such views on the evolution of the psyche:
A.N. Leontiev and K.E. Fabry’s “The Concept of Mental Development” distinguishes two stages:
II – Stage of the perceptual psyche – has 3 levels: lower (fish, shellfish), higher (birds, mice), highest (monkeys, dogs, dolphins).
The basis for distinguishing these two stages of mental development are the main characteristics of the methods of obtaining information about the world around us.
Stage I is characterized by a sensory method, or level of sensations. For stage II - the perceptual method, or level of perception.
K.K. Platonov is based on the position that one level, a form of mental reflection, differs from another in the formation of a systemic feature.
|
Forms of mental reflection |
The systemic sign that is formed in this case |
|
Physical reflection or Physical form of reflection Biological Consciousness |
(Living arises from nonliving) irritability (Living cell) nervism Ideal image + appearance of Pavlov’s 2nd signal system: speech, words, concepts. |
*The development of the psyche in animals goes through a number of stages
1. Stage of elementary sensitivity - behavior is determined by innate instincts,
2. individually acquired behavioral skills appear.
3. Stage III - reflects interdisciplinary connections, in general, is able to bypass obstacles, “invent” new ways to solve two-phase problems. Intellectual behavior does not go beyond biological needs.
Human psyche - developed in the process of work, which arises out of necessity, the implementation of joint actions.
Mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms human consciousness.
Structure: 3 large groups of mental phenomena, namely:
mental processes are a dynamic reflection of reality in various forms mental phenomena - this is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction - they provide the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity
mental states - defined in given time relatively stable level mental activity, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual (attention, EM, mood, inspiration).
mental properties - stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a given person
Mental properties do not exist together, they are synthesized and form complex structural formations of the personality, which must include:
1) a person’s life position (a system of needs, interests, beliefs, ideals that determines a person’s selectivity and level of activity);
2) temperament (system natural properties personality - mobility, balance of behavior and activity tone - characterizing the dynamic side of behavior);
3) abilities (a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional properties that determines creative possibilities personalities)
4) character as a system of relationships and modes of behavior.
3
Psychology as a science. Basic methods of psychology
When dividing sciences into groups based on the subject of study, the following are distinguished:
Natural (study nature),
Humanities (study society, culture, history),
Technical (related to the study and creation of means of production and tools)
Man is a social being => psychology is usually classified as a humanitarian discipline. Any science reveals essential, logical connections, research, necessary repeating connections of objective reality. Each science has a subject of study and an object of study in connection with its purpose.
The subject is What science studies, and the object is for what it is directed, i.e. to which area?
In the modern understanding, psychology is the science of the patterns and mechanisms of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (or phenomena).
Psychology – from ancient Greek – “the science of the soul”
(psyche – “soul”; logos – “concept”, “teaching”)
The first term to designate the world of mental phenomena was introduced by Heraclides - “psyche”.
The first term “psychology” belongs to Goclenius, the first treatise “Psychology”.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the term “psychology” entered scientific circulation, thanks to the works of Christian Wolff in 1832, 1834.
Subject psychology are essentially natural connection mechanisms.
Object psychology is the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (the object of psychology from the point of view of A.G. Maklakov, Kulikov, etc. - a person, an individual, a group of people, animals, a community of animals).
Methods psychology: historically the following taxonomy has developed:
1. The method of introspection (self-observation, self-reflection) is observation, analysis of one’s own subjective states and experiences.
The idea of this method is attributed to Socrates: “Know thyself”, and subsequently as a scientific method - the study of consciousness - it was scientifically substantiated by R. Decardi.
The method of experimental introspection was carried out in the first psychological laboratories of Wundt, Titchener, G. Ebenhaus and others. Then, due to subjectivity, the method of introspection ceases to satisfy scientists and a search for objective methods is underway; they are widely used in modern psychological schools and directions, such as: observation And experiment, using special equipment and in laboratory conditions or without using them.
We started using them in natural sciences ah, and then were transferred to the field of mental phenomena (Sechenov, Pavlov, Bekhterev (experiments with goats), representatives of behaviorism: E. Thorndike (rats), B. Skinner).
2. The method of hermeneutics (or understanding)
Grabbing someone else's soul.
A psychologist practicing this method must have empathy and intuition.
Thus, the methods of psychology can be divided into subjective:
Observation: self-observation, external, free, standard, included.
Survey: oral, written, free, standard.
Test: test questionnaire, test task.
AND objective methods:
Experiment and its varieties (natural, laboratory).
Row test tasks to identify abilities, knowledge, skills, physiological functions (objective, projective tests).
The main methods of obtaining facts in psychology are: observation, conversation (survey), experiment.
*Structure of modern psychology
1 classification (3 blocks):
