Barbarossa Haydreddin (1468-1547). Often the name of Haydreddin Barbarossa was mentioned among the pirates. However, he was not an ordinary robber. The outstanding sailor demonstrated his talent as a commander and organizer both as a corsair and as an admiral of the Sultan's fleet.

The future admiral of the Turkish fleet, named Azor, was born around 1468 on the island of Mytilini (Lesvos). The brothers Barbarossa, nicknamed because of their red beards, were Greeks, the sons of the potter Jacob Reis, who moved from the Balkans to Lesbos and converted to Islam when the island was invaded by the Turks. On a small ship, the sons of Reis began both naval service and robbery. When Urouge's brother was captured by the Knights of the Ioannites, Azor had to collect a ransom by piracy for several years in order to save him. Urouj, who had reached the position of ruler of Algeria, died in battle in the spring of 1518. Azor replaced him and continued the pirate robberies. Thousands of pirates of his brother's flotilla were in the hands of an experienced and calculating man. To get the necessary support, Azor Barbarossa declared himself a vassal of the Turkish sultan, received the title of beylerbey (bey over the beys) and 2000 janissaries. In 1519, he successfully resisted the Spanish attack on Algeria and killed the Spanish landing on the coast. However, the betrayal of some feudal lords forced Barbarossa to leave Algeria and settle first in the Jijeli harbor, and then on the island of Djerba, the pirate nest of the Barbarossa brothers. From here, relying on the troops provided by the Sultan, he began to reconquer Algeria and in 1525 returned it with the help of local population... In 1529, he finally drove the Spaniards out of the nearby island of Peñon. In May, Barbarossa concentrated about fifty ships against the island, and after sixteen days of shelling the fortress walls collapsed. The pirates rushed into the breaches, and by the end of the day on May 21, the fortifications fell completely. To eliminate the danger forever, Barbarossa drove thousands of prisoners, who built a huge pier that connected the island with the mainland. Algeria became the center of activity for Berber pirates.

On the advice of the chief vizier Ibrahim, the Turkish sultan in 1533 invited Barbarossa to take command of the Turkish fleet in North Africa... Haydreddin, then the self-styled "King of Algeria", arrived in the Golden Horn in the manner of the Roman conquerors - with his own fleet. The ships of his main force were splendidly decorated and laden with gifts for the Sultan. Barbarossa promised the Sultan to defeat his main enemy at sea, Andrea Doria. In 1534, he assumed command, strengthened the Turkish fleet to 84 galleys, and opened a 40-year period of bitter wars, culminating in the Battle of Lepanto.

In the spring of 1534, Barbarossa embarked on a devastating cruising expedition along the entire southern and northern coast of Italy, reaching Civita Vecchia in the north. Reggio, Messina, Naples, Fundi and other cities were destroyed. At one time Barbarossa was anchored off the Tiber Hill near Rome. Before returning to Tunisia, at the arrival of winter, he still managed to fall on Corsica and Sardinia. In August, the pirates took Guletta, a fortified town covering the approaches to Tunisia, and soon Tunisia itself, the latter being captured by Barbarossa through diplomacy. However, having already entered the city, he had to prove his domination with the sword.

In the spring of 1535, Christians retaliated. Under the command of Andrea Doria, 290 ships with troops were assembled. The emperor himself took part in the campaign. Doria locked up his old rival in Tunisia, captured the city, and handed over the rule to a Spanish vassal. However, the cunning Barbarossa hid the best galleys in Beaune, 200 miles west of Tunisia. Leaving the blockaded city, he passed through the scorching desert to Bona, from where he fled by sea to Algeria. After 10 months, Barbarossa destroyed Port Magon (the island of Menorca) and took 5,500 people into slavery. With captives taken in Menorca, in October Barbarossa arrived in Constantinople, to the Turkish sultan. Delighted by the rich booty, the Sultan on October 15, 1535, appointed the sailor commander of the entire Turkish fleet and the beylerbey of Africa. Based in Algeria, Barbarossa continued to raid the islands and cities of the Mediterranean. He tried to ravage Nice, devastated the Elba and the Aeolian Islands, then Bizerte and the island of Corfu. Thousands of captives became his prey.

