The era of antiquity with its architecture, art, and sciences ended its existence at the end of the 4th century. A new time has come - the era of feudalism, or the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries).
During the Middle Ages, the formation took place European countries, constant internecine wars, uprisings. It was at this time that Christianity was established. Slavery gave way to the feudal system.
The history of medieval architecture is divided into three periods:
1) early medieval (4th–9th centuries);
2) Romanesque (10th–12th centuries);
3) Gothic (late 12th–14th centuries).
Architecture, art, especially park construction, are very vulnerable and require a peaceful environment for their existence, therefore, in conditions of unrest in the world, especially in Europe, the development of landscape art is suspended. The size of gardens is sharply reduced, internal gardens appear within monasteries and at castles, where they like
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then safety from destruction is guaranteed. It was the inner garden that became the only link between city dwellers and nature.Decorative and fruit plants, as well as medicinal herbs, were grown in the inner garden. The trees grew in even rows and were mostly of local origin, with some exotic ones too.
Orchards were surrounded around the perimeter for protection deciduous trees(linden, ash, poplar).
The prototype of modern flower beds were regular beds with medicinal and ornamental plants: mallow, wormwood, sage, tea, poppy, Bogorodskaya grass, rue, etc. The formation of the beds was in the form of prisms. Their slopes were strengthened with turf, poles or wickerwork.
In the Middle Ages the following appeared main types gardening facilities :
- monastery gardens;
- castle gardens;
- university gardens;
First botanical gardens at academic centers.
IN monastery gardens often two cross-shaped intersecting paths divided them into four parts. In the center of the intersection, a cross was installed or a rose bush was planted in memory of the martyrdom of Christ. Gardens at monasteries had a utilitarian purpose. Aesthetic issues usually relegated to the background.
The enclosed courtyard inside the monastery, where ornamental plants were grown, was called a cloister.
Castle gardens served for relaxation and meetings, were arranged with decorative elements and were small in size.
Small indoor garden areas have led to the emergence of a new technique - labyrinth – a section of specially entangled garden paths, separated by trimmed greenery (Figure 4). It fit into some geometric shape, usually a square or hexagon.
The technique was borrowed from the builders of temples, who laid out a mosaic pattern on the floor, leading along complex paths, like labyrinthine paths, to the center of the hall. Crawling along such a pattern on their knees, pilgrims imagined that they were making a distant pilgrimage. Subsequently, this idea was transferred to the garden.
The late Middle Ages are characterized by the development of science and the opening of the first universities (in Paris, Oxford, etc.). Reached
High level of development of botany and horticulture. The first began to appear botanical gardens, opened to the general public already in the Renaissance.
Figure 4 – Example of a labyrinth (photo from engraving)
So, features of landscape gardening art of the Middle Ages in central Europe the following:
Simplicity and geometric layout of internal gardens;
Development of a new technique - a labyrinth;
The emergence of the beginnings of botanical gardens and preparations for their opening to the general public by the first half of the 15th century.
Hispano-Moorish (Arab) gardens
Education in the 7th century played an important role in the development of world landscape art. The Arab Caliphate, which united the conquered lands of Palestine, Syria, Iran, Egypt, Iraq and Spain.
Social conditions. Muslim art of the East is distinguished by majestic monumentality, schematism and abstraction.
IN early period During the development of Islamic architecture, the premises of mosques, religious educational institutions and other buildings were grouped around a large courtyard decorated with covered galleries. The most famous masterpieces landscape art, reached
to this day, are the gardens in Spain.
The Arabs applied the experience of Egypt and Rome in constructing irrigation structures and created a powerful hydraulic system where they used the melting of snow on mountain peaks, turning waterless Spain into a flourishing land.
A new type of garden has emerged in Spain - Spanish-Moorish (patio).
It resembles the garden of a medieval monastery and the atrium-peristyle garden Ancient Rome. The patio was small in size - from 200 to 1200 m2, surrounded by the walls of the house or a high stone fence and was a continuation of the open-air premises. His plan was distinguished by strict regularity. The main decorative elements were pools, canals, and miniature fountains. Much attention was paid to paving, due to the hot climate of Spain, which did not allow the use of lawn. The paving on the patio was two-color, organized with river or sea pebbles. Majolica (colored tiles) was used. It was used to line the bottom and edges of reservoirs, and lined retaining walls and benches. The main colors are blue, green, yellow, as if softening the heat.
Natural conditions. The climate is hot and arid, which forced the use of irrigation. Frequent dry winds, sand, and dust provided the basis for the construction of powerful walls around it.