1. The doctrine of the subject and methods and the theory of psychological knowledge ( experimental psychology).
2. The doctrine of mental processes (general psychology)
3. Doctrines about personality (applied psychology)
Classification of methods
1. Ananiev B.G. distinguishes 4 main groups of methods:
--- 1 gr. Methods psychological research(answer to the question how to construct a psychological study)
1 method. Organizational
– requirements for the composition of the working group
– the procedure for informing subjects during the study
– features of the organization of the external environment
Method 2. Longitudinal
characteristics of the duration of psychological research (the process of long-term psychological research can be differentiated into longitudinal - long-term and cross-sectional - diagnostics of characteristics is carried out simultaneously)
3 method Complex (several groups of methods at once)
--- 2 gr. Empirical methods
1 method Observational (observation, self-observation) in the form of frontal observation, free form
goal: Identify key patterns
Method 2 Experimental
Types of experiments:
– Laboratory experiment (artificial situations in laboratory conditions)
– Natural experiment (change of parameter in natural conditions)
– Formative experiment (psychological and pedagogical – learning, development, education)
Method 3 Psychodiagnostic (test studies)
Standardized (list of questions, tasks - key for analysis)
Projective techniques (qualitative analysis)
Questionnaires, survey questionnaires (statistical analysis)
Sociometry (method of sociometric research)
– Unlimited
– Pre-limited selection
Interview (question-answer)
Conversation Method (equality and participation)
Method 4 Methods of techniques for analyzing processes of activity products
Timing measurement method (objective evaluation criterion)
Professional Description Method
– Psychographic research (identification of requirements for a person - psychogram)
– Professional studies (personal and activity description + psychogram)
Method Content analysis (analysis of written and verbal-logical phenomena)
Method 5 Biographical methods (biography of a person)
Analysis of diary entries
Analysis of human performance
In the form of a survey (author Golovik)
--- 3 gr. Data processing techniques
1 method Quantitative and qualitative analysis
Method 2 Reception of grouping (association)
3 method Classification
4 method Interpretive method (principles of explanation of psychology) genetic and/or structural methods of general disciplinary research
Typology method (identification of a research method for an existing classification)
Psychology of the profession (features in the area of practical activity)
2. Classification by P. Pirov
--- 1 gr. Observation methods
1 method Objective observation
Direct
Indirect
– using questionnaires
– using questionnaires
Method 2 Self-observation
Introspection (report)
Indirect self-observation
– diaries
– letters
--- 2 gr. Experimental
1 method Laboratory
Classic (environment, activity)
Test
Method 2 Natural (according to analysis results)
Gaming activities
Educational
Labor
Method 3 Psychological and pedagogical experiments
Ascertaining (slice diagnostics)
Formative
--- 3 gr. Psychology modeling method
1 method Mathematical modeling
Method 2 Physical modeling
Method 3 Schematic modeling (key concepts before starting the study)
Method 4 Cybernetic modeling (assessment based on objective criteria)
--- 4 gr. Psychological characteristics (various options interpretation of primary psyche. data) - practical recommendations, forecast for the development of situations in 2 areas:
a) how the situation will develop on its own
b) how the situation may develop with the intervention of psychologists
--- 5 gr. Helper Methods
1 method of Mathematical statistics
2nd method of experimental assessments
3 method of Analysis of activity products
--- 6 gr. Special methods
1 method Genetic method (heredity)
Method 2 Phylogenetic method (from a historical perspective)
Method 3 Biographical (features of individual development)
4 method Comparative (causality)
Method 5 Pathopsychological (deviations, unfavorable development)
4
Main directions of psychology of the twentieth century
1. Psychoanalytic direction in :
Psychoanalysis: founder Z. Freud (1856-1939) 3 digits. the term "psychoanalysis":
1). Theory L and psychopathology
2). Method of therapy for personality disorders
3). A method for studying an individual's unconscious thoughts and feelings
Carl Gustav Jung(1875-1961) analytical theory L.
Structure L
Typology: extraversion, introversion
Adler Alfred(1870-1937) individual theory of L, he is the first social psychologist.
Neo-Freudianism: developed from Freudianism, supporters are trying to overcome the biologism of classical Freudianism and introduce its main provisions into the social context.
Karen Horney(1885-1952) German sociocultural theory of L
Eric Ericson(1902-1994) ego theory L
Erich Fromm(1900-1980) humanistic theory L
2. Behaviorism:
The subject is behavior (not consciousness)
Transition from introspectionto scientific methods observations
Goal - behavior management
A person's attraction depends on external influences
Edward Thorndike(1874-1949) considered himself a “connexlonist” (connection) studied the relationship between m/y behavior and the environment
John Watson(1878-1949) - a psychologist, wrote a program of behaviorism: subject-behavior; method - observation, goal - behavior management.
Neo-behaviorists:
Burress Frederick Skinner(1904-1990) – operant conditioning theory: behavior can be predicted and anticipated.
Juman Rotter(1916) – theory of social learning: prediction of human behavior in difficult situations.
Adbert Bandura(1925-1988) Canadian. Social cognitive theory L: it is necessary to consider the unity of the environment, behavior and cognitive processes.
3. Cognitive direction : ! cognitive – cognitive
George Kelly(1905-1966) cognitive appeared in 1955. It is based on constructive alternativeism (each person has his own choice)
Jean Jean Piaget(1896-1980) Swiss. The goal of a person: adaptation to the environment, to the world around him.
4. Gestalt psychology : the earliest psychological concept of the twentieth century. “Gestalt” is a single “whole” “structure”. The main idea is the idea of integrity; The main task is to study the whole.
Frederick Perls(1883-1970) – Gestalt therapy – helping people become whole.
5. Humanistic :
Understanding the essence of a person as personal potential;
Personal growth is the main goal and criterion for the work of a psychologist;
Basic subject actually human manifestations: freedom, love, response;
Transition to the position of the principle of development and self-development (from the principle of balance)
Gordon Allport(1897-1967) – dispositional theory of L
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970) – humanistic theory of L
Carl Rogers(1902-1987) – phenomenological theory of L
6. Transitional concepts
Roberto Assagioli(1888-1974) Italian – psychosynthesis (complex theories of S. Freud)
Eric Bern(1910-1970) Canadian – transactional analysis
Kurt Lewin(1890-1947) German – USA – field theory (Gestalt psychology)
George Mead(1864-1931) am. – symbolic interactionism; concept of social behaviorism (internal action)
Neurolinguistic programming -NLP early 70s of the twentieth century
*Vygotsky - late 19th century - crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology - at the beginning of each direction there is an actual discovery. The contradictions between the individual and society were understood as the eternal incompatibility of the biological nature of man with the moral requirements of society. Instinct and intuition are more important than reason (Sorel and Bergston).
Vernandsky talk is about the explosion of scientific creativity in all sciences.
NEW psychological directions:
Freud destroyed the idea of identifying consciousness with psychology, and declared it a science about the functions of consciousness.
Holistic psychology - descriptive psychology, Gestalt psychology - opposed anatomy and sensationalism.
Psychoanalysis, behaviorism/cognitive, humanistic/existential
~~~35. Structuralism – 263
From functionalism to psychoanalysis of the content of consciousness. M.I. Vladeslavlev - gave a historical overview of the development of psychic knowledge from antiquity. A.I. Vvedensky - studies mental phenomena in a non-judgmental manner as facts of internal nature. The law of the absence of objective signs of animation => introspection as the only method of study in psychology. MM. Troitsky - attracted professors from all faculties in order to combine disparate works psychological nature for the purpose of a broader and more fruitful development of psychology. N.Ya. Grotto - r/r “Questions of Philosophy and Psychology”. He identified the categories of mental circulation: external impression, processing by the body, internal movement, external movement towards an object.