In February 1536, a Franco-Turkish treaty was concluded, according to which Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent sent the fleet of Barbarossa to help the king. In 1536, on the way to France, the batteries of the port of Reggio fired on Turkish galleys. The city was ravaged by the Janissaries. In this city, an aging pirate found himself a young wife. In Marseille, Barbarossa was solemnly greeted. But Barbarossa repaid the meeting with an attempt to take Nice, and then the king had to pay a lot before he managed to expel the pirate flotilla, causing damage to the French coastal cities. On the way back, Barbarossa attacked the islands of Elba, Ischia, Procida and Lipari, capturing 7,000 prisoners and large booty. In the next campaign (1536-1537), the Turkish fleet under the command of Barbarossa captured Bizerte in Tunisia, created a threat to Naples, devastated several islands in the Aegean and Ionian Seas - the possession of Venice, the emperor's ally. In 1537, when Doria and Barbarossa clashed near Messina, he was the first to capture 12 Turkish galleys, but the pirate robbed the coast of Apulia in revenge, then attacked the island of Corfu.

In 1537, the united fleets of the Christian states under the command of Andrea Doria defeated Barbarossa at Messina. But he took revenge in Preveza Bay.

Barbarossa learned that Doria was gathering a powerful fleet of all Christendom countries in the Gulf of Lyons for a decisive strike against the pirates. Doria had 200 ships, including 80 Venetian, 36 papal, 30 Spanish galleys, 60,000 men and 2,500 guns. Barbarossa transferred forces twice as large to the Ionian Sea. On September 25, 1538, in the Gulf of Preveza, the two most powerful fleets met in calm. While it was calm, the opponents were inactive. When the wind blew into Barbarossa's back, it allowed him to maneuver and attack the enemy's helpless ships. The ensuing naval battle did not become decisive in the struggle between Christians and Turks. On the first day there were only skirmishes between the advanced galleys sent by Doria and Barbarossa. On the second day, September 26, 1538, when Barbarossa emerged from the narrow strait with the main forces, Andrea approached and maneuvered more seaward. Barbarossa lined up a fleet off the coast. However, the battle did not take place. At dusk, Andrea Doria, seeing the uncertainty of the situation, gathered his strength and, to the great disappointment of the Venetians, went to Messina. It is believed that the intentions of Emperor Charles did not include a general battle. Others write that a battle took place near an enemy-occupied coast on the eve of the season, when bad weather could lead to disaster. Some believe that Doria and Barbarossa had a secret intention not to engage in a general battle, because it was beneficial only to Venice, with which no one was on friendly terms. It was said that Barbarossa roared with laughter, boasting that Andrea had to "extinguish his lantern so that they would not see where he was running." The Turkish admiral announced his victory in order to remain a hero in the eyes of the Sultan.

In 1538-1540, Barbarossa continued successful military operations off the shores of the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, for which he received the honorary title of Khair-ed-Din (“Keeper of the Faith”) from the Sultan.

On October 20, 1541, over five hundred ships of the Christian fleet flying the flag of Andrea Doria approached Algeria. After the Algerians refused to surrender on October 23, the Spaniards landed 25 thousand people. However, a hurricane with a downpour in the evening of the same day threw dozens of ships on the rocks, scattered the tents of the camp, and in the morning an attack by the pirates of Barbarossa completed the defeat. Only on October 30, the remnants of the Spanish troops, fighting off their pursuers, were able to reach the place where they were taken aboard by the surviving ships.

Soon the pirates recaptured Djerba, where they erected a pyramid of the bones of slain Christians - the defenders of the island.