Vegetation . Preference was given to evergreen species (boxwood, myrtle), which formed trimmed hedges or borders. They grew thujas, laurels, oleanders, almonds, orange and tangerine trees, and cypresses. The walls of buildings in cool colors served as a good backdrop for lemon trees and jasmine.
Flowers did not play a decisive role in landscaping. They were mainly valued for their aromatic properties. Rose and jasmine were especially popular. Wisteria, magnolia, agave, irises, daffodils, and mallows were widely used.
Water and its meaning. Paradise is identified with an ideal garden and its abundance of water. It usually reached the edge of the reservoir and even overflowed. The correct shape of a container with water in the center of the garden or at the intersection of paths symbolized stability.
The location of the garden was always chosen taking into account the source of water.
Fountains were initially used as filters to purify water from insect larvae, but later, when the variability of flowing water was appreciated, they began to be used for the pleasure of the eyes, and the noise - “as music for the ears.”
Water devices Spanish-Moorish gardens are divided into types:
- channels,
- narrow streams,
- swimming pools,
- fountains.
The specific features of the gardens of this time are:
Compositional relationship between the architecture of the building and the gardens;
Lack of common axial structure.
The interior is so fused with the courtyards that it is not always clear whether the visitor is inside or outside. This is achieved by the fact that the transition from the house to the garden was decorated with arches, and the gardens and interiors were decorated with identical plants.
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completed her career in sciences, art, and architecture
existence, giving way to a new era of feudalism.
Period
time,
numbering
millennium between the fall of Rome (end of the 4th century) and
the Renaissance in Italy (XIV century), called
the Middle Ages, or the Middle Ages. It was
time
formation
European
states,
constant internecine wars and uprisings, time
affirmations of Christianity.
In the history of architecture, the Middle Ages are divided into
three periods: early medieval (IV-IX centuries),
Romanesque (X-XII centuries), Gothic (late XII-XIV centuries). Change architectural styles not significantly
is reflected in park construction, since during this period
gardening art, which is the most
vulnerable of all forms of art and more than others
requiring peaceful existence for its existence
situation, suspends its development. It
exists in the form of small gardens at monasteries and
castles, i.e. in territories relatively
protected from destruction.
The Middle Ages period, which lasted
almost a thousand years, did not leave exemplary gardens, did not
created his own gothic style garden architecture. Types of gardens:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Monastery Garden
Castle gardens or feudal gardens
“Meadows of Flowers” – for tournaments and social fun
"Gardens of Love" Medieval gardens in Europe have shrunk significantly
sizes compared to the ancient ones, their
appointment. Decorative, walking gardens have become large
rarity and have shrunk to tiny areas sandwiched among
powerful walls of feudal castles and monasteries. These gardens
were mainly used for growing fruit and
medicinal plants. Monastery Garden
The gardens started first
arise
only
V
monasteries.
Medieval
monasteries
represented
are centers of science and
art
feudal
peace. Being relatively
protected
from
destruction
in
time
numerous
medieval wars and civil strife they became centers in
which remained and to some extent developed,
park art. Here semantics were developed
the concept of an ideal garden - paradise. Monastery gardens were compositionally associated with
architecture of the buildings surrounding it and were filled
symbolism reflecting the knowledge of God by the human soul -
The Garden of Eden is a garden planted by God, sinless, holy,
abundant in everything that a person needs - this is an indispensable and
characteristic feature is the presence in the garden of everything that can
bring joy not only to the eye, but also to hearing, smell, taste,
touch - all human senses. Flowers fill paradise
colors and fragrance. Fruits serve not only as decoration,
equal to the colors, but also delight the taste. Birds not only announce
the garden by singing, but also decorate it with their colorful appearance, etc.
This original paradise was surrounded by a fence, behind which
God expelled Adam and Eve after their fall. Therefore the main
"significant" feature Garden of Eden- its enclosure.
Such a garden was often called "hortus conclusus" - " indoor garden".Limited area determined small dimensions
monastery gardens. They were characterized by a rectangular
layout of leveled courtyards, closed from
surrounding "sinful world". Garden layout and plants in
it, were endowed with allegorical (religious) symbolism. Garden,
separated by walls from sin and the intervention of dark forces, became
symbol of the Garden of Eden.
The monastery courtyard, usually square, was divided into narrow
paths crosswise into four square parts (which
had symbolic meaning– a cross formed by paths,
was supposed to remind of the torment of Christ). In the center, on
at the intersection of paths, a well or fountain was built, like
a symbol of purity of faith and inexhaustible grace.