Schools of Psychology >> Structuralism Representatives: Edward Titchener
Subject of study. Experimental study structures of consciousness
Basic theoretical principles: Psychology is the science of experience, depending on the subject experiencing it. Consciousness has its own structure and material hidden behind the surface of its phenomena. To highlight this system, the subject must cope with the “stimulus error,” which is expressed in the confusion of the mental process with the observed object, i.e. stimulus of the process. Knowledge about the external world pushes aside the “matter” of consciousness, this knowledge settles in language.
Three categories of “matter”: sensation, image and feeling. Practice: Search for the simplest elements of consciousness and the discovery of regularity in their combinations.
Contribution: The contribution to the development of psychology can be called negative, because activities were based on the canons of half a century ago. Which led to complete lack of support from psychologists.
~~~36. Functionalism – 260
William James (1842-1910), John Dewey (1859-1952)
Subject of study. To study through what mental functions an individual adapts to a changing environment, to find ways of more effective adaptation.
Basic theoretical principles. Psychology is a natural, biological science, the subject of which is psychic (mental) phenomena and their “conditions”. The doctrine of emotions: shows that “conditions” are not only internal bodily processes, but also phenomena that represent a category of action. Emotion is the result physiological changes in different systems, i.e. The role of the driver of behavior has been removed.
The doctrine of the ideomotor act: Any thought comes into motion unless another thought prevents it.
Personality structure: The self consists of four forms - the material self, the social self, the spiritual self and the pure self.
The degree of self-esteem depends on an increase in success or on a decrease in the level of aspirations, i.e. self-esteem = success / aspirations
Practice. Functionalism sought to consider all mental manifestations from the point of view of their adaptive, adaptive nature. This required determining their attitude to environmental conditions, on the one hand, and to the needs of the body, on the other. Understanding mental life in the image of biological life as a set of functions, actions, operations. Functional psychology considered the problem of action from the angle of its biological adaptive meaning, its focus on solving vital problem situations for the individual.
Contribution. He proposed, despite the seemingly undeniable idea that emotion is a source of physiological changes in various systems, to consider it not as the root cause, but as a result of these changes.
John Dewey - opposed the idea that the basic units of behavior are reflex arcs. In the atmosphere of weakness of functionalism, a new psychological movement was born.
Functionalism is being replaced by behaviorism.
~~~37. Behaviorism
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949), John Bradwas Watson (1878-1958)
Influence of the works of Pavlov and Bekhterev. S-R. Everything is through learning. Learning curve.
Subject of study. Study not consciousness, but human behavior. Personality is everything that an individual possesses.
In the concept of behaviorism, a person is understood, first of all, as a reacting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions, actions, and behavior.
Basic theoretical principles. Thanks to the manipulation of external stimuli, it is possible to form different behavioral traits in a person. The “situation-reaction” connection is characterized by the following features:
1) the starting point is a problematic situation;
2) the body resists it as a whole;
3) he actively acts in search of choice;
4) learned through exercise.
The laws of “natural selection” of useful actions in an individual: the law of exercise - other things being equal, the reaction to a situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetition of connections and their strength. law of readiness – exercise changes the body’s readiness to perform nerve impulses. law of associative shift - if, during the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. law of effect -
The field of psychology is the interaction between the organism and the environment. Connection is an element of behavior.
Practice. Man is completely dependent on his environment, and any freedom of action that he thinks he can use is a pure illusion. One of the main reasons that makes us who we are is connected with our tendency to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation may be for us. Thus, a person is influenced not only by external conditions: he also must constantly anticipate the consequences of his behavior through self-evaluation.
Contribution. They raised the experiment to a high level of research.
As a result of the work done, 16 types of behavior were identified. (perceptual behavior, protective, inductive, habitual, utilitarian, role-playing, scenario, modeling, balancing, liberating, attributive, expressive, autonomous, affirmative, exploratory, empathic.)
~~~38. Gestalt psychology
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
Subject of study. The doctrine of the integrity of mental phenomena.
Basic theoretical principles. Postulate: The primary data of psychology are integral structures (gestalts), which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. Gestalts have their own characteristics and laws.
The concept of “insight” - (from the English understanding, insight, sudden guess) is an intellectual phenomenon, the essence of which is an unexpected understanding of the problem at hand and finding its solution.
Practice. The practice was based on one of two complex concepts of thinking - either associationist (learning to build on strengthening connections between elements), or formal - logical thinking. Both hinder the development of creativity, productive thinking. Children who study geometry at school on the basis of a formal method find it incomparably more difficult to develop a productive approach to problems than those who have not studied at all.
Contribution. Gestalt psychology believed that the whole is determined by the properties and functions of its parts. Gestalt psychology changed the previous view of consciousness, proving that its analysis is designed to deal not with individual elements, but with holistic mental images.
Gestalt psychology opposed associative psychology, dividing consciousness into elements.
~~~39. Freudianism/depth psychology
1) in the narrow sense of the word - a psychotherapeutic method developed by S. Freud in the late 90s. XIX century for the treatment of psychoneuroses. Psychoanalysis as a method of therapy consists of identifying, then bringing to consciousness and experiencing unconscious traumatic ideas, impressions, and mental complexes. 2) In the broad sense of the word, psychoanalysis refers to various schools of dynamic psychotherapy. Moreover, we can talk not only about the theoretical platforms of these schools, but also about the institutionalized movement that is carried out on their basis. Psychoanalysis as a movement dates back to a circle of supporters of S. Freud, who united around him in 1902 and founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908.
Modern successors and imitators of this movement belong to the so-called “classical” or “orthodox” psychoanalysis - its most numerous, powerful and influential direction.
In theoretical terms, classical psychoanalysis represents Freudianism, in some matters refined and reformed in the 30-50s. A. Freud, H. Hartmann, D. Rapaport and others. The changes they made concerned mainly the functions of the “I”. Their research led to the development of a new theoretical aspect called “ego psychology.” Unlike Freud, who paid main attention to the unconscious mechanisms of the “IT,” in modern classical psychoanalysis great importance impart preconscious mechanisms of the “I” aimed at adaptation to the social environment.
Very noteworthy is also the attempt at a formalized presentation of psychoanalysis by D. Rapaport, who also sought to translate the concepts of psychoanalysis into the terms of behavior that were used in the 40-50s. behaviorist-oriented experimental psychology is the main rival of psychoanalysis. D. Rapaport tried to bring psychoanalysis closer to the canons of science, which were dictated by the post-positivist philosophy of science.