In 1543, the Sultan sent Barbarossa with a fleet to help the French king Francis I, who fought against the emperor Charles V. Haidreddin appeared at Marseilles at the head of a powerful, well-organized force, including 110 galleys. Following the order of the Sultan to help his new quasi-ally Francis I break the Spanish blockade of Marseille, Barbarossa did what Andrea Doria had done 30 years earlier. He helped Francis quickly capture Nice on August 22, 1543, for which the French provided him with a port at Toulon. Emperor Karl, who was in charge of operations in Germany, instructed Andrea Doria to support the planned operation to liberate Nice with the fleet from the sea. Again, Haydreddin and Andrea had the chance to meet on the high seas, commanding powerful forces... But at this time Barbarossa sailed to the port of Antibes, west of Nice. As it is now clear, he heard a rumor about the conclusion of a peace treaty in Greece between Emperor Charles and France.

After the conclusion of peace in 1544, on the way back, Barbarossa plundered and devastated the island of Elba, the cities of Telamo, Monteana, Porto Grecale, Orbetello with the islands of Giglio, Ischia, Progida, Lipari and the coast of the Gulf of Policastro.

The next year, Barbarossa, heavily laden with booty, headed west on a peaceful journey. When he came to Genoa, he ransomed his assistant Dragut, captured by the Genoese sailors. Later, Andrea Doria had to regret the release of Dragut, who became Barbarossa's successor.

On June 19, 1547, Suleiman concluded a five-year truce with the Habsburgs, which brought relative calm to the Mediterranean. This period coincided with the death of Hayr-ed-Din Barbarossa. Barbarossa, the "king of the sea" of the Muslims, died on 4 July 1547 in Constantinople. He retired when he was about 80 years old. The plundered wealth allowed him to become independent even from the Sultan. Kapudan Pasha built a magnificent palace over the sea, and nearby a mosque and a mausoleum of extraordinary beauty. Barbarossa was buried in the mausoleum. For many years, the ships of the Turkish fleet saluted, passing by the mausoleum of the famous Turkish naval commander.

Contemporaries noted the remarkable physical strength of Barbarossa, although he was of average height. His courage, dexterity and dexterity, knowledge of the laws of the sea helped him to successfully complete the most desperate undertakings. However, intelligence and decisiveness in attack, sagacity and courage in defense, efficiency and invincibility were combined in him with inexorable and cold cruelty.

Turkish ships were often named after Barbarossa. To a certain extent, he created the fleet that in the following decades fought for dominance in the Mediterranean.

Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa is a cult historical figure. It was his name that was named after the "lightning war" plan against the USSR. According to legend, Barbarossa sleeps in a rock and will come out from there when German empire will be reborn.
Who was Friedrich Hohenstaufen?
The Kingdom of Germany in the XII century was one of the most powerful powers in Europe and the core of the Roman Empire. This is what contemporaries called the union of the Italian, German and Burgundian kingdoms before it became the Holy Roman Empire in 1254.

The power in it was firmly held by noble families, from which the king was elected. Frederick's father was the Duke of Swabian Frederick One-eyed from the Staufen family, and his mother was Judith of Bavaria, who came from the no less noble family of Welfs. King Conrad III of Germany was his uncle.

Like all boys in noble families of that time, he learned fencing, horse riding, hunted and accompanied his father on campaigns. Despite the patronage of the arts, he remained illiterate until the end of his life and never learned to read and write.

According to the memoirs of contemporaries, the young man had by nature good health and physique, knew how to conduct a conversation, honored the knightly code and was known as an expert in military affairs. At the age of 25, he takes part in the Second Crusade, which ended in failure. For Friedrich, this was an excellent school in which he acquired both military and political experience. The leader of the campaign, King Conrad III, noticed him, and when in 1150 his own son Henry died, he appointed him as his successor. The coronation of the new German ruler took place in Frankfurt on March 4, 1152.
The first steps and wars of the emperor
Elected king by the German nobility, Friedrich Barbarossa wanted to further strengthen his power: for this he needed the crown of the emperor, traditionally given in Rome by the pope.
Having pacified the rebellious vassals in Germany, the young king could muster a fairly large and well-equipped knightly army, ready to march on Rome. The cities of northern Italy and the Roman townspeople became its main opponents in the long wars after the imperial coronation of 1155.