Often the central place was occupied by the “tree of life” or
“tree of knowledge” – tree of paradise – small orange
tree or apple tree - a symbol of the loss of the paradise state -
a symbol of the unity of good and evil, for the fruits of good and evil grow on it
evil. According to their purpose, the gardens were divided into apothecary gardens with
all kinds of herbs and medicinal plants, kitchen
gardens with vegetable crops for the needs of the monastery and fruit
gardens. Small Orchard inside the monastery courtyard was
symbol of heaven. It often included a monastic
cemetery. Monasteries at that time were, perhaps, the only
place where they provided medical care, both monks and
and pilgrims. Cultivation of medicinal plants has become
an important concern of medieval gardeners. Pharmaceutical
the vegetable garden was usually located in the courtyards, next to
a doctor's house, a monastery hospital or an almshouse. IN
Both medicinal and ornamental plants were grown there.
plants, as well as plants that could serve
dyes. Flowering and fragrant plants brought
the beauty of apothecary beds. But beautiful flowering plants
not much was bred in the Middle Ages, there was not enough for them
places in gloomy castles and cramped cities. On small
patches of land, sparingly illuminated by the sun due to high walls
and roofs, only a few favorites were grown
plants... In the herb gardens grew lilies, gladioli, rosemary, mint,
sage, rue and others useful species plants, which also
they were also beautiful. The aesthetic principle was present in
everything that was in the garden, and here you could also find beds
with vegetables, fragrant herbs, flowers,
berry bushes, fruit trees- all this happened
necessary for monks who had their own household and
provided themselves with everything they needed.
It is noteworthy that the healing properties of plants in early
The Middle Ages was defined very simply: it was believed that
the plant itself, by its shape, shows which organs or parts
it heals the body. For example, wormwood, which looks like a curl, was thought to be a remedy for headaches; hairy dill and asparagus
help strengthen hair; roses and daisies, several
resembling the eye, cure eye diseases; sorrel,
similar to a tongue, it heals, and the lily of the valley with flowers,
resembling a drop, is an excellent remedy for paralysis... Since there were few gardens in the Middle Ages, grown
plants were highly valued and strictly protected. Certificate
how much attention was paid to gardens and flowers,
serves as a rescript of 812, in which Charlemagne ordered
about the flowers that need to be planted in his gardens. Rescript
contained a list of about sixty flower names and
ornamental plants. This list has been rewritten and
then spread throughout monasteries throughout Europe.
Certain laws were also established against those
who spoiled or destroyed plants. According to the law
time, a person who spoiled a grafted tree was threatened
burning your toes. And sometimes the one guilty of damaging someone else's
gardens were nailed to the pillory, cut off right hand And
condemned to eternal exile. The main feature of the monastery type of gardens was their
solitude, contemplation, silence, utilitarianism.
Some monastery gardens were decorated with trellis
gazebos, low walls to separate one area from
another. Among the monastery gardens, the St. Gallen Garden in Switzerland was especially famous.
Monastery of Saint Gall, located in the Swiss
city of St. Gallen, was in the Middle Ages one of the largest
Benedictine monasteries in Europe, founded in 613 by St.
Gallom.
The monastery library of medieval times has been preserved here.
manuscripts, which has 160 thousand storage units and
reputed to be one of the most complete in Europe. One of the most
interesting exhibits is the "Plan of Saint Gall",
compiled at the beginning of the 9th century and representing
an idealized picture of a medieval monastery (this
the only architectural plan surviving from the early
Middle Ages). "Plan of Saint Gall" Plan of the medieval monastery of St. Gall
1. The doctor's house.
2. Garden of medicinals
plants.
3.
Monastic
courtyard - cloister.
4. Orchard and
cemetery.
5. Vegetable garden.
6.
Household
ponds. Cloister (from Latin Claustrum - closed place) - covered
a bypass gallery framing a closed rectangular courtyard
or indoor garden monastery Usually the cloister was located
along the wall of the building, while one of its walls was blank, and
the second was an arcade or colonnade. Often a cloister
They also called the open courtyard itself, surrounded by a gallery. In the Middle Ages, the cloister courtyard certainly had
in the center there was a well, from which there were paths dividing
yard space into quadrants. The cloister was usually attached
to the long southern façade of the cathedral. One of the first images
The cloister can be seen on the plan of the St. Gallen monastery in Switzerland.
The cloister was the center of life of the monastery, its
main communication center, place of meditation and scholarship
work. The cloister played a significant role as a place
solemn processions at Easter or Christmas. The labyrinth garden is another technique that was formed in
monastery gardens and took a strong place in
subsequent park construction.
