Most of the country became part of the USSR, but the history of the Ukrainian national movement did not end there and even received a new impetus. The Bolsheviks, whose position in the early years of Soviet power was extremely unstable, did their best to earn the loyalty of the population, acting not only with a stick, but also with a carrot. In particular, on the outskirts of the former empire, the new government strengthened its position, flirting with local nationalists. This policy manifested itself most clearly in Ukraine, where the Bolsheviks launched a whole state program to Ukrainize everything and everyone. Who and how built a new nation in Soviet Ukraine - in the material "Lenta.ru".

In the fight against chauvinism

“A decisive struggle against the remnants of Great Russian chauvinism is the primary task of our party,” declared Joseph Stalin in 1923. The Father of Nations was absolutely right in his logic.

The victory in the Civil War only partially consolidated the power of the Bolsheviks. They broke the organized resistance, but some discontent persisted in certain layers of the intelligentsia, workers and peasants. In March 1923, Lenin suffered a third stroke, retired from political activity, and everyone understood that his days were numbered. The question of maintaining power after the death of the leader was in the air.

In addition, local nationalists have firmly settled in the leadership of the union republics, in the same Ukraine. Although they recognized the Soviet power, the memory of how the "bourgeois nationalists" at one time were independent rulers haunted the proletarian nationalists. How will they behave if the central government is weakened or is unable to promptly resolve the problems arising here and there?

For the sake of appeasing local rulers and stabilizing local power, the Bolsheviks in April 1923 at the XII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) proclaimed a policy of indigenousization aimed at replacing the Russian language and culture in the union republics with the languages ​​and culture of representatives of national minorities. This was presented under the slogan of fighting the very Great Russian chauvinism, which was associated with the imperial past of Russia.

The main denouncers of Great Russian chauvinism and supporters of Ukrainization were (Radomyslsky), Nikolai Skrypnik (Skrypnik), (before the revolution he lived under the name Moisha Dolgolevsky) and Joseph Stalin (Dzhugashvili). The participants of the congress quite consciously and persistently supported the Ukrainian culture as opposed to the Russian culture.

For example, this is what Zinoviev said: “I cannot agree with those comrades who said at the Ukrainian conference: two cultures are fighting in Ukraine; which wins - we don't care. So, comrades, you cannot reason. The school of Comrade Lenin teaches us in the national question that we must actively help those nations that have been oppressed and driven out until now. "

Other speakers shared a similar opinion. It is not surprising that indigenousization at the 12th Party Congress was adopted as an official course in the national question.

The Bolsheviks, declaring the struggle against Great-Russian, Great-Power, Great-Russian chauvinism, were essentially talking about the same thing. The question is what exactly they meant by Great Russian chauvinism. Ideology aimed at promoting national superiority was mixed with the right of the Russians of Ukraine to study, read newspapers and watch plays in Russian. In the process of forced Ukrainization, the Bolsheviks took away from the people the natural right to use their native language.

Positive discrimination

Immediately after the proclamation of indigenousization in Ukraine, its regional version begins - Ukrainization. The decree of the Central Executive Committee () and the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) of the Ukrainian SSR "On measures to ensure the equality of languages ​​and on assistance in the development of the Ukrainian language" really declared the equality of languages ​​in Soviet Ukraine. On the paper.

But equality was guaranteed only if, within a certain administrative-territorial unit, the national "minority" was more than 50 percent of the population. Naturally, such cases were more the exception than the rule. So there was no equality.

And this circumstance did not suit the leadership of Soviet Ukraine. Emmanuel Quiring, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Communist Party, said: “We cannot confine ourselves to recognizing the formal equality of nations, since it will lead to de facto inequality. Now the Ukrainian language and culture must be placed in a privileged position. "

Officials who did not speak Ukrainian were ordered to learn it within a year, otherwise they would be fired. For those who were just about to enter the civil service, knowledge of Ukrainian became a prerequisite, despite the fact that the number of educated people who could cope with the duties of civil servants and knew the Ukrainian language was clearly insufficient.

The Ukrainian media played an important role in the success of Ukrainization. If at the beginning of the process there was practically no press in Ukrainian, by 1933 373 out of 426 periodicals of the Ukrainian SSR were published in Ukrainian. Their total circulation exceeded 3.6 million copies, which accounted for 89 percent of the total number of print media.

Book publishing deserves special attention. In the early 1920s, books in the Russian and Ukrainian languages ​​were published in Ukraine in approximately the same print run - half a million pieces each. However, the further, the more this ratio changed. The number of Russian books in 1925 peaked at two million, but later dropped to about one million.

The circulation of books in the Ukrainian language grew steadily: before the Great Patriotic War it was already 6.5 million. A similar picture persisted until the collapse of the USSR, when the market, and not party decrees, demonstrated that it is more interesting for the inhabitants of Ukraine to read in Russian, and not in Ukrainian.

The success of Ukrainization largely lies in the fact that by the beginning of the revolution, the population of Ukraine for the most part consisted of semi-literate peasants, deprived of a clear national identity. But in the early 1920s, three major events took place simultaneously. Peasants went to cities en masse to become workers. The Bolsheviks announced an educational program to teach yesterday's peasants to work in factories. And then the indigenization began.

Coming to the cities, they perceived the culture and the language that were offered to them and which allowed them to realize themselves. If by the beginning of Ukrainization two-thirds of the population of Ukraine were illiterate, then by 1934 there were no more than eight percent of them. School education was almost entirely in Ukrainian. Ukrainian did not use Russian at all.

Much of the merit in the matter of Ukrainization belongs to the then General Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party. Stalin praised him: "None of the previous secretaries in the Ukraine have resorted to such strong pressure in carrying out Ukrainization."

Dominant nation among fraternal peoples

Simultaneously with the people, the party apparatus also became Ukrainian. And he even walked ahead, as the duty of any communist demanded. After all, it was the party leadership that developed and applied in practice the specific provisions of indigenization. In 1920, Ukrainians made up 20 percent of the Ukrainian Communist Party. However, already in 1933 this figure had tripled.

The number of Russians has naturally decreased. Their situation generally worsened, since it was necessary to know the Ukrainian language in order to enter the civil service. Those who could not learn Ukrainian or did not use it in the workplace, no matter for what reasons, were to be fired.

The Ukrainians suddenly, but quite clearly, became the titular and even the dominant nation. And representatives of other peoples, including Russians, preferred to Ukrainianize. This is how Volodymyr Zatonsky, the People's Commissar of Education of the Ukrainian SSR, described this situation: "Some people now call themselves Ukrainians, since the status of the ruling nation is beneficial in all respects."

Ukrainization was carried out so quickly that the leadership of the Ukrainian SSR experienced a shortage of local Ukrainian qualified personnel. To solve this problem, the Soviet government invited Ukrainian political and public figures from emigration, including outspoken nationalists. The total number of returnees was up to 50 thousand people.

Ukrainian literature has come a long way to reach the level that exists at the moment. Ukrainian writers have contributed throughout the entire time, from the 18th century in the works of Prokopovich and Hrushevsky and ending with contemporary works by authors such as Shklyar and Andrukhovych. Literature has been developing and enriching for many years. And I must say that modern Ukrainian writers are very different from the authors who laid the foundation for Ukrainian literature. But one thing remained unchanged - love for the native language.