In total, the emperor made six Italian campaigns. It is no coincidence that it was the Italians, after the death of Frederick, who gave him the nickname Barbarossa (in Italian barba - beard, rossa - red). Politics in Italy has not always been soft. So, in 1162, he completely destroyed Milan, and settled the remaining inhabitants in four neighboring villages.

Frederick Barbarossa perfected the tactics of the knightly army. The core of his army was heavily armed knightly cavalry. It was she who was assigned the main role in battle - to break through the formation of the enemy, horse or foot, and break his main forces. The infantry, mainly consisting of peasants, at this time pinned down his flanks and finished off the rest.

However, this tactic did not always work - in 1176, Frederick, having met with the militia of the northern Italian cities at Legnano, was unable to break through the formation of pikemen at the head of the heavily armed cavalry, was knocked out of the saddle and almost died. The news of his "death", together with the blow of the Brescian cavalry to the flank, sowed panic in the ranks of the German army. The battle was lost, which, however, did not prevent Barbarossa from remaining one of the best generals of the Middle Ages.
Third Second Cross
Already in his old age, the powerful ruler Frederick Barbarossa had another chance to show the qualities of a real Christian knight. In 1187, Sultan Salah-ad-Din defeated the troops of the King of Jerusalem and captured the Holy Sepulcher. The crusade, the third in a row, went to the monarchs of the strongest states in Europe - the French king Philip II, English - Richard I, already during his lifetime nicknamed the Lionheart and the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa.

The latter was much older than his comrades-in-arms and the gathering of troops took him less time. In addition, the German emperor had the power and money to organize the campaign, was confident in himself and did not pay attention to political intrigues.

On May 11, 1189, the army of Frederick Barbarossa set out from Regensburg. He himself was the only European ruler to take part in the Crusade for the second time. However, when approaching Constantinople, it became clear that the emperor of Byzantium Isaac II was not really inclined to help the crusaders.

Overcoming obstacles, the army crossed over to Asia Minor and defeated the Seljuks at Iconium, where, according to the chronicler, Frederick fought like a lion. But the movement of the army to Jerusalem was stopped by the sudden death of the emperor.

Death Riddle
The death of Frederick Barbarossa is shrouded in mystery. It is traditionally believed that he drowned while crossing the Salef River in Armenia (present-day Turkey). However, the emperor's contemporaries already expressed doubts about this version. The emperor knew how to swim well and his soldiers were with him.
There is another version that the emperor stopped to rest on the banks of the river and decided to refresh himself in its waters. But the water turned out to be very cold and maybe a cramp, or maybe a desire to swim right after lunch, caused the death of almost seventy-year-old Barbarossa.

Be that as it may, the death of the leader forced many of the crusaders to turn back. And those who remained, struggling with diseases and the Seljuks, were unable to reconquer Jerusalem. The fate of the emperor's body is also unknown. It was embalmed to be taken to Germany, but it was not returned to its homeland. This gave rise to many legends in the minds of the emperor's admirers.
Legends of Barbarossa
Frederick Barbarossa was known, respected and feared by his contemporaries and their descendants. But the legend about him appeared only after the reign of his grandson, Frederick II, in the middle of the XIII century. Largely due to the fact that the latter managed to free Jerusalem from the infidels. The images of the Fredericks in the national memory were mixed (remember how the figures of Vladimir the Saint and Vladimir Monomakh merged in the epic Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko). Already at the end of the Middle Ages, the legend spread that Frederick Barbarossa did not die, but was sleeping in a mysterious mountain. The most common name was Mount Keefhäuser in Thuringia.

According to legend, the emperor sits at the table, and his long red beard wraps around the table. From time to time, Barbarossa wakes up and sends two ravens to see if the quarrels in Germany have subsided. When this happens, and the beard is wrapped around the table three times, the emperor will rise and put his hand in order.

We owe much to the spread of this legend and its literary processing to German romantics - scientists and writers who actively collected antiquities in the 19th century. Among them were the famous brothers Grimm. The ideal literary image created by them overshadowed the true face of the emperor - a representative of his time and his class. Frederick Barbarossa was a knight, rude to the peasants and courteous among the courtiers, recklessly brave in battle and cunning in negotiations, a cunning politician and a skillful, calculating commander.