Other areas (schools) of psychoanalysis, much less institutionalized and influential, were founded by those who broke away from
Freud's students - A. Adler, O. Rank, as well as K.-G. Jung, who only briefly became close to him and the Viennese society.
~~~40. Cognitive psychology – 474
Jean Piaget.
Subject of study. Dependence of the subject's behavior on cognitive processes.
The task of cognitive psychology was to study the processing of information from the moment it hits the receptor surfaces until the response is received.
Basic theoretical principles. A person is not a machine that blindly and mechanically reacts to internal factors or events in the external world; on the contrary, the human mind is capable of more: analyzing information about reality, making comparisons, making decisions, solving problems that confront it every minute. The development of a child's intelligence occurs as a result of a constant search for balance between what the child knows and what he strives to know. External actions may be different, since thoughts and feelings were different.
Practice. Development of training programs designed to develop intelligence and scientific examination of testimony. Work, analysis, creation of applied theory.
Contribution. Introduction of the concepts of short-term and long-term memory.
There is internal variability of personal actualizations in specific situations interpretation schemes that cause people to inaccurately predict their own future behavior.
~~~41. Humanistic psychology – 478
Opport, Murray, Murphy, May, Maslow, Rogers.
Subject of study. A unique and inimitable personality, constantly creating himself, aware of his purpose in life. Studies health harmonious personalities who have reached the pinnacle of personal development, the pinnacle of “self-actualization.”
Basic theoretical principles. Based on the hierarchy of human needs. Self-realization. Consciousness of self-worth. Social needs. Reliability needs. Physiological basic needs. The unsuitability of animal research for human understanding.
Practical use. Humanistic psychology is a modern direction in psychological science. There are some techniques and concepts that apply. Today it is:
Basic holistic self-actualizing personality.
Stages of personality degradation.
Search for the meaning of life.
Contribution. Humanistic psychology opposes the construction of psychology on the model of the natural sciences and argues that a person, even as an object of research, should be studied as an active subject, assessing the experimental situation and choosing a method of behavior.
As well as the French school (changes of thinking over time) and descriptive psychology (methods of understanding and explanation).
5
Reflexological and behaviorist direction in psychology
For a long time, the method of introspection was not only the main, but also the only method . The ideologist of the introspection method was the philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704), who developed Descartes' term about the direct comprehension of thoughts.
J. Locke argued that there are 2 sources of all Knowledge: external objects. the world and the activities of our own minds.
The check directs its external actions to objects in the external world. feelings and as a result receives impressions about external things, and the basis of the activity of the mind is a special internal feeling - reflection.
Locke defined it as "observation, cat mind subjected his activity" (thinking, doubt, faith, reasoning. cognition, desire).
J. Locke stated that reflection presupposes a special focus on D own soul, as well as sufficient maturity of the subject.
Children have no reflection, because... they are busy learning about external things. Peace, but reflection may not develop in an adult if he does not learn to reflect on himself.
Based on this position, Locke considers a split psyche possible.
Mental processes (according to Locke) occur at 2 levels:
1).processes of perception, thought, desire, etc.
2). “observation” or “contemplation” of these thoughts and images of memory.
A scientist can conduct psychological research only on himself, because process of consciousness is revealed only to the subject himself.
This direction is based on 2 principles of English materialism of the 16th-18th centuries, the cat developed under the influence of achievements in mechanics and physics (Newton’s discovery):
1. The principle of sensationalism is the sensuality of experience as the only source of knowledge.
2. The principle of automatism is the task of decomposing all complex phenomena into elements, and explaining them based on the connections between these elements.
This is t.zr. called sensualistic materialism (J. Locke adhered to the principle of sensualism)
In parallel with Locke’s teachings, another movement, close to it, began to develop in science - associative direction. And it is connected with the names of Hume and Hartley (based on the principle of automatism).
By the middle of the 19th century, associative was the dominant direction (at the end of the 19th century the method of introspection was widely used)
Theory of the elements of consciousness (Wundt, Titchener) in place of real
acts of consciousness (Brentano) people become
Stream of Consciousness Theory (Jeylee) consciousness in the cat dissolves
human being
But wide application the method of introspection led to a crisis.
And in the second decade of the 20th century. a new direction arose, the subject of which was behavior(and not the psyche and consciousness) and the name “behaviorism” came about.
I. Methodological foundations of the study of man. How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is the “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased. A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, can be studied experimentally, and the observed phenomena are completely understandable from a scientific point of view.
To implement this approach it is necessary to have general idea about the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists have repeatedly made attempts to formulate a holistic view of man. Of course, this idea also exists in psychology. One of the most popular approaches to studying humans in Russian psychology was proposed by Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev.
Ananyev Boris Gerasimovich (1907 1972) - an outstanding Russian psychologist. Scientific activity began as a graduate student at the Brain Institute during the life of V. M. Bekhterev. In 1968-1972 was the dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad State University. He is the founder of the Leningrad psychological school. Author of fundamental works in the field of sensory perception, communication psychology, educational psychology. He proposed a system of human knowledge in which data from various human sciences were integrated.
Ananiev identified four main concepts in the system of human knowledge: the individual, the subject of activity, personality and individuality. The concept of “individual” has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of a species Homo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to designate a person as an individual representative of the human community, as a social being who uses tools. However, in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied. A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1. 1). Ananyev identified the primary and secondary properties of an individual.
He considered primary properties inherent in all people, such as age-related characteristics (compliance with a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain gender), as well as individually typical characteristics, including constitutional characteristics (features of body composition), neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of functional geometry cerebral hemispheres. The set of primary properties of an individual determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of a person’s temperament and inclinations.
Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is “personality”. This concept, like the concept of “individual,” has various interpretations. In particular, personality is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, formed in joint activity and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of “personality” characterizes a person as a social being (Fig. 1. 2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.
Next concept, which Ananyev singled out when studying man, is “the subject of activity.” This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of “individual” and “personality”. The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered a social being, since his evolution and social development impossible without activity.
Conclusion The main feature of man as a subject, which distinguishes him from other living beings, is consciousness. Consciousness is the highest form of mental development, inherent only to humans. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of purposeful behavior and, as a consequence, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Thus, the subject is an individual as a carrier of consciousness with the ability to act.