19th century literature

In this century, Ukrainian literature acquired figures who glorified the country throughout the world with their works. With their works, Ukrainian writers of the 19th century showed the beauty of the language. It is this era that is considered the beginning of the formation of national thinking. The famous "Kobzar" became an open statement that the people are striving for independence. Ukrainian writers and poets of that time made a huge contribution to the development of the language itself and drama. Many different genres and trends have emerged in literature. These were novels, and stories, and stories, and feuilletons. Most of the writers and poets took the direction of political activity. Schoolchildren study most of the authors in the school curriculum, reading works and trying to understand the main idea of ​​each work. Analyzing each work separately, they bring out the information that the author wanted to convey to them.

Taras Shevchenko

He is rightfully considered the founder of national literature and a symbol of the country's patriotic forces. Years of life - 1814-1861. The main work is considered "Kobzar", which glorified both the author and the people all over the world. Shevchenko wrote his works in Ukrainian, although there are several poems in Russian. The best creative years in Shevchenko's life were the 40s, when, in addition to "Kobzar", the following works were published:

• "Gaidamaki".
• "Hire".
• "Khustochka".
• "Caucasus".
• "Poplar".
• "Katerina" and many others.

Shevchenko's works were criticized, but the Ukrainians liked the works and won their hearts forever. While in Russia he was received rather coldly, arriving home, he was always greeted with a warm welcome. Later Shevchenko became a member of the Cyril and Methodius Society, to which other great Ukrainian writers belonged. It was the members of this society who were arrested for their political views and exiled.

The poet's life was full of events, both joyful and sorrowful. But all his life he never stopped creating. Even when he was doing military service as a recruit, he continued to work, and his work was saturated with love for his homeland.

Ivan Franko

Ivan Yakovlevich Franko is another outstanding representative of the literary activity of that time. Years of life - 1856-1916. Writer, poet, scientist, he almost won the Nobel Prize, but his early death prevented him from doing so. The extraordinary personality of the writer evokes many different statements, since it was he who was the founder of the Ukrainian radical party. Like many famous Ukrainian writers, in his works he revealed various problems that worried him at that time. So, in his works "Gritseva School Science" and "Pencil" he shows the problems of school education.

It is worth noting that Franco was a member of the Russophile society, which existed at that time in Transcarpathia. During his membership, he wrote his works "Folk Song" and "Petriya and Dovbushchuki". Frank's famous work is also his translation of Faust into Ukrainian. For his activities in society, Ivan was arrested for nine months, which he spent in prison.

After his release from prison, the writer temporarily dropped out of the literary society, so he was ignored. But this did not break the poet. During the time that Franco spent in prison, and later, when he came out, he wrote many works that reveal human shortcomings and, conversely, show the breadth of the human soul. His work "Zakhar Berkut" won an award at a national competition.

Grigory Kvitka-Osnovyanenko

The years of the life of the writer are 1778-1843. The main stage of his work falls precisely on the 19th century, it was during this period that he created most of his masterpieces. Being a very sickly boy, while blind until the age of six, Grigory began his career only in his student years. He studied in Kharkov and it was there that he began to write and send his works to the magazine for publication. He wrote poetry and short stories. This was the beginning of his work. The novels written in the 30s in the Ukrainian language became real works that deserved attention:

• "Marusya".
• "Konotop witch".
• "Soldier's Portrait".
• "Serdeshnaya Oksana" and others.

Like other Ukrainian writers, Gregory also wrote in Russian, as evidenced by the novel "Pan Kholiavsky". The author's works are distinguished by a beautiful literary style, simple expressions that are easily perceived by the reader. Kvitka-Osnovyanenko showed excellent knowledge of all aspects of the life of both a peasant and a nobleman, which can be observed in his novels. Based on the story of Gregory, the play "Trouble in a district town" was released, which was the predecessor of the famous "Inspector General".

20th century literature

Ukrainians distinguished themselves with their works due to the fact that many of them dedicated their works to the Second World War. Ukrainian literature went through a difficult period of development at that time. Partially forbidden, then studied at will, it has undergone many corrections and changes. But all this time Ukrainian writers did not stop creating. Their works continued to appear and delight not only the Ukrainian reader, but also other connoisseurs of literary masterpieces.

Pavel Zagrebelny

Pavel Arkhipovich Zagrebelny is a writer of that time who made a huge contribution to literature. Years of his life - 1924-2009. Pavel spent his childhood in a village in the Poltava region. Then he studied at the artillery school and went to the front. After the war, he entered the university in the city of Dnepropetrovsk and only there began his career, publishing the collection "Kakhovskie Stories" in the magazine "Rodina". Among the author's works there are such famous ones as:

• "Steppe flowers".
• "Europe, 45".
• "Southern comfort".
• "Wonderful".
• "I, Bogdan".
• "First Bridge" and many others.

Anna Yablonskaya

Anna Grigorievna Yablonskaya is another literary figure that I would like to talk about. The years of the life of the writer are 1981-2011. Since childhood, the girl was fond of literature and drama. Firstly, her father was a journalist, wrote feuilletons, and largely because of him, she developed a passion for literature. Secondly, from school, Anna began to write poems and read them with pleasure from the stage. Over time, her works began to be published in Odessa magazines. In the same school years, Yablonskaya performed at the theater of Natalia Knyazeva in Odessa, which later staged a play based on Yablonskaya's novel "The Door". One of the most famous works of the author, about which Ukrainian writers speak, was the play "Camcorder". In her works, Anna skillfully showed the pros and cons of society, combining different facets of family life, love and sex. At the same time, there was not even a hint of vulgarity, and not a single work shocked the viewer.

Anna died very early in the terrorist attack at Domodedovo airport. She did not manage to do much, but what she did left an indelible mark on the literature of that time.

Alexander Kopylenko

Alexander Ivanovich Kopylenko was born in the Kharkov region. Born 08/01/1900, died 12/01/1958. I have always strived for knowledge and study. Before the revolution he studied at the seminary, then traveled a lot, which gave him a lot of experience and impressions for further literary activity. Was in Poland, Czech Republic, Germany, Georgia. During the war 1941-1945. worked on the radio, where he conducted programs for partisan detachments. After that he became the editor of the Vsesvit magazine and worked closely with many directors, screenwriters and writers. His poems were first published in 1922. But most of all he wrote prose:

• "Kara Krucha".
• "Wild Hops".
• people ".
• "Solid material", etc.

He also has children's works, such as:

• "Very good".
• "Tenth graders".
• "In the woods".

In his works, the writer wrote about many problems of that time, revealed various human weaknesses, covered historical events and battles during the civil war. Kopylenko's works have been translated into many foreign languages ​​of the world.

Contemporary Ukrainian writers

Modern Ukrainian literature does not lag behind in terms of the number of outstanding people. Nowadays, there are many authors whose works are worthy of being studied in schools and translated into different languages ​​of the world. We present to you a list of not all modern authors, but only the most popular ones. Their popularity was taken according to the rating. To compile the rating, Ukrainians were interviewed, who were asked several questions about contemporary authors and their works. Here's a list:

1. L. Kostenko.
2. V. Shklyar.
3. M. Matios.
4. O. Zabuzhko.
5. I. Karp.
6. L. Luzina.
7. L. Deresh.
8. M. and S. Dyachenko.

Lina Kostenko

It is in the first place in the rating of modern Ukrainian writers. She was born on March 19, 1930 in a family of teachers. Soon she herself went to study at the Pedagogical Institute, and then at the Moscow Literary Institute. Her first poems, written in the 50s, immediately attracted the attention of readers, and the book "Travels of the Heart" put the poetess on a par with outstanding literary figures. Among the works of the author are such works as:

• "Over the banks of the eternal river".
• "Marusya Churai".
• "Uniqueness".
• "The Garden of Non-Fading Sculptures".