If the Romans used the labyrinth motif in decoration
mosaics and frescoes, Christians turned it into a symbol
obstacles to salvation. Labyrinths were often found in
interior of churches. In the Middle Ages for penitent pilgrims
on the floor of the temple, mosaic spirally winding paths were laid out, along which believers were supposed to
walk on your knees from the entrance to the temple to the altar along all the bends and
turns of the labyrinth. This punishment was imposed for
atonement for their sins for those who could not commit
pilgrimage to holy places. In the future, from performing a tedious ritual in
church labyrinths have turned to walks in gardens, where paths
separated by walls of trimmed hedges.
Occupying a small area, such a labyrinth created
the impression of an endless length of paths and gave the opportunity
take long walks. They say in such labyrinths
the hatches of the secret underground passage were hidden. Maybe,
This is exactly the kind of labyrinth Jeff Saward wrote about in his book
“...the labyrinth is perceived as an island of calm in
chaotic world, a quiet place intended for reflection and
contemplation. The winding path of the labyrinth invites
visitor to clear your mind, refresh your soul, moderate your ardor,
slow down..." Labyrinth gardens Subsequently
labyrinth gardens
got
wide
distribution in regular and even landscape parks in Europe.
In Russia there was such a labyrinth in the Summer Garden (not preserved), in
regular part of Pavlovsk Park (restored) and the park
Sokolniki, where its roads looked like intertwined ellipses,
inscribed in the spruce massif (lost). Modern labyrinth gardens Castle gardens or feudal type of gardens.
Gardens in castles had a special character. Feudal
the gardens, unlike the monastery ones, were smaller,
located inside castles and fortresses - were small
and closed. Flowers were grown here, there was a source -
a well, sometimes a miniature pool or fountain, and almost
always a bench in the form of a ledge covered with turf - a technique
which subsequently became widespread in
parks. They had covered alleys of grapes,
rose gardens, apple trees were grown, as well as flowers planted
in flower beds according to special designs. Castle Gardens Castle Gardens
were
usually
under
special
supervision of the hostess
castle
And
served
small
an oasis
peace of mind
among
noisy
crowds
inhabitants
castle,
filled
his
yards.
Here
same
were grown
How
medicinal herbs,
and poisonous, herbs for decoration and having symbolic
meaning. Special attention devoted to fragrant herbs. Their aroma answered
ideas
O
heaven,
delightful
All
feelings
person, but another reason for them
cultivation was that
castles and cities, due to
low sanitary conditions,
were full of bad odors. IN
medieval gardens were planted
roses taken by the crusaders
from the Middle East.
In the first centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, roses
Europe, classified as pagan, wicked, sinful
luxury were destroyed, and only a century later again
appeared in the gardens. Plants with valuable
healing
properties
become in the Middle Ages
basis
spirits
And
cosmetic
funds.
Such kindergartens were called
gardens of “scientific women”,
who invented the first
aromatic drugs. IN
countries
Europe
V
Middle Ages people almost
didn't wash and to beat off
smell, smeared themselves
odorous
mixtures
from
dozens of ingredients, so
the first perfumes appeared. “Sweet-smelling” plants were grown - roses, lilies,
primroses, violets, cornflowers, - not only for use in
rituals, decorations, but even in foods. Violets were added
in salads. Primrose, violets, pink petals and hawthorn in
mixtures with honey and sugar constituted a favorite delicacy.
First mention of flower garden roses and violets
dates back to approximately 1000. It was at this time that such decorative
elements such as flower beds, trellises, pergolas, there is a fashion for
potted plants. Aromatic plants, flowers and exotic indoor plants were grown in pots.
plants that came to Europe after the Crusades.
More extensive gardens were created at the castles of large feudal lords
not only for utilitarian purposes, but also for recreation. Near the defensive fortifications of the castle,
“meadows of flowers” – gardens for tournaments and social fun. Big
fame
enjoyed
gardens
Emperor Charlemagne
(768-814), they were divided into
utilitarian and “funny”.
"Funny"
gardens
decorated
lawns,
flowers,
low
trees,
birds
And
menagerie.
In the late Middle Ages
“gardens of love” appeared:
gardens intended for
love
privacy,
dates, and also just for
recreation
from
noisy
court life. Such gardens were in
small pools in the center
For
bathing.
Here
played music, had conversations,
read
books,
danced
played various games.
Nice image
such
"garden
love"
preserved in miniature
"Garden of Pleasures" Young
people bathe in the Fountain
Youth", drinking wine and
enjoying
music.