So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative of living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. The combination of these three levels into one whole forms an integral characteristic of a person - his individuality. Individuality is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and originality.
A prerequisite for the formation of human individuality are anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the process of education, which has a socially determined character. The variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variety of manifestations of individuality. Thus, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.
Methodological foundations of human studies
How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is the “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in man and his behavior has constantly increased.
A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, must be studied experimentally, and the observed phenomena are completely explainable from a scientific point of view. To implement such an approach, it is extremely important to have a general understanding of the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists are not
made one attempt to formulate a holistic idea of a person. Of course, this idea also exists in psychology.One of the most popular approaches to the study of man in Russian psychology was proposed by B. G. Ananyev. Assessing the significance of Ananyev’s work for Russian science, it is first of all extremely important to emphasize that he developed a fundamentally new methodological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible not only to identify new sections of psychology that previously did not exist as independent ones, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Talking about basic features development scientific knowledge about man, Ananyev noted that the problem of man becomes a common problem for all science as a whole. Moreover, for scientific knowledge Human development is characterized by both the ever-increasing differentiation and specialization of individual disciplines and the tendency to combine various sciences and methods of human research. Modern science More and more people are interested in problems related to human health, his creativity, learning and, of course, his thoughts and experiences, and the study of man and human activity is carried out comprehensively, taking into account all aspects of these problems.
Ananiev identified four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality And individuality.
The concept of “individual” has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to designate a person as an individual representative of the human community, as a social being who uses tools. At the same time, in this case the biological essence of man is not denied.
A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1.1). Ananyev identified the primary and secondary properties of an individual. He considered primary properties inherent in all people, such as age characteristics (compliance with a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain gender), as well as individual-typical characteristics, incl. constitutional features (features of body composition), neurodynamic
14 ‣‣‣ Part I. Introduction to General Psychology
Rice. 1.1. The structure of the concept of “individual” (according to B. G. Ananyev)
Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods ‣‣‣ 1 5
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properties of the brain, features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres. The set of primary properties of an individual determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of a person’s temperament and inclinations.
Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is “personality”. This concept, like the concept of “individual,” has various interpretations. In particular, personality is usually understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, formed in joint activity and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of “personality” characterizes a person as a social being(Fig. 1.2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.
Rice.1.2. The structure of the concept - “personality” (according to B. G. Ananyev)
The next concept, highlighted by Ananyev when studying man, is “subject of activity”. This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of “individual” and “personality”. The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered as a social being, since his evolution and social development are impossible without activity.
Before characterizing a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the concept of “subject” as a philosophical category. Most often, this concept is used in conjunction with the concept of “object”. The object and the subject are always in a certain relationship. An object is an object or phenomenon of the real world that exists independently of our consciousness, acting as a goal towards which the activity of a person - the subject of influence - is directed. A person is always surrounded by certain objects or encounters phenomena of the real world. Considering the dependence on what or who its activity is directed at, this or that object can act as an object. The object can be human activity itself.
16 ‣‣‣ Part I. Introduction to general psychology
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Rice. 1.3.The structure of the concept “subject of activity” (according to B. G. Ananyev)
The main feature of a person as a subject, which distinguishes him from other living beings, is consciousness (Fig. 1.3). Consciousness is the highest form of mental development, inherent only to humans. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of goal-oriented behavior and, as a consequence, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, a subject is an individual as a bearer of consciousness with the ability to act. So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative of living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. The combination of these three levels into one whole forms the integral characteristic of a person - his individuality
Individuality is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and originality. A prerequisite for the formation of human individuality are anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed by the process of education, which has a socially determined character.
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The variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variety of manifestations of individuality.
However, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Fig. 1.4). For this reason, it is not surprising that there are a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.
Methodological foundations for the study of man - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Methodological foundations of the study of man" 2017, 2018.
This is the science of the patterns and mechanisms of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (or phenomena).
Psychology is the science of the soul (from ancient Greek).
The term psychology first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. The subject of psychology is essential natural connections and mechanisms. The object of psychology is the psyche and the world of mental phenomena. (Konstantinov Viktor Veniaminovich)
According to the textbook: The subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena of both one specific person and mental phenomena observed in groups and collectives.
The task of psychology is the study of mental phenomena.
Structure of mental phenomena:
Mental processes: cognitive (sensations, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, attention), emotional (excitement, joy, indignation, anger, etc.), volitional (decision making, overcoming difficulties, struggle of motives, managing one’s behavior and etc.).
Mental states (excitement, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency, etc.).
Mental properties (direction, temperament, ability, character).
The most popular approach to studying a person in Russian psychology is the approach of B.G. Ananyev. Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev developed a fundamentally new psychological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible to highlight not only new sections in psychology, but also to take a new look at the person himself. Ananiev noted that the problem of man becomes a common problem for all science as a whole.
Ananiev identified 4 basic concepts in the system of human knowledge:
Individual– this is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo Sapiens. (The biological essence of a person, in which primary and secondary properties are distinguished: primary properties: age, gender, individual-typical characteristics, constitutional (body composition), neuro-psycho-physiological, characteristics of GNI, temperamental characteristics. They determine secondary properties, i.e. e. the dynamics of psychophysiological functions, the structure of the organic needs of the individual. The integration of these properties is realized in temperament and inclinations).
Personality– the individual, as a subject of social relations and conscious activity (characterizes a person as a social being).
Subject of activity– the average m/d of an individual and a personality – this concept brings together the whole biological principle and the social essence of a person.
Subject– this is an individual, as a carrier of consciousness, with the ability to act.
Individuality is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and inimitability.
Conclusion: a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence:
Individual + subject + personality = individuality.
Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.
(Man is a multifaceted phenomenon. His study must be holistic. Therefore, one of the main methodological concepts used to study man is the concept of a systems approach. It reflects the systemic nature of the world order: any system exists because there is a system-forming factor (the man himself). )
*Methodological foundations of human studies
Basic Concepts
An individual is a person as a representative of a species, having the natural and bodily existence of a person.