All of Lina Kostenko's works are distinguished by their individual literary style and special rhyme. The reader immediately fell in love with her work and is looking forward to new works.

Vasily Shklyar

While still a student, Vasily created his first work - "Snow". Living in Armenia at that time, he wrote about the culture of this people, about their way of life and customs. In addition to the fact that Shklyar worked himself, like many Ukrainian writers, he translated many works from the Armenian language, which earned special respect. Readers are well aware of his works "Elemental", "Key". His works have also been translated into different languages ​​of the world, and book lovers from different countries are happy to read his prose.

Maria Matios

Maria published her first poems when she was fifteen years old. Later Matios tried her hand at prose and wrote the short story "Yuryana and Dovgopol". The writer is loved for her works saturated with meaning. Among her books of poetry:

• "A female fence in the garden of impatience."
• "From grass and leaves."
• "Garden of Impatience".

Maria Matios also created a number of prose works:

• "Life is short"
• "Nation"
• "Sweet Darusya"
• "Diary of the Executed and Many Others".

Thanks to Maria, the world met another talented Ukrainian poetess and writer, whose books are read abroad with great pleasure.

Children's Ukrainian writers

Separately, it is worth talking about those writers and poets who create works for children. It is their books that children read with such pleasure in libraries. It is thanks to their works that children from an early age have the opportunity to hear beautiful Ukrainian speech. Poems and stories for toddlers and older children are what authors such as:

• A. I. Avramenko.
• I.F.Budz.
• M.N. Voronoi.
• N.A. Guzeeva.
• I. V. Zhilenko.
• I. A. Ischuk.
• I. S. Kostyrya.
• V. A. Levin.
• T.V. Martynova.
• P. Punch.
• M. Podgoryanka.
• A. F. Turchinskaya and many others.

Ukrainian writers, the list of which is presented here, are familiar not only to our children. Ukrainian literature as a whole is very versatile and vibrant. Its figures are familiar not only in the country itself, but also far beyond its borders. Works and quotes of Ukrainian writers are published in many publications around the world. Their works are translated into dozens of languages, which means that the reader needs them and he is always waiting for new and new works.

At the end of the 18th century. the first university opens in Kharkov. A few years later, a significant group of people stood out from the student body, for whom the Ukrainian language is the language of everyday communication. Ukrainian-language journalism is emerging. The Ukrainian language “leaves” the village for the city, becoming the second, after Russian, language of the educated urban society. In Kharkov journalistic circles in the 20s of the XIX century. the first author's prose text appears - a story Maroussia from peasant life, written by Grigory Kvitka (1778-1843, pseudonym Gritsko-Osnovyanenko), who argued with his Petersburg acquaintance, P.A. Pletnev, that in the Ukrainian language you can write not only a parody, but also a "gentle" thing. In the Ukrainian stories of Kvitka from the life of the people, peasant life is really depicted.

The university awakens interest in studying the history of the region, folk art, and in the development of the world cultural heritage. This interest aroused the emergence of a "romantic" literary school - a corpus of Ukrainian-language texts written on the basis of folk art and processed in the traditions of the dominant aesthetics of that time - romanticism.

To the mystical folklore plot (the dead man's groom) and the European version of its processing (the poem Leonore Burger) the ballad rises Maroussia Lev Borovikovsky (1811-1889) (Russian version - Svetlana Zhukovsky).

The texts of Ambrose Mogila (Ambrose Metlinsky, 1814–1870), who became the first author-"ruiner", a singer of mysterious Cossack graves, are associated with historical folk songs about glorious Cossack antiquity. The future famous historian Nikolai Kostomarov, then a student at Kharkov University, writing under the pseudonym of Jeremiah Galka, also paid tribute to this trend. Kostomarov's texts became the first example of Ukrainian-language works written by a Russian-speaking author.

The folk love and "slave" lyrics draw inspiration from the "singer of his own grief" Viktor Zabila (1808-1869), and Mikhail Petrenko (famous for the song Puffing at the sky), author of popular romances Alexander Afanasyev-Chuzhbinsky (1817-1875).

The first Ukrainian women-authors also adjoin the circle of "romantics": Marta Pisarevska (1799-1874?), Who wrote Petrarch's song on the motives of Italian poetry; lyrics by Alexandra Psel. In the Ukrainian literary tradition, there is also a female legendary version of the Ukrainian "first author" - the poet Maria Churai, an illiterate woman who lived in the 17th century. and wrote songs in Ukrainian. Her legacy has not been written down and has not survived.

In the 1830s of the XIX century. There are already so many literary texts in Ukrainian that the first literary almanacs begin to appear in Kharkov: "Ukrainian Almanac" (1831) by Sreznevsky and Roskovshenko, "Morning Star" (1833) by Petrov, "Zaporizhzhya Starina" (1833-1838) by Sreznevsky, later " Sheaf "(1841) by Korsun and" Molodik "(1843–1844) by Betsky.

The formation of the first St. Petersburg Ukrainian circle, inspired by a graduate of Kharkov University Yevgeny Grebinka (known for his romance Black eyes). Hrebinka owns the first realistic description of the native nature in Ukrainian literature. Taras Shevchenko finds his first listeners in the Grebinka circle. In 1841 Hrebinka published the first Ukrainian-language metropolitan literary anthology "Swallow".

The most significant project of the "romantic" period is the epic Ukraine, which began in the early 1840s 22-year-old Panteleimon Kulish, who decided to repeat the feat of Homer, using the latest ethnographic and philological research. From Cossack songs, own imitations of kobzar poetry, excerpts from epics ( Words about Igor's regiment), as well as chronicles ( Russian stories) and scientific works on history, he tries to compose a Ukrainian epic, writing it down in the Old Cossack language he himself reconstructed. Panteleimon planned to give his poem to folk singers to perform and believed that his new epic would turn the life of Ukraine, but he was able to write only the first song that covered 8 centuries of Ukrainian history. Later he himself called Ukraine"Fanatical imitation of people's thoughts."

Ukrainian literature in Poland and Russia.

The emergence of Ukrainian literature aroused interest in neighboring countries - Poland and Russia.

In Polish literature in the 20s of the XIX century. a circle of writers of the so-called "Ukrainian school" was formed (Malchevsky, Bogdan Zalessky, Goshchinsky, Olizarovsky, Groza, Grabowsky, Tchaikovsky, etc.) Around the same time, some of the Poles living in Ukraine began to write texts in Ukrainian ( Padura, Shashkevich, Tsenglevich). Later, Poles Ostashevsky, Sventsitsky and others wrote in Ukrainian. Poles' favorite Ukrainian subjects are fantastic Cossack knighthood, common ancient campaigns of Ukrainians and Poles. The most expressive figure in this circle is the “Ukrainian boyan” in Poland, Bohdan Zalessky (1802–1886), whose mother was Ukrainian. The plot of the meeting in a foreign land of Gogol and Zalessky is known, after which they for some time wrote letters to each other in Ukrainian. Zalessky became the first "populist" in Polish literature.

The Pole Timko Padura (1801-1872), the court poet of Count Vaclav Rzhevussky, is known under the pseudonym Emir. Before the Polish uprising of 1831, he traveled all over Ukraine, agitating the people for an alliance with the rebels. I even went to the left bank of the Kotlyarevsky; wrote to Ryleev, who speaks Polish - trying to gather a council to solve the problems of the Polish-Ukrainian-Russian alliance.