A joint
bathing
V
small pools for men
and women quite often
depicted in medieval
miniatures. Bathing together
small
swimming pools
men
And
women
enough
often
depicted
V
medieval
miniatures: apparently
there was nothing in it
amazing in conditions
"municipal"
life
medieval castles and
cities where solitude
was welcome, but not
always available. Basic
objects
gardening
art
Middle Ages:
- monastery gardens
- internal cloister gardens,
- pharmaceutical gardens,
- fruit (paradise) gardens,
- labyrinth gardens
- feudal gardens
- decorative and utilitarian gardens,
- amusing gardens,
- pleasure groves (flower meadow and garden of love).
The Middle Ages were characterized by the use of achievements
ancient natural science and theory of gardening art and
their further improvement. We can highlight the following
peculiarities
gardening
construction
Middle Ages:
geometric layout of internal gardens; privates
planting and pruning trees; labyrinth; symbolism. Laboratory and practical work No. 3
"Plan of the medieval monastery of St. Gall."
style features:
5. Vegetable garden.
6. Economic ponds.
axial construction;
usage
symmetry;
formation
closed
compositions
essential elements:
1. The doctor's house.
2. Garden of medicinals
plants.
3. Cloister.
4. Orchard and
cemetery
After the fall of the Roman Empire, for many centuries, the dominant role in European society began to be played by the church instead of secular culture. Monasteries became centers of education: there were libraries, hospitals, schools; at monasteries for economic needs small gardens were laid out.
The Roman tradition of public parks for citizens was forgotten. The monks who worked in the garden were primarily guided not by aesthetic considerations, but by practical benefits. Spicy herbs, vegetables and fruits were grown in the monastery gardens - in fact, these were vegetable gardens that supplied the monastery with food. Usually vegetable gardens were located outside the monastery fence. There were also apothecary gardens - medicinal plants were grown there, they were set up near a hospital or almshouse at the monastery. In many cases, given the low level of development of medicine in those years, the healing properties of the plant were determined by the symbolic meaning attributed to it, and not by medical practice. Plants that produced bright dyes (some of them were even poisonous) were also cultivated there: before the invention of printing, books were written by hand by learned monks, and natural dyes were needed to design footers, illustrations, and capital letters in manuscripts.
But at the same time, the fundamental principle of the very idea of a garden has never been forgotten - this is Eden, the Garden of Eden, created by God, beautiful, full of plants, birds and animals, replete with everything that man needed. After the Fall, Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden. Therefore, any attempt by man to build a garden on earth was interpreted as a kind of “return to Eden,” an attempt by man to realize paradise on earth. Thus, the orchard was interpreted as a symbol of heaven and was supposed to remind the monastic brethren of Christian virtues.
Narrow paths crosswise divided the garden into four parts - this detail, of course, had a symbolic meaning. At the crossroads in the center there was a well, a reservoir, and perhaps a fountain for drinking water and watering plants. The source of water had the meaning of a symbol of the purity of the Christian faith. Grew up there ornamental plants and fruit trees, and, of course, flowers. If there was room in the garden for a pond, fish were bred there for fasting. Exotic plants, especially roses, brought to Europe during the Crusades gained great popularity. The Madonna was often identified with the rose, and the lily was also a symbol of the Mother of God. Each plant in the garden had a symbolic meaning.
All monastic orders, even mendicants like the Franciscans, who for a long time were prohibited by statute from owning land other than a small vegetable garden, cultivated gardens. Many monasteries became famous and are still remembered precisely for their gardens and vegetable gardens.
Kings and nobility in the Middle Ages also paid considerable attention to gardening: Charlemagne’s decree concerning the flowers that needed to be planted in his gardens has been preserved; the list included about six dozen names. The lords arranged gardens at their castles; caring for the garden was one of the main responsibilities of the mistress of the castle. Behind the fence, next to the defensive walls, “meadows of flowers” were arranged for knightly tournaments and entertainment for the nobility.
In those years, castle gardens were arranged according to the same principles as monastery gardens. Great importance had cultivation herbs: it was, firstly, one of the few ways to diversify the medieval cuisine, which was rather meager even in rich houses, and secondly, spicy aromatic plants emitted nice smell. The Gardens of Eden, recreated by man on earth, provided food for all five senses. Trees - apple trees, plums, apricots, cherries nourished the taste. Flowers delighted the eye, spices delighted the sense of smell, and the birds that lived in the gardens enchanted the ears with their singing. We can proudly admit that the glorious medieval tradition of gardening continues today in every Russian summer cottage.
Apothecary gardens of the Middle Ages and their further development(question No. 17).