The subject of activity - a person as a subject of activity is defined in terms of and when included in a specific activity, a person as a bearer of objective-practical properties (abilities)
– requirements for the composition of the working group
– the procedure for informing subjects during the study
– features of the organization of the external environment
Method 2. Longitudinal
characteristics of the duration of psychological research (the process of long-term psychological research can be differentiated into longitudinal - long-term and cross-sectional - diagnostics of characteristics is carried out simultaneously)
3 method Complex (several groups of methods at once)
--- 2 gr. Empirical methods
1 method Observational (observation, self-observation) in the form of frontal observation, free form
goal: Identify key patterns
Method 2 Experimental
Types of experiments:
– Laboratory experiment (artificial situations in laboratory conditions)
– Natural experiment (change of parameter under natural conditions)
– Formative experiment (psychological and pedagogical – learning, development, education)
Method 3 Psychodiagnostic (test studies)
Standardized (list of questions, tasks - key for analysis)
Projective techniques (qualitative analysis)
Questionnaires, survey questionnaires (statistical analysis)
Sociometry (method of sociometric research)
– Unlimited
– Pre-limited selection
Interview (question-answer)
Conversation Method (equality and participation)
Method 4 Methods of techniques for analyzing processes of activity products
Timing measurement method (objective evaluation criterion)
Professional Description Method
– Psychographic research (identification of requirements for a person - psychogram)
– Professional studies (personal and activity description + psychogram)
Method Content analysis (analysis of written and verbal-logical phenomena)
Method 5 Biographical methods (biography of a person)
Analysis of diary entries
Analysis of human performance
In the form of a survey (author Golovik)
--- 3 gr. Data processing techniques
1 method Quantitative and qualitative analysis
Method 2 Reception of grouping (association)
3 method Classification
4 method Interpretive method (principles of explanation of psychology) genetic and/or structural methods of general disciplinary research
Typology method (identification of a research method for an existing classification)
Psychology of the profession (features in the area of practical activity)
2. Classification by P. Pirov
--- 1 gr. Observation methods
1 method Objective observation
Direct
Indirect
– using questionnaires
– using questionnaires
Method 2 Self-observation
Introspection (report)
Indirect self-observation
– diaries
– letters
--- 2 gr. Experimental
1 method Laboratory
Classic (environment, activity)
Test
Method 2 Natural (according to analysis results)
Gaming activities
Method 3 Psychological and pedagogical experiments
Ascertaining (slice diagnostics)
Formative
--- 3 gr. Psychology modeling method
1 method Mathematical modeling
Method 2 Physical modeling
Method 3 Schematic modeling (key concepts before starting the study)
Method 4 Cybernetic modeling (assessment based on objective criteria)
--- 4 gr. Psychological characteristics (various options for interpreting primary psychological data) - practical recommendations, forecasting the development of situations in 2 areas:
a) how the situation will develop on its own
b) how the situation may develop with the intervention of psychologists
--- 5 gr. Helper Methods
1 method of Mathematical statistics
2nd method of experimental assessments
3 method of Analysis of activity products
--- 6 gr. Special methods
1 method Genetic method (heredity)
Method 2 Phylogenetic method (from a historical perspective)
Method 3 Biographical (features of individual development)
4 method Comparative (causality)
Method 5 Pathopsychological (deviations, unfavorable development)
4
Main directions of psychology of the twentieth century
1. Psychoanalytic direction in :
Psychoanalysis: founder Z. Freud (1856-1939) 3 digits. the term "psychoanalysis":
1). Theory L and psychopathology
2). Method of therapy for personality disorders
3). A method for studying an individual's unconscious thoughts and feelings
Carl Gustav Jung(1875-1961) analytical theory L.
Structure L
Typology: extraversion, introversion
Adler Alfred(1870-1937) individual theory of L, he is the first social psychologist.
Neo-Freudianism: developed from Freudianism, supporters are trying to overcome the biologism of classical Freudianism and introduce its main provisions into the social context.
Karen Horney(1885-1952) German sociocultural theory of L
Eric Ericson(1902-1994) ego theory L
Erich Fromm(1900-1980) humanistic theory L
2. Behaviorism:
The subject is behavior (not consciousness)
The transition from introspectionto scientific methods of observation
Goal - behavior management
A person's attraction depends on external influences
Edward Thorndike(1874-1949) considered himself a “connexlonist” (connection) studied the relationship between m/y behavior and the environment
John Watson(1878-1949) - a psychologist, wrote a program of behaviorism: subject-behavior; method - observation, goal - behavior management.
Neo-behaviorists:
Burress Frederick Skinner(1904-1990) – operant conditioning theory: behavior can be predicted and anticipated.
Juman Rotter(1916) – theory of social learning: prediction of human behavior in difficult situations.
Adbert Bandura(1925-1988) Canadian. Social cognitive theory L: it is necessary to consider the unity of the environment, behavior and cognitive processes.
: ! cognitive – cognitive
George Kelly(1905-1966) cognitive appeared in 1955. It is based on constructive alternativeism (each person has his own choice)
Jean Jean Piaget(1896-1980) Swiss. The goal of a person: adaptation to the environment, to the world around him.
4. Gestalt psychology : the earliest psychological concept of the twentieth century. “Gestalt” is a single “whole” “structure”. The main idea is the idea of integrity; The main task is to study the whole.
Frederick Perls(1883-1970) – Gestalt therapy – helping people become whole.
5. Humanistic :
Understanding the essence of a person as personal potential;
Personal growth is the main goal and criterion for the work of a psychologist;
Basic subject actually human manifestations: freedom, love, response;
Transition to the position of the principle of development and self-development (from the principle of balance)
Gordon Allport(1897-1967) – dispositional theory of L
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970) – humanistic theory of L
Carl Rogers(1902-1987) – phenomenological theory of L
6. Transitional concepts
Roberto Assagioli(1888-1974) Italian – psychosynthesis (complex theories of S. Freud)
Eric Bern(1910-1970) Canadian – transactional analysis
Kurt Lewin(1890-1947) German – USA – field theory (Gestalt psychology)
George Mead(1864-1931) am. – symbolic interactionism; concept of social behaviorism (internal action)
Neurolinguistic programming -NLP early 70s of the twentieth century
*Vygotsky - late 19th century - crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology - at the beginning of each direction there is an actual discovery. The contradictions between the individual and society were understood as the eternal incompatibility of the biological nature of man with the moral requirements of society. Instinct and intuition are more important than reason (Sorel and Bergston).
Vernandsky talk is about the explosion of scientific creativity in all sciences.