The Ukrainian school in Polish literature also made itself known later: the "balaguls" of the 40s and 50s of the 19th century. (radical street poetry) gave their performances in Ukrainian. Anton Shashkevich was the “king of the balagulov”. Finally, from the same source came the "cotton-manism" of Antonovich, Rylsky, O. Yurkevich, Ostashevsky, Pavlin Sventsitsky (Pavel Svoy). "Khlopomanov", who merged with Ukrainophiles already in the XX century, published in Poland the magazine "Przeglad Krajowy" (1909), which was the organ of the "Ukrainians of Polish culture" movement.

Ukrainian plots in Russian literature of that time are well known - Poltava and Hussar Pushkin, Voinarovsky Ryleeva, Ukrainian melodies Nikolai Markevich, the legacy of early Gogol.

Taras Shevchenko. Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood.

The late 1830s also saw the appearance in St. Petersburg of a young serf artist, Taras Shevchenko, who in 1838 was ransomed from captivity by the artist Karl Bryullov with the poet Vasily Zhukovsky. In 1843-1847 Shevchenko twice visited Ukraine and in Kiev joined a secret brotherhood - the "Society of the United Slavs" under the patronage of St. Cyril and Methodius. The initiator of this partnership was Nikolai Kostomarov, a lecturer at Kiev University. .

The brothers (as the members of the society called themselves) strove to create a federation of free Slavic peoples on the basis of equality and independence. However, not having time to properly form, the brotherhood was scattered, the brothers were exiled to prisons and exile. Kostomarov - to Saratov for seven years under police supervision, Kulish - under supervision in Tula for three years, and Shevchenko - to Orenburg as a soldier with a ban on writing and drawing. Russian colleagues did not react to the "Kiev catastrophe" in any way, violating, in the opinion of Ukrainians, the norms of noble behavior.

In the 50s, literary life in Ukraine freezes. Shevchenko secretly writes in exile "A small (" free-for-all ") booklet" (mainly lyrics in a folk song spirit), as well as several Russian-language stories ( Princess, Painter, Twins) and a diary.

Panteleimon Kulish in exile tries to write an autobiographical novel in Russian Eugene Onegin of our time, the romance begins Black advice- a long calculation about the state insignificance of the Little Russians and the need for Ukraine to be in an alliance with a more cultured Russia. In exile, Kostomarov writes historical works, makes ethnographic expeditions, meets schismatics and sectarians.

Petersburg period: "Basis", Shevchenko's death.

Late 1850s - early 60s of the 19th century in Russian-Ukrainian relations, perhaps the most productive time. On the eve of the abolition of serfdom, Russia is in bright hopes and "joyful fussiness." Brothers are returning to Petersburg from exile. Kulish appears here earlier than others. He is finalizing Black advice, which became the first novel in Ukrainian literature. In 1857 he opened his own printing house, where he published Ukrainian books - "Notes on Southern Russia", new editions of Kotlyarevsky and Kvitka, his own Ukrainian grammar for public schools, intends to translate and publish European authors, compiles and publishes a literary collection Hut with texts by contemporary authors, including the first Ukrainian philosophical lyrics by Yakov Shchegolev (1824–1898), “tender” stories from the folk life of Mark Vovchok (Maria Markovich), close to the “Turgenev” letter, and others.

In 1858 Taras Shevchenko returned to St. Petersburg and joined the circle of the Sovremennik magazine. Now he is accepted everywhere with delight. In 1859, Kostomarov became a professor at St. Petersburg University, continuing to develop the idea of ​​a Slavic federation.

In January 1861 Kulish and Kostomarov began to publish the bilingual magazine Osnova, the first Ukrainian magazine of all-Russian importance. Here are published "ethnographers": Mark Vovchok and fabulist Leonid Glybov (1827-1893); Stepan Rudansky (1830–1873) with his funny anecdotes and Danil Mordovets (1830–1905), who later, together with Ts.Belilovsky, became caricatured characters of Ukrainian literature (“white-Mordovschina”). More radical authors, Anatoly Svidnitsky (1834-1871), who wrote a tragic story about the life of a dying seminarian, also collaborate with the magazine. Lyuboratsky; Galician Alexander Konissky (1836-1900). By the middle of 1862, deprived of a clear aesthetic or at least political concept, "Osnova", due to a lack of subscribers, was on the verge of financial collapse, and in October the last issue of the magazine was published.

Shevchenko died on March 10, 1861, and his funeral became one of the brightest events of the first year of "free" Russia after the abolition of serfdom.

The government at this time is better than ever before to the idea of ​​supporting the Ukrainian language. The February 19 manifesto was ordered to be translated into Ukrainian. The governors of Kiev and Yekaterinoslav publish their speeches to the people in two languages. A lot of Ukrainian material is published in Gubernskiye Vedomosti. In the fall of 1859, the first Ukrainian-language Sunday schools in Russia were opened in Kiev. In 1861, in the same place, the New Testament, translated by Pylyp Morachevsky, began to be published in Ukrainian. In the same year, the Ministry of Public Education (Minister A.V. Golovnin) attracted Kostomarov to the Commission for the Preparation of Education Reform, and at his suggestion, Ukrainian-language primary secular schools began to open in the villages in the Kiev educational district. To train teachers, a Temporary Pedagogical School is being opened in Kiev. In 1861 published Primer Shevchenko, in 1862 a textbook was printed Arichmetika abo shtnitsya Moroz, the first school edition comes out Basen Glybova.

Valuevsky circular.

In 1863, the intention of the Ministry of Education to "take over" public schools met with resistance from the Synod: public schools have always been one of the important sources of welfare for the church. And the Ukrainian version of the Gospel presents serious competition to synodal publications. For the sake of preserving its positions in education and publishing in Ukraine, the Synod begins a conscious struggle with the Ukrainian language.

In January 1863, an anti-Russian uprising began in Poland. Chief Prosecutor of the Synod Akhmatov writes to the Minister of Internal Affairs Valuev Note about the ties of Ukrainian intellectuals with Polish rebels and advises to stop the production of Ukrainian religious and educational literature. The tribune for the public campaign is Katkov's Moskovskie vedomosti, who has since established a relationship of trust with church leaders. The newspaper accuses the Ukrainophiles of collaborating with the Poles and striving to separate Ukraine from Russia.

July 18, 1863 Valuev publishes a circular on the censorship department banning the printing of Ukrainian religious and educational literature. Even earlier, the trustee of the Ukrainian educational district, Pirogov, was replaced by a representative of the Shikhovsky-Shikhmatov Synod, and teaching at the Temporary Pedagogical School was transferred into Russian. The publication of the New Testament ceases.

As a result of the Moskovskiye Vedomosti campaign, Kostomarov finally loses his professorship at St. Petersburg University. He goes into science, and Kulish closes in on his wife's family farm and writes Europeanized poems (collection Farm poetry), translates a lot and compiles an anthology of European poetry, undertakes to translate the Bible.

Kiev: Dragomanov. Emsky decree.

At this time, Mikhail Dragomanov graduated from the Philosophy Faculty of Kiev University. Growing up in a family where the elders were members of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood, he believes that the only correct future for Russia is a federation of free peoples. After the Valuevsky circular, he openly opposes the Russification of public education in the Kiev district and supports the Ukrainian-language schools that appeared within the framework of the zemstvos in Chernigov. One of Drahomanov's articles on this topic appears in St. Petersburg Vedomosti in April 1866.

Moskovskie vedomosti finds a direct connection between Drahomanov's article and Karakozov's shot, accusing Drahomanov of separatism.

Dragomanov is taken under police surveillance. This does not prevent him from beginning in 1867 to write a special column in the St. Petersburg News, aimed at polemics with Moskovskie vedomosti. He becomes Katkov's personal enemy.