- one of the most prominent representatives of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Born around 1123, he was the son of Frederick One-Eyed, Duke of Swabia, and as a young man he participated in the Second Crusade, where he won respect for his valor. Frederick I inherited the German and imperial throne after his uncle, Conrad III, in 1152. Friedrich Barbarossa's glorious reign, full of turbulent events and outstanding personal talents (this nickname means "Redbeard") made him a hero of legends and tales for a long time. German legends associated with the personality of Frederick I almost all the remarkable events of the Middle Ages. In inner life In Germany, the rule of Frederick Barbarossa was marked by the strengthening of royal power, achieved in a fierce struggle.

Barbarossa had a lively mind, was a pleasant companion, an excellent knight, an intelligent and talented sovereign. But in moments of anger, he was extremely harsh and often went to bloody atrocities to achieve his goal. His lust for power was immeasurable. Having barely accepted power, Frederick I began to prepare for a campaign in Italy in order to be crowned in Rome with the imperial crown and to strengthen the power of the German monarch over the Apennines. In his dreams, he dreamed of the restoration of the strength of the ancient Roman Empire in all its greatness. This task was not easy. On the way to the goal, Barbarossa had to face the papacy and the Lombard cities, which by that time had strengthened, became rich and became almost independent from the imperial power. But Frederick I, already in the first period of his reign, became convinced that even the European sovereigns (the kings of English and French), independent of him, are inclined, if not in deeds, then in words, to recognize the imperial supremacy. This kept the proud dreams of Barbarossa alive.

Frederick Barbarossa with sons Heinrich and Frederick

Pope Adrian IV then badly needed the help of Frederick, for he was fighting the Roman nobility. In 1143 she formed the Senate, seized control of the city into her own hands and forced the pope to flee from Rome to Viterbo. The Senate offered Barbarossa to receive the crown from the hands of the Roman people, but the king replied that he did not want the temporary favors of the restless crowd, and, if necessary, would take the inheritance of the fathers by force of arms. Having crossed the Alps, Frederick I at the end of 1154 acted as the supreme arbiter in the internecine conflicts of the Lombard communities and ruined those of them that he recognized as the culprits of the troubles. In the summer of 1155, Barbarossa's army approached Rome. Having entered the city, on the night of June 17-18, the Germans occupied all the approaches to St. Peter's Cathedral, and Pope Adrian solemnly crowned Frederick with the imperial crown here. But the Romans, dissatisfied with this, set out on the evening of the same day to attack the quarters of St. Peter. The whole evening there was a bloody battle. Although Barbarossa's soldiers repulsed the attack of the townspeople, the next morning, June 19, the Emperor and Pope had to leave the Eternal City. In September, Frederick I returned to Germany.

All this, however, only prompted the king to continue the struggle for Italy, which in the era of recent German troubles became almost independent of the emperors. To establish German domination in Italy, it was necessary to conquer it again. In 1158 Frederick Barbarossa set out on his second Italian campaign. Shortly before this, he had quarreled with his former ally - the papacy, which saw in the events of 1155 a sign of Germany's weakness. Pope Adrian IV in 1157 entered with Frederick I in a sharp wrangle over the origin of the imperial power. Like Gregory VII, Hadrian argued that the emperors, the main secular rulers of Christendom, receive the crown and power from his supreme high priests - the popes. Adrian and his successor Alexander III claimed to be overlords of the emperors and demoted Barbarossa to the rank of their fief.

The main goal of Frederick I was now the conquest of Milan, the strongest city of Lombardy, which had long been extremely independent. Barbarossa attracted all the German princes to the campaign and gathered a huge army. Mighty Milan, in response, rallied around itself other strong Lombard communities - Brescia, Piacenza, Parma, Modena. In August, Frederick I laid siege to Milan, and on September 1 it surrendered. The Milanese had to pay a huge tribute, hand over the hostages, relinquish the right to mint coins and charge a road toll. More importantly, they recognized the right of Barbarossa to establish elected heads of city government. The submission of Milan to the emperor was arranged very solemnly: the entire population of the city came to Frederick's camp and prayed for forgiveness and mercy. Frederick erected a castle in Milan and placed his garrison there.