NEW psychological directions:
Freud destroyed the idea of identifying consciousness with psychology, and declared it a science about the functions of consciousness.
Holistic psychology - descriptive psychology, Gestalt psychology - opposed anatomy and sensationalism.
Psychoanalysis, behaviorism/cognitive, humanistic/existential
~~~35. Structuralism – 263
From functionalism to psychoanalysis of the content of consciousness. M.I. Vladeslavlev - gave a historical overview of the development of psychic knowledge from antiquity. A.I. Vvedensky - studies mental phenomena in a non-judgmental manner as facts of internal nature. The law of the absence of objective signs of animation => introspection as the only method of study in psychology. MM. Troitsky - attracted professors from all faculties in order to combine scattered works of a psychological nature for the purpose of a broader and more fruitful development of psychology. N.Ya. Grotto - r/r “Questions of Philosophy and Psychology”. He identified the categories of mental circulation: external impression, processing by the body, internal movement, external movement towards an object.
Schools of Psychology >> Structuralism Representatives: Edward Titchener
Subject of study. Experimental study of the structure of consciousness
Basic theoretical principles: Psychology is the science of experience, depending on the subject experiencing it. Consciousness has its own structure and material hidden behind the surface of its phenomena. To highlight this system, the subject must cope with the “stimulus error,” which is expressed in the confusion of the mental process with the observed object, i.e. stimulus of the process. Knowledge about the external world pushes aside the “matter” of consciousness, this knowledge settles in language.
Three categories of “matter”: sensation, image and feeling. Practice: Search for the simplest elements of consciousness and the discovery of regularity in their combinations.
Contribution: The contribution to the development of psychology can be called negative, because activities were based on the canons of half a century ago. Which led to complete lack of support from psychologists.
~~~36. Functionalism – 260
William James (1842-1910), John Dewey (1859-1952)
Subject of study. To study through what mental functions an individual adapts to a changing environment, to find ways of more effective adaptation.
Basic theoretical principles. Psychology is a natural, biological science, the subject of which is psychic (mental) phenomena and their “conditions”. The doctrine of emotions: shows that “conditions” are not only internal bodily processes, but also phenomena that represent a category of action. Emotion is the result of physiological changes in various systems, i.e. The role of the driver of behavior has been removed.
The doctrine of the ideomotor act: Any thought comes into motion unless another thought prevents it.
Personality structure: The self consists of four forms - the material self, the social self, the spiritual self and the pure self.
The degree of self-esteem depends on an increase in success or on a decrease in the level of aspirations, i.e. self-esteem = success / aspirations
Practice. Functionalism sought to consider all mental manifestations from the point of view of their adaptive, adaptive nature. This required determining their attitude to environmental conditions, on the one hand, and to the needs of the body, on the other. Understanding mental life in the image of biological life as a set of functions, actions, operations. Functional psychology considered the problem of action from the angle of its biological adaptive meaning, its focus on solving vital problem situations for the individual.
Contribution. He proposed, despite the seemingly undeniable idea that emotion is a source of physiological changes in various systems, to consider it not as the root cause, but as a result of these changes.
John Dewey - opposed the idea that the basic units of behavior are reflex arcs. In the atmosphere of weakness of functionalism, a new psychological movement was born.
Functionalism is being replaced by behaviorism.
~~~37. Behaviorism
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949), John Bradwas Watson (1878-1958)
Influence of the works of Pavlov and Bekhterev. S-R. Everything is through learning. Learning curve.
Subject of study. Study not consciousness, but human behavior. Personality is everything that an individual possesses.
In the concept of behaviorism, a person is understood, first of all, as a reacting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions, actions, and behavior.
Basic theoretical principles. Thanks to the manipulation of external stimuli, it is possible to form different behavioral traits in a person. The “situation-reaction” connection is characterized by the following features:
1) the starting point is a problematic situation;
2) the body resists it as a whole;
3) he actively acts in search of choice;
4) learned through exercise.
The laws of “natural selection” of useful actions in an individual: the law of exercise - other things being equal, the reaction to a situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetition of connections and their strength. law of readiness – exercise changes the body’s readiness to conduct nerve impulses. law of associative shift - if, during the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. law of effect -
The field of psychology is the interaction between the organism and the environment. Connection is an element of behavior.
Practice. Man is completely dependent on his environment, and any freedom of action that he thinks he can use is a pure illusion. One of the main reasons that makes us who we are is connected with our tendency to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation may be for us. Thus, a person is influenced not only by external conditions: he also must constantly anticipate the consequences of his behavior through self-evaluation.
Contribution. They raised the experiment to a high level of research.
As a result of the work done, 16 types of behavior were identified. (perceptual behavior, protective, inductive, habitual, utilitarian, role-playing, scenario, modeling, balancing, liberating, attributive, expressive, autonomous, affirmative, exploratory, empathic.)
~~~38. Gestalt psychology
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
Subject of study. The doctrine of the integrity of mental phenomena.
Basic theoretical principles. Postulate: The primary data of psychology are integral structures (gestalts), which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. Gestalts have their own characteristics and laws.
The concept of “insight” - (from the English understanding, insight, sudden guess) is an intellectual phenomenon, the essence of which is an unexpected understanding of the problem at hand and finding its solution.
Practice. The practice was based on one of two complex concepts of thinking - either associationist (learning to build on strengthening connections between elements), or formal - logical thinking. Both hinder the development of creative, productive thinking. Children who study geometry at school on the basis of a formal method find it incomparably more difficult to develop a productive approach to problems than those who have not studied at all.
Contribution. Gestalt psychology believed that the whole is determined by the properties and functions of its parts. Gestalt psychology changed the previous view of consciousness, proving that its analysis is designed to deal not with individual elements, but with holistic mental images.
Gestalt psychology opposed associative psychology, which divides consciousness into elements.
~~~39. Freudianism/depth psychology
1) in the narrow sense of the word - a psychotherapeutic method developed by S. Freud in the late 90s. XIX century for the treatment of psychoneuroses. Psychoanalysis as a method of therapy consists of identifying, then bringing to consciousness and experiencing unconscious traumatic ideas, impressions, and mental complexes. 2) In the broad sense of the word, psychoanalysis refers to various schools of dynamic psychotherapy. Moreover, we can talk not only about the theoretical platforms of these schools, but also about the institutionalized movement that is carried out on their basis. Psychoanalysis as a movement dates back to a circle of supporters of S. Freud, who united around him in 1902 and founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908.