Drahomanov made considerable efforts to transfer the center of literary activity to the foreign Ukraine - Galicia (then part of Austria-Hungary). In Lvov, with the participation of Drahomanov, the first Ukrainian newspaper Pravda began to appear in 1867, which soon became an all-Ukrainian organ. Drahomanov carries European, Russian and new Ukrainian literature to Lviv.

In 1874 a wave of arrests of "nechaevites" began in St. Petersburg. The Kiev students are also worried. After several denunciations of Drahomanov in 1876, the tsarist commission was sent to the university, which came to the conclusion that “all literary activity of the so-called Ukrainophiles should be classified as an encroachment on the state unity and integrity of Russia, disguised only in specious forms,” and that “the center of this criminal activity is currently in Kiev. "

On May 30, 1876, in the German city of Ems, the tsar signed a decree prohibiting the free import of any literature in the Ukrainian language into Russia, the use of the Ukrainian language in theatrical performances and reading in it publicly, as well as printing any books in Ukrainian, except for historical documents and works of fine literature.

Dragomanov was dismissed from the university, and in 1876 he emigrated. Only Galician youth publicly opposed his dismissal. Abroad he writes a brochure in French Ukrainian literature banned by the Russian government, and in 1878 took her to the World Literary Congress in Paris, where he presented it to Victor Hugo, Ivan Turgenev and other participants. In 1880 he began to publish in Geneva, which was at that time the European center of Russian emigration, the Ukrainian collection Gromada, in which he published some of Shevchenko's forbidden poems, works by Panas Mirny, articles by Herzen, etc.

Drahomanov's views on literature are linked to his political goals. “If we were lucky,” he wrote to the Galicians in the 70s, “to develop literature that is purely muzhik in language ... and at the same time, inspired by the lofty ideals of European civilization, then we would show something truly original among the cultural world, such as what the world would talk about ”.

Ukrainian literature in Galicia. Ivan Franko. The flourishing of "populist" literature.

Under the leadership of Drahomanov, from the 70s in Galicia, an experiment began to create "muzhik literature with European ideals." However, in relation to Ukrainian literature, Galicia is practically a “blank slate”.

Historically, Galicia was inhabited by Ukrainians, and the people in the villages spoke Ukrainian. But from the 14th century. Poles established their rule here. All the aristocracy in Lvov was Polish, the enlightened strata spoke and wrote in Polish. In 1772, with the collapse of Poland, Galicia came under the rule of Austria-Hungary. Deciding to overcome the Polish domination, the Austrian government staked on the reanimation of the "Russian spirit", and in 1784 a university for Rusyns was opened in Lvov (as the Ukrainians and Russians who lived in the city were called). Three years later, teaching in the "Russian language" began there. This language was a motley mixture of Russian, Ukrainian, Polish and Church Slavonic. For 18 years, from 1776 to 1814, in Galicia only four books were published in "paganism".

The literary life of the Rusyns in Galicia began in the 20s of the 19th century, when the circle of the Bishop of Snigur began to operate, but its members wrote in Polish and German. The first texts in Ukrainian appeared in the city in the 30s, when three students of the Lviv Theological Seminary - Markian Shashkevich (1811 - 1843) Ivan Vagilevich and Yakov Golovatsky (in the city they were called the "Russian trinity") began to study the folk language, collect folk songs and write your own poems in Ukrainian. They publish the results of their labors in a collection Mermaid Dniester... In 1837, the so-called "alphabet war" began in Lvov. Some (Osip Lozinsky) believe that it is necessary to write in the national language in Latin letters, others (M. Shashkevich) stood for the Russian spelling.

The church is also opposed to the introduction of Ukrainian here - Metropolitan Mikhail Levitsky, nicknamed "Herod", and his friend the censor Benedict Levytsky. They prohibit the translation of prayer books and even the Austrian anthem.

The older generation of the Ruthenian intelligentsia (Nikolai Ustyanovich, Anton Mogilnitsky, Bogdan Diditsky, Ivan Golovatsky, Ivan Gushalevich, Anton Petrushevich, Severin Shekhovich, Ivan Naumovich, etc.) writes in "paganism" in the style of Trediakovsky, praising the ancient Russian princely times.

After the Polish anti-Austrian uprising of 1846, in which the Ruthenians showed themselves to be real enemies of the Poles, the attitude towards them on the part of the Austrian authorities changed - censorship of Ruthenian and Ukrainian books was abolished, teaching in Ukrainian was allowed in gymnasiums and Lviv University. Ukrainian life intensified, several organizations and press organs appeared and disappeared, disputes over the "elementary" issue continued. In the magazines "Zarya Galitskaya", "Galitsko-Russian Bulletin", "Novosti", "Pchela", "Bulletin", "Lada", "Family Library" and there are poems and prose in Ukrainian. The most famous works of that time are Skete Manyavsky Mogilnitsky, and Equestrian Diditsky.

In the 60s, books by new Ukrainian authors - Shevchenko, Mark Vovchok, Kulish - began to be published in Galicia, and Osnova also came here. There are actually Ukrainian editions - "Vechernitsy", "Purpose", "Niva", "Rusalka". Among Ukrainian authors - Vladimir Shashkevich, Klimkovich, Vorobkevich (Mlaka), Zgarsky, Sventsitsky (Pavel Svoy).

The brightest Ukrainian foreign writer of this time was the Austrian officer Yuriy Fedkovych (1834–1888) from Bukovina (now Chernivtsi). He writes plaintive soldier's poems about longing for his native land, stories in the spirit of Mark Vovchok (translated by Turgenev). The strangest part of his legacy is Wonderful visions(reminiscent of sacred dramas), in which, among others, the saints who broadcast from the other world act.

Since the 70s in Lviv, under the influence of Dragomanov, all kinds of auxiliary literary genres begin to develop - criticism (Yevgeny Zgarsky, Emelyan Partitsky), manifestos and programs (Xenophon Klimkovich, Grigory Budevolya, Vladimir Shashkevich), lithosphere (Peacock Sventsytsky Anatoliy), memoirs Alexander Barvinsky), dictionaries (Evgeny Zhelekhovsky, (1840 - 1895), history of literature (Emelyan Ogonovsky), textbooks (Alexander Barvinsky), philological research (Ivan Verkhratsky), observations of culture from the point of view of economics (Navrotsky), etc. Yulian Romanchuk's compilation of the canonical list of "classics of Ukrainian literature".

Among the most famous writers of the 70s, published in Lviv, authors of non-Lviv origin predominate. These are Kiev playwright and prose writer Mikhail Staritsky (1840-1904), playwrights from Elizabeth (now Dnepropetrovsk) Mark Kropyvnitsky (1841-1910) and Ivan Tobolevich (Karpenko-Kariy, 1845-1907), prose writers Ivan Levitsky-Nechuy (1839-1918) ) and Afanasy Mirny (1849-1921), by that time Olga Kosacheva from Kiev (pseudonym Alena Pchelka), mother of Lesya Ukrainka, sister of Dragomanov. All of them gravitate towards ethnography and write about the painful Ukrainian history and the difficult life of the people in post-reform Ukraine.

The literary circle gathered around Franco feels comfortable - Drahomanov until his death (1895) provides the Lviv people with financial support from abroad, organizes translations of Ukrainian authors into European languages, arranges for Franko to finish his studies at the University of Vienna, etc. After the death of Drahomanov, the publication of Lviv magazines ceased, most of the writers of Franco's circle were left without income. The crisis does not last long - in 1898 the Lviv "Shevchenko Scientific Society", headed by prof. Hrushevsky, invites Franco to edit the Literary-Scientific Bulletin (LNV), which has become a new milestone in the history of Ukrainian literature.