This victory made a great impression on the Lombards. On November 11, 1158, Frederick convened a Diet at the Roncal field, where he announced to the Italians the principles on which he intended to rule their country. These principles, according to the old autocratic principles of Roman law, were formulated by the Bologna lawyers who served Barbarossa. Roads, navigable rivers, ports were to come under the control of imperial officials, and the collection of taxes and minting of coins henceforth became the exclusive prerogative of the imperial power. Frederick Barbarossa strictly demanded military service from local princes and cities and threatened to take away the fiefs from all disobedient ones. Civil strife was strictly prohibited. Representatives of the Lombard cities inevitably had to agree at the Diet to close subordination to the emperor.

The Roncal Sejm was supposed to make Frederick Barbarossa the complete master of Lombardy. However, soon after its closure, riots resumed. The Genoese declared that they would give Frederick only what he could show his property rights to. In January 1159, the Milanese revolted again, supported by the inhabitants of Crema and Brescia. Meanwhile, Frederick, relying on his first success, had already sent most of his troops across the Alps. The remaining forces were insufficient for a new siege of Milan. In July 1159, Barbarossa approached Crema, stubbornly besieged it for six months and, capturing this city in January 1160, destroyed it to the ground.

Meanwhile, in Rome, after the death of Adrian IV, opponents of Frederick elected Alexander III as Pope, and the supporters of the Emperor - Victor IV. Barbarossa called a council of faithful clerics in Pavia, which declared Alexander deposed. Alexander, in turn, excommunicated Barbarossa from the church, and freed his subjects from the oath. Having gathered his troops again, Frederick in May 1161 laid siege to Milan for the second time. The siege lasted for almost a year, until in March 1162 the city surrendered unconditionally. Frederick ordered all the inhabitants to leave with whatever property they could carry, and settle in four unfortified cities. Milan was ravaged to the ground. After that, Piacenza, Brescia and other cities surrendered to Barbarossa. Frederick I ordered the inhabitants to dismantle the city walls, pay an indemnity and accept the imperial governors into their cities - podest.

In 1163, Frederick Barbarossa began to prepare for a campaign against Rome. However, in Lombardy, Venice, Verona, Vicenza and Padua united in an anti-German league. In April, the imperial antipope Victor IV died. Paschal III, who was elected to replace him, had much fewer supporters than Alexander III. Barbarossa's forces were again insufficient. In the fall of 1164, he went to Germany to collect a new army, but there he was detained by business for a year and a half. Only in the spring of 1165, Frederick I, with a large army, crossed the Alps and moved to Rome. On June 24, 1165, the Germans laid siege to the castle of Saint Angel and occupied the entire left bank of the Tiber. Alexander III took refuge in the Frangipani castle next to the Colosseum. Frederick suggested that both popes resign and hold new elections. Alexander refused, and the fickle Romans, suffering from the German invasion, turned against the pope. Alexander had to flee from Rome. Frederick Barbarossa entered the city solemnly. On June 30, in the church of St. Peter, the enthronement of Paschalia took place, which fell under the strong influence of Frederick. The senate and the prefect of the city began to report personally to the emperor. Barbarossa was again close to his cherished goal, but unforeseen circumstances confused his plans. In August in German troops a brutal plague epidemic began. There were so many dead that Frederick hastily took his soldiers to northern Italy. Here he learned that Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua and the Milanese had joined the league of his enemies that had formed earlier, and began hastily to rebuild their city. Representatives of Barbarossa (podesta) were expelled from everywhere. Frederick no longer had a strong army, and he could not resist the rebellion. On December 1, 1167, sixteen rebellious cities united in the Lombard League, vowed not to conclude a separate peace and wage war until they regained all their former freedoms. In early 1168, Frederick went to Germany. On the way, he was almost captured, and he had to flee, dressed in someone else's dress. His power over Italy almost collapsed.