Modern successors and imitators of this movement belong to the so-called “classical” or “orthodox” psychoanalysis - its most numerous, powerful and influential direction.
In theoretical terms, classical psychoanalysis represents Freudianism, in some matters refined and reformed in the 30-50s. A. Freud, H. Hartmann, D. Rapaport and others. The changes they made concerned mainly the functions of the “I”. Their research led to the development of a new theoretical aspect called “ego psychology.” Unlike Freud, who paid main attention to the unconscious mechanisms of the “IT,” in modern classical psychoanalysis, great importance is attached to the preconscious mechanisms of the “I,” aimed at adaptation to the social environment.
Very noteworthy is also the attempt at a formalized presentation of psychoanalysis by D. Rapaport, who also sought to translate the concepts of psychoanalysis into terms of behavior, which were used in the 40-50s. behaviorist-oriented experimental psychology is the main rival of psychoanalysis. D. Rapaport tried to bring psychoanalysis closer to the canons of science, which were dictated by the post-positivist philosophy of science.
Other areas (schools) of psychoanalysis, much less institutionalized and influential, were founded by those who broke away from
Freud's students - A. Adler, O. Rank, as well as K.-G. Jung, who only briefly became close to him and the Viennese society.
~~~40. Cognitive Psychology – 474
Jean Piaget.
Subject of study. Dependence of the subject's behavior on cognitive processes.
The task of cognitive psychology was to study the processing of information from the moment it hits the receptor surfaces until the response is received.
Basic theoretical principles. A person is not a machine that blindly and mechanically reacts to internal factors or events in the external world; on the contrary, the human mind is capable of more: analyzing information about reality, making comparisons, making decisions, solving problems that confront it every minute. The development of a child's intelligence occurs as a result of a constant search for balance between what the child knows and what he strives to know. External actions may be different, since thoughts and feelings were different.
Practice. Development of training programs designed to develop intelligence and scientific examination of testimony. Work, analysis, creation of applied theory.
Contribution. Introduction of the concepts of short-term and long-term memory.
There is internal variability in personal interpretation schemes actualized in specific situations, which causes people to inaccurately predict their own future behavior.
~~~41. Humanistic psychology – 478
Opport, Murray, Murphy, May, Maslow, Rogers.
Subject of study. A unique and inimitable personality, constantly creating himself, aware of his purpose in life. He studies health, harmonious individuals who have reached the pinnacle of personal development, the pinnacle of “self-actualization.”
Basic theoretical principles. Based on the hierarchy of human needs. Self-realization. Consciousness of self-worth. Social needs. Reliability needs. Physiological basic needs. The unsuitability of animal research for human understanding.
Practical use. Humanistic psychology is a modern direction in psychological science. There are some techniques and concepts that apply. Today it is:
Basic holistic self-actualizing personality.
Stages of personality degradation.
Search for the meaning of life.
Contribution. Humanistic psychology opposes the construction of psychology on the model of the natural sciences and argues that a person, even as an object of research, should be studied as an active subject, assessing the experimental situation and choosing a method of behavior.
As well as the French school (changes of thinking over time) and descriptive psychology (methods of understanding and explanation).
How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is the “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.
A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, can be studied experimentally, and the observed phenomena are completely understandable from a scientific point of view. To implement this approach, it is necessary to have a general understanding of the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists have repeatedly made attempts to formulate a holistic view of man. Of course, this idea also exists in psychology.
One of the most popular approaches to the study of man in Russian psychology was proposed by B. G. Ananyev. Assessing the significance of Ananyev’s work for Russian science, it is first of all necessary to emphasize that he developed a fundamentally new methodological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible not only to identify new sections of psychology that previously did not exist as independent ones, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Speaking about the main features of the development of scientific knowledge about man, Ananyev noted that the problem of man is becoming a common problem for all science as a whole. At the same time, the scientific knowledge of man is characterized by both the ever-increasing differentiation and specialization of individual disciplines, and the tendency to combine various sciences and methods of human research. Modern science is more and more interested in problems related to human health, his creativity, learning and, of course, his thoughts and experiences, and the study of man and human activity is carried out comprehensively, taking into account all aspects of these problems.
Ananyev identified four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge:
- individual,
- subject of activity,
- personality,
- individuality.
The concept of “individual” has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to designate a person as an individual representative of the human community, as a social being who uses tools. However, in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied.
Man as an individual has certain properties. Ananyev identified the primary and secondary properties of an individual. He considered primary properties inherent in all people, such as age-related characteristics (compliance with a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain gender), as well as individual-typical characteristics, including constitutional characteristics (features of body composition), neurodynamic properties of the brain , features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres. The set of primary properties of an individual determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of a person’s temperament and inclinations.
MOTIVATION (DIRECTION)
Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is “ personality" This concept, like the concept of “individual,” has various interpretations. In particular, personality is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual that is formed in joint activities and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of “personality” characterizes a person as a social being (Fig. 1.2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.
The next concept that Ananyev highlighted when studying man is “ subject of activity" This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of “individual” and “personality”. The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered as a social being, since his evolution and social development are impossible without activity.
Before characterizing a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the concept of “subject” as a philosophical category. Most often, this concept is used in conjunction with the concept of “object”. The object and the subject are always in a certain relationship. An object is an object or phenomenon of the real world that exists independently of our consciousness, acting as a goal towards which the activity of a person - the subject of influence - is directed. A person is always surrounded by certain objects or encounters phenomena of the real world. Depending on what or who its activity is directed at, one or another object can act as an object. The object can be human activity itself.
The main feature of man as a subject, distinguishing him from other living beings, is consciousness(Fig. 1.3). Consciousness is the highest form of mental development, inherent only to humans. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of purposeful behavior and, as a consequence, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Thus, the subject is an individual as a carrier of consciousness with the ability to act. 
So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative of living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. The combination of these three levels into one whole forms an integral characteristic of a person - his individuality.
Individuality- this is a set of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person from the point of view of his uniqueness, originality and uniqueness. A prerequisite for the formation of human individuality are anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the process of education, which has a socially determined character. The variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variety of manifestations of individuality.
Thus, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level in nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Fig. 1.4). Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities. 