In the 80s, the "populist" direction continues to develop actively - Boris Grinchenko (1863-1910), Dmitry Markovich, Stepan Kovalev (pseudonym Pyatka), Timofey Bordulyak (pseudonym Vetlin), Grigory Tseglinsky (pseudonym Grigorievich), Galician writers (Natalia Kobrinskaya , Julia Schneider and others), who published women's magazines ("The First Wreath", "Our Destiny"), etc. The figure of Pavel Grabovsky (1864-1902), the Kharkov fiery poet-revolutionary, the opponent of "pure art" became a peculiar symbol of the degeneration of populism ”, Who sent mountains of texts from prisons and exiles to Lvov, in which he spent his whole life. Among the literary exploits of Paul - the compilation of an anthology of world rebellious poetry (according to Russian sources, he translated about 50 authors from 25 literatures of the world, not being afraid to endow the translations with his own pathos and life experience). True, at the end of the 19th century. populism changed significantly under the influence of the most talented author of this trend, Vasily Stefanyk - the very language of presentation changed, and the idealization of the village and the muzhik, the aesthetics of the ethnographic sketch were completely eliminated.

Attempts to modernize Ukrainian literature.

Olga Kobylyanskaya, Lesya Ukrainka, "Young Muse".

At the end of the 1880s, new authors appeared in Ukrainian literature, understanding the tasks of literature not quite in the same way as the “populists”. There is a split in the community. It is provoked by a young writer Olga Kobylyanskaya (1863–1942), who lives in Bukovina (now Chernivtsi). In Bukovina cities, German was the language of everyday communication, it was also the native language of Kobylianska; All her life she wrote her texts, first in German, and then she herself translated into Ukrainian. Olga Kobylianska introduced many themes from modernist Western European literature into Ukrainian literature, shocked the literary community with the sensibility of her writing, Nietzsche's position, manifestos on the value of a separate human soul. Populist criticism accused Kobylyanskaya of contempt for the people, pornography, etc.

Friendship was struck between their peers - Kobylyanskaya and Lesia Ukrainka (Drahomanov's niece, Alena Pchelka's daughter). Les in his report Little Russian writers in Ukraine defended Kobylyanskaya from populist criticism and contributed to this development of a new direction.

Lesya Ukrainka herself (1871-1915) (real name Larisa Petrovna Kosach) wrote poetry in the spirit of the populist all her life, but all her critical works are devoted exclusively to the latest Western European literature. The dramas that she composed in the last 10 years of her life and which were not noticed by the critics have clear modernist signs - first of all, they are complex and full of conventions. In addition, 30-year-old Lesya Ukrainka herself called herself, like Olga Kobylyanskaya, “neo-romanticist,” meaning a pro-Western orientation. Over the next 50 years, authors seeking to distance themselves from populism often referred to themselves as “neo-romanticists,” and an orientation toward contemporary Western philosophy and literature became the first hallmark of Ukrainian modernism.

Nikolai Voronoi (1871-1938) proclaimed the need to update the literary process when compiling an almanac From under the clouds and valleys(1903). At the beginning of the XX century. the "modernists" in Lvov have their own printed organs - the publishing house "Young Muse", the magazines "Mir" and "Put", the newspaper "Delo". Authors - "modernists" of this time - Osip Makovei, Nikolay Voronoy, Alexander Oles, Nikolay Filyandsky, Gnat Hotkevich, Mikhail Yatskov, Ostap Lutsky. But their modernism of these authors did not produce profound changes in the aesthetics of writing and was mainly manifested in manifestos.

"Ukrainian Hut".

More tangible results were borne by the "modernizing" efforts of Nikolai Yevshan and his colleagues from the Kiev magazine "Ukrainian Khata" (1909-1914).

The main object of criticism of "Khata" was the "old" populism or Ukrainophilism in all its political and artistic manifestations. The poetry and prose of "Khata" were distinguished by their interest in psychology, sexuality, exoticism, which populist culture always bypassed. Here were published authors for whom the main thing in literature was the aesthetic principle - the same Voronoi, Oles, Filyansky and Hotkevich, as well as Vladimir Vinnichenko, Olga Kobylyanska, Mikhail Semenko. Pavel Tychina, Maxim Rylsky, Vladimir Svidzinsky, Pavel Bogatsky and the three most interesting figures of "Khata", its key theorists - Nikolai Yevshan, M. Sriblyansky (Mikita Shapoval) and Andrey Tovkachevsky made their debut in the magazine.

The magazine published many translations from the latest Western literature and philosophy (Maeterlink, Kierkegaard, Hamsun, Altenberg, Baudelaire, etc.), in addition to literary criticism, gave criticism of theater, music, visual arts, supporting new styles in all types of art. Criticism in "Hut" was based on aesthetic principles. The magazine also had a political orientation - nationalism combined with individualism. It is not the people, but the personality that changes the society, the “khatyans” believed. At the same time, the nationalism of the ideologues of "Khata" was cosmopolitan, as, incidentally, was the former Ukrainophilism, which advocated the political liberation of peoples in principle and the Ukrainian people in particular. "Khata" was an anti-Marxist publication, criticized proletarian internationalism, believed that the intention of the Russian Marxists to introduce the proletariat to the common human culture in fact meant Russification for them.

Ukrainian literature of the first Soviet decade. Futurism, neoclassicism, proletarian art.

After the establishment of Soviet power in Ukraine and before the famine and repression began, the literary process developed in several directions, with Kiev and Kharkov becoming its main centers.

Modernism-aestheticism in the spirit of the "Ukrainian Hut" - magazines "Put" in Kiev (1917-1919) and "Put" in Lvov (1915-1918). A departure from this type of "modernism" towards symbolism is demonstrated by the Literary Critical Almanac (Kiev, 1918) and Muzaget (Kiev, 1919).

Narodism of the old type continues to develop, which becomes the main object of criticism from the "new" proletarian art, which, in turn, assimilated its main theoretical principles.

An interesting phenomenon of this time - "neoclassicism", uniting the authors of the circle of the magazine "Knigar" (Kiev, 1917-1920): Nikolay Zerov, Victor Petrov, Pavel Filippovich, Mikhail Dry-Khmara, Maxim Rylsky, Oswald Burgardt.

Futurism appears under the influence of Russian futurism, the first printed organ of which was the magazine "Art" (Kiev, 1919-1920), edited by Gnat Mikhailichenko and Mikhail Semenko. The "avant-garde" enters the literary scene. Despite the conflicts between the representatives of the last two movements, in the late 1920s they showed significant similarities. Futurism (avant-garde) in art thought of itself as an analogue of socialism in real life. The politicized left-wing avant-garde, whose organ was Art, formed the basis of the “new,” proletarian art, which quickly became official. In the articles of G. Mikhaylichenko, V. Koryak, S. Viche a new style of criticism arises. Nikolai Khvylevoy is considered the "father" of proletarian art. Other outstanding authors of this trend were Stepan Radchenko and Vladimir Sosyura in the 1920s. True, the adherents of proletarian art, as a rule, stayed in the field of pre-war "modernism", continuing it or opposing it. But gradually this debate faded away.

Anti-fascist Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949).

An antifascist writer, a brilliant publicist exposed in his works Ukrainian nationalism, the atrocities of the OUN-UPA during the Great Patriotic War, the atrocities of the nationalist followers of S. Bandera in the western regions of Ukraine. He was hacked to death with an ax by Ukrainian nationalists.

Podmogilny, Petrov, Crimean.