Difficulties kept Barbarossa in Germany for seven years. In 1173 he once again moved to Italy against the Lombard League. In order not to depend on unreliable princes, Frederick recruited many Brabant mercenaries. In September 1174, Barbarossa crossed the Alps for the fifth time, and in October laid siege to Alessandria, a new Lombard city that his enemies named after Pope Alexander III. The Lombards stubbornly defended themselves. In April next year Unsuccessful, Frederick Barbarossa began negotiations and dismissed the soldiers, whom he had nothing to pay with. But consultations, which lasted almost a whole year, did not lead to anything. Preparing to renew the war, Barbarossa invited the powerful Duke of Bavaria and Saxony Heinrich Leo from the Welf clan to Chiavenna and asked him for help, even reaching humiliation in his entreaties. But Henry the Lion refused to support the emperor in the Italian war. Frederick I, with great difficulty, recruited several thousand soldiers and moved to Milan. On May 29, 1176, he, not having sufficient forces, met with the enemies at Legnano. The German knights, according to custom, rushed into a powerful attack, broke through the line of the Lombard cavalry, and they fled in disarray. But when the Germans attacked the infantry lined up in the square, their attack was drowned. Meanwhile, the Lombard horsemen, having met the army coming to their aid from Brescia, returned to the battlefield and suddenly attacked the Germans from the flank. Frederick bravely threw himself into the thick of the battle, but was knocked out of the saddle. A false rumor spread through the troops about his death. Throwing away their weapons, the knights fled from the battlefield to Pavia. Barbarossa suffered a terrible defeat, barely escaping captivity and death.

Through the skilled diplomat Christian, Archbishop of Mainz, Frederick I entered into negotiations with the Lombard League and Pope Alexander. Thanks to the strife between Barbarossa's Italian enemies, the outcome of the negotiations was very favorable for him. Frederick agreed to recognize Alexander III as the only legitimate pope, returned to him the prefecture in Rome and recognized Tuscany as his fief. In exchange, the Pope removed the excommunication from him. At the Peace Congress in Venice in 1177, Frederick I made peace with Alexander III, but with the Lombards - so far only a six-year truce. In a personal meeting with Pope, Barbarossa kissed his leg and did everything external signs obedience.

Having reconciled with the Italians, Frederick I returned to Germany, where he started intrigues against Henry the Lion. The Bishop of Halberstadt complained that Heinrich took away some of the regions from him. In January 1179, the duke was summoned to the royal tribunal, but refused to come. Taking advantage of this, Frederick Barbarossa accused him of rebellion. At a convention in Würzburg in January 1180, the powerful Heinrich Leo was sentenced to the deprivation of all his fiefs. Eastern Saxony was ceded to Count Bernhard of Anhalt. From Western Saxony, Frederick I formed the new Duchy of Westphalia, which he left behind. Bavaria was given to Count Otto von Wittelsbach, whose descendants then owned this area until the beginning of the 20th century. From Bavaria, the Styrian mark was taken away, turned into a special duchy. In 1180, the emperor led troops into Saxony, took Braunschweig and laid siege to Lubeck. In November, Heinrich Leo arrived at the convention in Erfurt and threw himself at Frederick's feet. Barbarossa forgave him, returned Braunschweig, but retained all the remaining possessions of the Welfs and ordered Heinrich to retire into exile for three years. So, having lost the fight with the Italians, Frederick I strengthened the royal power in Germany.

In 1183, peace was finally signed in Constanta between Barbarossa and the Lombard League. The cities recognized the emperor as their overlord, and Frederick confirmed their ancient liberties, including the right to build fortifications and create leagues. The emperor formally retained the right to invest in city consuls. Barbarossa did not give up plans for the revival of imperial greatness. Stopping the struggle in Northern Italy, he began to spread his influence in the south of it and agreed to marry his son and heir Henry to the heiress of the Sicilian kingdom, the aunt of his sovereign, William. Constance. In 1184, Frederick I held a sumptuous convention near Mainz in honor of his son, one of the most magnificent celebrations in all of medieval history. This celebration, which amazed the crowds, was glorified by chroniclers and poets. In 1186, the marriage of the young Henry and Sicilian Constance took place. The papacy was very unhappy with this increase in imperial influence in southern Italy. A new struggle was brewing between Frederick Barbarossa and Rome, but the situation was dramatically changed by the news that shook Europe about the capture of Jerusalem by the Egyptian sultan Saladin.