The term “pharmaceutical garden” is narrow; it implies a garden or small vegetable garden for growing medicinal plants for a specific pharmacy. The first mention of apothecary gardens in Europe dates back to the Middle Ages. Monasteries at that time enjoyed universal fame and respect, and were, perhaps, the only place where medical care was provided to both monks and pilgrims, so it was simply impossible to do without temple medicinal gardens. The cultivation of medicinal plants became an important concern of medieval gardeners. The apothecary garden was usually located in the courtyards, next to the doctor’s house, the monastery hospital or almshouse.
In addition to the most common plants that have emetics, laxatives, bactericidal, etc. properties, a considerable part of the cultivated plants could be occupied by plants with psychotropic, intoxicating and narcotic effects (which were then accepted as manifestations of supernatural forces), since the mystical component of the healing process, that is, special rituals, was still of very great, if not dominant, importance.
The creation of medicinal gardens was also encouraged by Charlemagne (742-814). Evidence of how much attention was paid to gardens in the Middle Ages is the rescript of 812, by which Charlemagne ordered those plants that should be planted in his gardens. The rescript contained a list of about sixty names of medicinal and ornamental plants. This list was copied and then distributed to monasteries throughout Europe.
Among the monastery gardens, the St. Gallen (or St. Gallen) Garden in Switzerland was especially famous, where medicinal plants and vegetables were grown. The Monastery of St. Gall (St. Galen) was founded approximately in 613. The monastery library of medieval manuscripts has been preserved here, which numbers 160 thousand items and is considered one of the most complete in Europe. One of the most interesting exhibits is the “Plan of Saint Gall”, compiled in the beginning. 9th century and representing an idealized picture of a medieval monastery (this is the only architectural plan preserved from early Middle Ages). Judging by this plan, there were: a monastery courtyard - a cloister, a vegetable garden, a flower garden for church services, a garden of medicinal plants and an orchard, which was a symbol of paradise, and also included a monastery cemetery.
The library also preserved documents from which it follows that the monks not only bred medicinal plants themselves, but also collected them throughout Europe and even exchanged plants with the countries of the Islamic world, and also brought them from Crusades. The monastery book depositories contained works of ancient authors and works of great scientists of the East, translated by monks into Latin, which contained invaluable information about the types and properties of plants. This is how the first collection gardens appeared. They were small in size, and the plant collections in them were presented, placed in beds, with medicinal, poisonous, spicy plants used in medieval medicine, and some types of decorative ones. It was these gardens that were the forerunners of the display of useful plants in modern botanical gardens. Small sizes, usually not exceeding several hundred square meters, made the planning structure of the botanical garden of that time relatively simple. So, for example, the apothecary garden in St. Galen, mentioned earlier, as can be judged from the surviving plan, consisted of 16 departments with various useful, ornamental and other plants. The plant displays in this garden were small rectangular areas with regular ridges.
Plan of the monastery of St. Gall.
1. The doctor's house. 2. Garden of medicinal plants. 3. Monastery courtyard - cloister. 4. Orchard and cemetery. 5. Vegetable garden.
Later herb gardens, established at university botanical gardens for educational purposes, were also designed as beds. Although these beds contained many new plants and were arranged according to new scientific principles, the beds themselves remained the same geometric shape and simple layout. For example, in the garden laid out by the Society of London Apothecaries in the 17th century, such beds exist to this day.
Since the 14th century. Monastery apothecary gardens are gradually turning into medical gardens, in the activities of which fundamentally new features can already be noted. Unlike medieval monastery gardens, medical gardens now have not only a narrow practical significance. They laid the foundation for work on the primary introduction of plants, collected local and foreign plants, described them and brought them into a certain system.
The formation of botanical gardens as scientific institutions dates back to the Renaissance. This was greatly facilitated by the wide distribution at that time scientific knowledge and, in particular, natural sciences. The first scientific botanical gardens appeared in Italy at the very beginning of the 14th century. (garden in Salerno -1309), where, in comparison with other European countries, by that time the most favorable socio-historical preconditions had developed for the formation of new socio-economic relations, for the creation and further flourishing of a new humanistic culture and, in particular, the brilliant flourishing science and art. True, until the first half of the 18th century. plant displays in most medical botanical gardens remained few in number, differing little from medieval monastery gardens. They were located in the garden area in the form of separate groups of medicinal and some other plants, used mainly in medicine.
Starting from the 16th century, with the development of university life, the number of botanical gardens in Italy increased significantly: gardens appeared one after another in Padua (1545), Pisa (1547), Bologna (1567), etc. Somewhat later, in the 17th century, botanical gardens were created in other European countries: at Paris (1635) and Uppsala (Sweden) universities (1655), in Berlin (1646), Edinburgh (England) - the Royal botanical garden (1670), etc.