In the 1930s, a new prose was born, consonant with the intellectual quest of modern European literature. These are the works of Valerian Podmogilny, Viktor Petrov and Agatangel Krymsky. Their novels are most often parables or dystopias. The style is ironic, skeptical. In an intellectual novel, there are many allusions, open and hidden quotes, polemics with writers, philosophers, scientists take place. Authors of this type of novel are indifferent to human characters - heroes symbolize certain views or psychological states. These novelists are interested in people outside of history and social life, they are, first of all, philosophers. Ukrainian intellectual novel of the 20-30s of the XX century. mostly pessimistic.

Bogdan-Igor, Antonich.

The 1930s include the work of the lonely Lviv poet Bogdan-Igor Antonich (1909–1937) - a mystical idealist, esthete, author who works with a complicated metaphor. In 1936 Galicia became part of the USSR, and Soviet functionaries tried to include the 27-year-old "bourgeois" and "clerical" Antonych in the "family" of Soviet writers, published several of his books and even awarded him a prize. But in 1937 Antonich dies. As the latest “non-Soviet” author available on the territory of the USSR, he had a significant influence on the formation of new Ukrainian and Russian literature, which was formed in the depths of the empire in the 60s and 80s. By this time, Antonich was banned, but his Black book read by students from all over Ukraine, and even in Leningrad there are underground translations of his poems.

"Shot revival".

In 1937, prisoners of the Solovetsky prison, Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists, were sentenced to death in the Sandromakh tract: Nikolai Zerov, Nikolai Kulish, Valerian Podmogilny, Grigory Epik, Valerian Polishchuk, Les Kurbas, and others.

Ukrainian literature in emigration: MUR. Socialist Realism in Soviet Ukrainian Literature.

In the 40s, as a result of World War II, many Ukrainian writers ended up in camps for displaced persons, mainly in Germany. An important stage in the development of Ukrainian literature is associated with the camp organization MUR (Mystetsky Ukrainian Rukh - Ukrainian Art Movement). One of the main initiators of the organization is Yuri Shevelev (pseudonym Sherekh). MUR existed for three years, held three congresses and several theoretical conferences, in particular, on issues of criticism and drama. As evidenced by the report of Yuri Sherekh, made at the congress of the Moscow Criminal Investigation Department, it was published, “more than 1200 books and pamphlets from different regions; about 250 of them are publications of original works from poetry, prose and drama. " The MUR designated its editions with the names of the series: "Golden Gate" or "Small Library of MUR". Ivan Bagryany, Viktor Domontovich (Viktor Petrov's pseudonym), Yuri Kosach, Todos Osmachka, Vasily Barka, Ulas Samchuk, Dokiya Gumennaya and others worked at the Moscow Criminal Investigation Department. Newspapers were published in the camps where literary matters were actively discussed, debates were conducted in almost ten literary camp magazines and almanacs - "Arke", "Link", etc. It was in the camp literary community that the final demarcation took place between the heirs of the populist ideology and the authors who were striving to modernize the literary process.

40-50th XX century. - For two decades, Ukrainian Soviet literature developed exclusively within the framework of "socialist realism." The most famous authors of Soviet literature are V. Vinogradsky, O. Gonchar, E. Gutsalo, P. Zagrebelny, I. Zub, A. Malyshko, B. Rogoza, A. Horunzhy, D. Tsmokalenko, V. Plyushch and others.

New York group.

A special phenomenon of Ukrainian literature is the "New York Group", consisting of the descendants of Ukrainian emigrants in the United States (Emma Andievskaya, Vera Vovk, Zhenya Vasylkivska, Patricia Kilina, Yuriy Tarnavsky, Bogdan Rubchak, Bohdan Boychuk, Yuriy Kolomiets, Oleg Koverko. 60s and tried to instill in Ukrainian literature the formal finds of American and Western European literature.The group had practically no influence on the formation of new literature in their historical homeland.

Sixties, post-sixties. Stus, Chubai, Kiev school. Contemporary Ukrainian literature.

On the territory of Ukraine, new literature appeared in the mid-1960s of the XX century. in the bosom of dissident groups. The most significant author of this time was the poet, literary critic and human rights activist Vasily Stus (1938–1985), who died in prison as a result of a hunger strike in protest.

In the 70s, several more outstanding figures appeared, generally developing the traditions of the "sixties" - I. Kalinets, G. Chubay, T. Melnichuk, J. Pavulyak. In the 70s, there was also the work of the "Kiev School of Post-Sixties", the leaders of which were Vasily Goloborodko, Nikolai Vorobyov, Mikhail Grigoriev and Viktor Kordun. In addition to them, the group included about 15 authors. The "Kiev School" proclaimed the "triune freedom" - freedom of creativity, freedom of the individual and freedom of the people.

The 80s were marked by the emergence of the literary group "Bu-Ba-Bu" (Burlesque - Balagan - Buffonada), created by Ivano-Frankivsk Yuri Andrukhovich, Lviv resident Viktor Nebarak and Kiev resident Alexander Irvants. In 1987-1991 they organized carnival performances in different cities of Ukraine, in which young intellectuals of the country took part.

Another Lviv literary group - LuGoSad (Ivan and Taras Luchuki, Nazar Gonchar, Roman Sadlovsky) as a whole is developing in a neoclassical direction. In Kiev, continuing the traditions of the "sixties", writes Oksana Zabuzhko.

In the 80s, Galicia again became the center of the literary life of Ukraine, which was smaller than other regions of Ukraine, underwent russification during the Soviet period. The cult predecessor of the new Galician school is the aforementioned Bogdan-Igor Antonich.

Formally, the emergence of new literature was evidenced in 1997 by the fact that a number of its members left the official Union of Writers, who established a new organization - the Association of Ukrainian Writers (AUP). The aim of the AUP was declared "to overcome the structural and ideological crisis in the literary environment of Ukraine, which arose due to the inability of the leadership of the Writers' Union of Ukraine (SPU) to reform the structure and conceptual foundations of the SPU to the level of compliance with the requirements of the modern situation." Yuri Pokalchuk was elected as the first president of the AUP, and Yuri Andrukhovich, Vladimir Morenets, Igor Rymaruk and Taras Fedyuk were elected as his deputies.

The group "New Degeneration" (Ivan Andrusyak, Stepan Pratsyuk, Ivan Tsiperdyuk - Ivano-Frankivsk), as well as Taras Prokhasko (Ivano-Frankivsk) and Yuriy Izdrik (Kalush) became an expressive phenomenon of the 90s. Among the youngest authors of the 2000s, it is worth mentioning Natalia Snedanko (Kiev), Sergey Zhadan (Kharkov).

In general, modern Ukrainian literature is characterized by stylistic and thematic multipolarity and an orientation towards Western culture. The most significant publications of the new Ukraine that pay attention to literature are the newspapers Knizhnik Revue and Literatura + (Kiev), the magazines Chetver (Lvov), I (Lvov), Kurier Kryvbasa (Kryvyi Rih), Suchasnist "(Kiev)," AVZHEZH "(Zhitomir)," Hygiene "(Kharkov)," Byzantine Angel "(Kiev)," Criticism "(Kiev)," Vsesvit "(Kiev)," Exil "(Uzhgorod), almanacs "Dogs of Saint Yura" (Lvov), "Pleroma" (Ivano-Frankivsk), "Potyag-76" (Chernivtsi), etc. The first attempt to structure the space of modern Ukrainian literature was "Small Encyclopedia of Actual Ukrainian Literature", compiled in 1998 by Vladimir Eshkilev and Yuri Andrukhovich.

Among the leading contemporary authors are Yuri Andrukhovich, Yuri Vinnichuk, Vladimir Dibrova, Yuri Izdrik, Sergei Zhadan, Oksana Zabuzhko, Evgeniya Kononenko, Oleg Lyshega, Ivan Malkovich, Viktor Neborak, Taras Prokhasko, Les Podervyansky, Valery Shevchuk, and others.

The novels of Y. Andrukhovich and O. Zabuzhko were translated into Russian and published in Moscow in 2001 and 2002, a book of poems by Sergei Zhadan was published in Moscow in 2003.

Literature:

Mikola Zerov. Writing in two volumes. Kiev, 1990
Sergiy Efremov. Literary critical statty... Kiev, 1993
Solomiya Pavlichko. Discourse to modernism in Ukrainian literature... Kiev, 1997
Volodymyr Eshkilev, Yuri Andrukhovich. Mala Ukrainian encyclopedia of actual literature... Ivano-Frankivsk, 1998



Historically, the Ukrainian people have always been creative, they loved to sing and dance, invent poems and songs, myths and legends. Therefore, for many centuries, truly great and talented people have worked in all parts of Ukraine.

Ukrainian literature is phenomenal and unusual in its essence. Famous Ukrainian writers described each historical stage metaphorically and topically. That is why quite real characters are looking at us through the lines from the yellowed sheets of paper. And we, delving deeper into the story, begin to understand what worries the author, inspires, frightens and encourages. It is quite possible to learn history from the masterpieces of Ukrainian literature - this is how events are described truthfully and sometimes painfully.

Who are all these geniuses of the pen who penetrate the soul with a word, make us laugh and cry with them? What are their names and how did they live? How did they come to success and did they find it at all? Or maybe they never found out that their creations brought them eternal fame and reverence, forever inscribing their name in the classics of Ukrainian literature?

Unfortunately, not all Ukrainian writers were able to enter the world literary arena. Many masterpieces have not been in the hands of the Germans, Americans, and British. Hundreds of wonderful books have not received their well-deserved prizes in literary competitions in France or Germany. But they are really worth reading and comprehending.

And although hundreds of the most talented people wrote on "Nightingale Move", perhaps it is worth starting with a unique and phenomenal woman. This genius poetess, whose lines express a storm of emotions, and the poems remain deep in the heart. And her name is Lesya Ukrainka.

Larisa Petrovna Kosach-Kvitka

Lesya, being a weak and small woman, showed incredible fortitude and courage, becoming an example to follow million people. The poetess was born in 1871 in the noble family of the famous writer O. Pchilki. At birth, the girl was given name Larissa, and her real name was Kosach-Kvitka.

Since childhood, suffering from a terrible disease - tuberculosis of the bones - Lesya Ukrainka was almost always bedridden. She lived in the South. The beneficial influence of the mother and the fascination with books (especially the master of Ukrainian literature - Taras Shevchenko) bore fruit.

From a young age, the girl began to create and publish in various newspapers. Like many famous Ukrainian writers, in her works Larisa adhered to the moods and traditions of T. G. Shevchenko, creating several cycles of lyric and philosophical poems.

About Lesya's work

Intrigued by magical mythology and world history, Lesya devoted many books to this topic. Most of all, she liked the novels about Ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, about humanism and human qualities, about the struggle against despotism and evil, as well as mystical stories about the undead and the nature of Western Ukraine.

It should be noted that Lesya Ukrainka was a polyglot and knew more than ten languages. This gave her the opportunity to make high-quality literary translations of the works of Hugo, Shakespeare, Byron, Homer, Heine and Mickiewicz.

The most famous works that are recommended for everyone to read are "Forest Song", "Obsessed", "Cassandra", "The Stone Lord" and "Songs about Freedom".

Marko Vovchok

There was another extraordinary woman among the famous writers of Ukraine. Many called her Ukrainian Georges Sand - as her patron Panteleimon Kulish dreamed of. It was he who became her first assistant and editor, giving her the first impetus to develop her potential.

Woman with a fiery heart

Marko Vovchok was a fatal woman. As a child, her mother sent her to a private boarding house, away from the bad influence of her father, then to Oryol - to a rich aunt. There, endless cycles of love began. Marko Vovchok - Maria Vilinskaya - was a very beautiful girl, so it is not surprising that crowds of gentlemen swirled around her all her life.

Among these gentlemen were well-known writers, whose names are well known to us. Even though she tied the knot (as she later confessed, not for love) with Opanas Markovich, her husband could do nothing with the attractive energy of this young lady. Turgenev, Kostomarov and Taras Shevchenko fell at her feet. And everyone wanted to become her teacher and patron.

"Marusya"

The most famous work of Marko Vovchok is the story "Marusya" about a girl who gave her life to help the Cossacks. The creation impressed readers and critics so much that Maria was awarded an honorary award from the French Academy.

Men in Ukrainian literature

The creativity of Ukrainian writers was also under the auspices of talented men. One of them was Pavel Gubenko. Readers know him under the pseudonym Ostap Vishnya. His satirical works made readers laugh more than once. Unfortunately, this man, who smiles at us from newspaper sheets and literature textbooks, had few reasons for joy in his life.

Pavel Gubenko

As a political prisoner, Pavel Gubenko honestly served the prescribed 10 years in a forced labor camp. He did not abandon creativity, and when the harsh authorities instructed him to write a cycle of stories from the life of prisoners, even there he could not resist irony!

The life of a writer

But life put everything in its place. The one who previously accused Ostap Vishnya himself ended up in the dock and became an "enemy of the people." And the Ukrainian author ten years later returned home and continued to do what he loved.

But these long years in correctional camps left a terrible imprint on the condition of Pavel Gubenko. Even after the war, returning to the already free Kiev, he still could not forget the terrible episodes. Most likely, the endless inner experiences of a man who always smiled and never cried led to the fact that he tragically died of a heart attack at the age of 66.

Ivan Drach

A short excursion into the work of Ukrainian writers is completed by Ivan Drach. Many contemporary authors still seek advice from this master of (self) irony, sharp words and humor.

The life story of a genius

Ivan Fedorovich Drach began his career as a seventh grader with a poem that was eagerly published in a local newspaper. As soon as the writer graduated from high school, he began teaching Russian language and literature in a rural school. After the army, Ivan enters the philological faculty of Kiev University, which he never graduated from. And all due to the fact that a talented student will be offered a job in a newspaper, and then, after the course, the writer will receive a specialty of a film dramatist in Moscow. Returning to Kiev, Ivan Fedorovich Drach begins to work at the famous film studio named after A. Dovzhenko.

For more than 30 years of creative activity, a huge number of collections of poems, translations, articles and even film stories have come out from the pen of Ivan Drach. His works have been translated and published in dozens of countries and appreciated around the world.

The eventful life tempered the character of the writer, brought up in him an active civic position and a peculiar temperament. In the works of Ivan Fedorovich, the moods of the sixties and children of war, thirsting for change and praising the achievements of human thought, are expressed.

Which is better to read?

It is better to start acquaintance with the work of Ivan Drach with the poem "The Pen". It is this that is life credo and conveys the leitmotifs that permeate the entire work of the genius poet and writer.

These famous Ukrainian writers have made an invaluable contribution to national and world literature. Dozens of years later, their works convey to us current thoughts, teach and help in various life situations. The work of Ukrainian writers has enormous literary and moral value, is perfect for adolescents and adults and will bring pleasure to reading.

Each of the Ukrainian authors is unique in its own way, and an unusual individual style from the first lines will help you to recognize your favorite writer. Such a writer's "flower garden" makes Ukrainian literature truly extraordinary, rich and interesting.