The rapid accumulation of plant material in botanical gardens required its scientific generalization and systematization. Linnaeus, the founder of plant taxonomy, came out with his “Plant System” in 1753 and developed the first harmonious artificial system for classifying plants. Linnaeus divided plants into 24 classes, basing each of them on arbitrary characteristics, and thereby created new method systematization flora. Linnaeus's plant system gave rise to numerous studies and aroused great interest in the description of plants. A few years after the publication of Linnaeus’ system, the number of studied and described plants reached 100 thousand. Since then, Linnaeus’ taxonomist and botanist have become almost identical concepts. The botanical garden of that time was like a living herbarium for taxonomy. Aesthetics took a back seat here. Botanical gardens, as a kind of botanical laboratories at universities, demonstrating various plant systems, received widespread in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Gradually, in the process historical development botanical gardens, they have a new function - educational and pedagogical.
The history of botanical gardens in Russia is closely connected with the origin and development of Russian botanical science. Already by the beginning of the 17th century. in our country there was a lot of information regarding practical use various plants both in the agricultural field and in medicine. Methods of using medicinal plants and descriptions of their medicinal properties were usually described in various “herbal books”, which were especially widespread in the second half of the 17th century. During the first half of the 18th century. In connection with the development of medicine and the increasing need for the production of medicines, the number of pharmaceutical gardens in Russia is rapidly increasing. Along with the first botanical garden in our country opened in 1706 at Moscow University, other gardens were organized: in Lubny in 1709, in St. Petersburg (now the garden of the Botanical Institute named after V.L. Komarov) in 1714. In the decree Peter I on the establishment of the St. Petersburg apothecary garden says that the latter was created “for the multiplication of apothecary herbs and the collection of special herbs, which are the most necessary natural resources in medicine, and also for teaching doctors and pharmacists in botany.” Among the collections of plants in this apothecary garden we find: chamomile, sage, mint, mustard, thyme, juniper, peonies, lavender, various bulbous plants, roses, etc. The foundation of the botanical garden of the Academy of Sciences on Vasilievsky Island in St. Petersburg dates back to the same time, in the first third of the 18th century. Only very fragmentary information has been preserved about this garden, found in the archive materials.
From the second half of the 18th century. in Russia, along with state ones, numerous private botanical gardens began to be created. Collecting rare exotic plants At that time it became a fashion that every more or less wealthy person paid tribute to. From this passion for collecting plants arose many botanical gardens of the time, in particular famous gardens P. Demidov in Moscow, A. Razumovsky in Gorenki near Moscow, etc. Some of them contained large, even in our time, collections of introduced plants. Thus, in the botanical garden of A. Razumovsky in Gorenki, up to 12 thousand species and varieties of Russian flora were presented. The botanical garden of the industrialist P. Demidov was established in 1756 and included up to 5 thousand species and varieties of plants in its collections.
IN late XVIII V. The first botanical parks appeared in Russia - arboretums, which were laid out entirely in landscape style in accordance with the artistic tastes of the time. Such dendrological parks, which occupy an intermediate position between the botanical garden itself and an ordinary park, include the famous parks - Trostyanetsky in the Chernigov region, Sochi arboretum and Sofievsky near Uman in Ukraine, which have survived to this day.
In the first half of the 19th century. newly built botanical gardens, both in Russia and abroad, were created mainly as educational gardens at universities. Subsequently, gradually, as botanical knowledge increases, the range of activities of botanical gardens expands more and more. So in late XIX and the beginning of the 20th century. rapid development of cities began, a large scale of industrial construction, the emergence in connection with this of the most complex urban planning problems - the redevelopment and landscaping of cities, the creation of a protective forest park belt around large settlements etc. - all this has confronted botanical gardens around the world with the task of determining the most rational assortment of plants and developing effective methods greening cities and building parks.
Modern botanical gardens are actively involved in solving these problems; here ornamental plants are selected and studied, gardens begin to act as promoters of certain techniques and methods of landscaping. More and more exhibition areas are appearing in botanical gardens - gardens of individual crops, continuous flowering, exemplary corners of parks. At the same time, botanical gardens are increasingly promoting botanical knowledge and the study of living nature.
In the layout of botanical gardens, under the influence of the development of the free landscape direction, which has become widespread in the art of park planning, elements appear landscape style. Its artistic and aesthetic basis was the task of creating an idealized landscape. In connection with the new artistic tasks facing the art of park construction, the problems of studying decorative properties plants and their harmonious combination. In botanical gardens, scientific gardeners analyze artistic features and dendrological properties of various species, methods of their design, possible groupings of plantings in parks and other important conditions for creating a landscape.
So gradually, in the process of their historical development, botanical gardens from apothecary gardens of the Middle Ages have turned into a complex organism in our time. It should be noted that changes in botanical gardens occurred primarily under the influence of the general development of botanical science and changing requirements for the scientific and botanical content of the work of a botanical garden. On the other hand, the changes were organically connected with general development gardening art.
A modern botanical garden is a complex organism with an area of up to many tens and even hundreds of hectares, with the recreation in certain areas of the garden of entire geographical landscapes and botanical-historical exhibitions (rock gardens, Japanese, Italian gardens, etc.), which cannot do without landscape an architect who achieves artistic unity of all the diversity of elements that make up the botanical garden.
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Monastery Gardens
In the Middle Ages, the main role in setting up gardens was played by monasteries, which owned vast lands with forests, fields and meadows. Behind the monastery wall were hidden: a decorative orchard, a utilitarian vegetable garden with small beds rectangular shape and, hidden from prying eyes, a heavenly courtyard. Based on modern knowledge and the experience of previous cultures, the monks cultivated all kinds of plants, first of all, they grew medicinal plants and cultivated vegetable gardens.
Paradise Court
Paradise Court was a must integral part monastery complex.
There was a real sense of nature here, nurtured by the tradition of the biblical paradise. When the monks worked in the garden, it was believed that they were purifying their souls with an earthly vision of the lost Garden of Eden. Paradise Court - inner space quadrangular in shape, closed by an ambita with a covered arcade. This type of garden has its counterparts in the Roman peristyle. In the center there was a source of clean water, most often it was a clean water tank or a well; sometimes a pool was set up there to raise fish used for preparing Lenten Christian food. The territory of the paradise courtyard was divided by paths to the source into four sections correct form. Very rarely, low trees or bushes were planted here; as a rule, flowers to decorate the monastery church and medicinal herbs were grown in the neatly cultivated beds of the paradise courtyard. Since ancient times, each flower has had its own symbolic meaning. For example, it symbolized the purity of the Virgin Mary, the red rose symbolized the shed blood of Christ, White Rose-queen of heaven -Mary, etc. Other wild and garden flowers also grew in the flower beds. We can admire the natural beauty of plants, especially flowers, captured by medieval masters, by looking at wall paintings, icons, manuscripts and embroideries preserved in Gothic monasteries.
An ancient indoor garden or part of it, depending on the type of planting and purpose, was called: herbarium - a garden specialized in growing medicinal herbs or flowers; gardinum - kitchen garden with vegetable beds and roots, if possible, in combination with an orchard; viridarium (no longer just a monastery) - a garden for recreation and entertainment (recreatione et solatio). The decorative orchard had only one function: here one could admire the blooming fruit trees and walked in their shade, often along the banks of a river, pool or pond.
The first herbarium with the character of a botanical garden appeared in 1333 in Venice, and soon Prague had a similar botanical garden.
Secular gardens of the Middle Ages
Own garden plots had not only palace complexes, but also other urban secular buildings, located own plot lands, more extensive gardens were laid out during hailstorms.
Some information about what secular gardens looked like in the houses of the nobility and medieval towns comes from poetry, literature, minstrelsy and troubadour songs. Illuminated miniatures and manuscripts contain descriptions of the composition, atmosphere and details of late Gothic gardens. These gardens have always had a fence, stone walls often supplemented with towers with pavilions, sometimes with a moat with water. Stone, plank or brick ones were laid between the rectangular beds. Among the beds with vegetables and roots, as a rule, they did not forget to create beds with plants for: repelling insects, preparing a “love potion,” and also making poisons.
Images of landscape parks are already found in medieval paintings.
Covered with turf, the low wall was a kind of medieval one. In the middle of the garden there was usually a stone well or iron fountain for drinking water, sometimes with a pool for bathing, as well as a tank for watering plants and a stone table for food.
Even then, evergreen trees and bushes were trimmed, giving them bizarre shapes and placed in stone vases.
Occasionally in the garden there were labyrinths, the ornament of which was created from low bushes, the design of which led to the center in complex ways. was made in the similarity of the patterns on stone floors Gothic cathedrals.
City gardens were invariably an integral part of the knights' way of life, accompanied by gallant courtship, music and dance. In some gardens that belonged to wealthy owners, colorful birds flew freely, and noble peacocks often walked around. In the copper garden enclosures lived not only warblers, blackbirds and starlings, but also pheasants and wood grouse.
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