Frederick Barbarossa - Crusader

Frederick immediately announced that he would set out on a campaign with the aim of recapturing Jerusalem from the Muslims (Third Crusade). Under his banners, he gathered the flower of German chivalry. In May 1189, Barbarossa set out on a crusade to the East with an army of one hundred thousand. In the summer, the crusaders entered the Byzantine possessions, where they soon quarreled with the Byzantine emperor Isaac Angel, who was very worried about the entry of the Germans into the Balkans, which had rebelled against the Greeks. Frederick Barbarossa entered into relations with Serbs and Bulgarians hostile to Byzantium, occupied the whole of Macedonia, took Adrianople at the end of November and even thought to attack Constantinople. However, it was still possible to agree with the Greeks, and in the spring of 1190 the army of Frederick I crossed to Asia Minor on Greek ships.

The trek through Asia Minor was also very difficult. Barbarossa skillfully led his army across hostile Muslim areas. He won several skirmishes with the Seljuks and took Konya on May 18. But when on June 10 the German army approached the Selif River, while crossing it, Frederick I could not cope with his horse, which was frightened and stumbled. Barbarossa fell into the water and the current carried him. When the emperor was pulled out of the water, he was already dead. Following this, the German campaign was upset, remaining, however, one of the favorite subjects of folk legends about Frederick I.

According to another German legend, Friedrich Barbarossa did not die, but sleeps in a cave under Mount Kiefhauser, in order to return one day. The long beard of the sleeping emperor continues to grow.

Monument to Friedrich Barbarossa at Mount Keefhäuser. Barbarossa's regrown beard wraps around the throne

Crusades: Frederick I Barbarossa

Early life

Friedrich I Barbarossa (lit. "red-bearded") was born in 1122, in the family of Frederick II, Duke of Swabia and his wife Judit. As members of the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties, respectively, Barbarossa's parents provided him with strong dynastic ties that helped him later in life. At the age of 25, after the death of his father, he became Duke of Swabia. In the same year, he accompanied his uncle, Conrad III, King of Germany, on the Second Crusade. Although the crusade ended in complete failure, Barbarossa performed well and earned the respect and trust of his uncle.

King of germany

Returning to Germany in 1149, Barbarossa was close to Konrad, and in 1152 he was summoned to him while he was on his deathbed. When death was very close, Conrad handed over the imperial seal to Barbarossa and expressed his last will for the thirty-year-old duke to succeed him as king. This conversation was witnessed by the Prince-Bishop of Bamberg, who later stated that Conrad was sane when he named Barbarossa as his successor. Acting quickly, Barbarossa received support from the elective princes and was named king on March 4, 1152.

As soon as the six-year-old son of Konrad was deprived of the opportunity to claim the throne, Barbarossa proclaimed him Duke of Swabia. Having ascended the throne, Barbarossa wanted to return Germany and the Holy Roman Empire to the glory that she had once achieved under Charlemagne. Traveling through Germany, Barbarossa met with local princes and tried to unite Germany in this way. Skillfully maneuvering, he found common interests among the princes, and thus strengthening his power. Although Barbarossa was King of Germany, he had not yet been crowned by the Pope as Holy Roman Emperor.

Trips to Italy

In 1153 increased general feeling dissatisfaction with the papal authority in Germany. Moving south with his army, Barbarossa tried to relieve this tension and in March 1153 concluded the Treaty of Constance with Pope Adrian IV. Under the terms of the treaty, Barbarossa agreed to help the pope in the fight against his enemies in Italy - the Normans, in return asking to be crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. After the suppression of the troops of the community under the leadership of Arnold of Brescia, Barbarossa was crowned by the pope on June 18, 1155. Returning home that autumn, Barbarossa again faced feud among the German princes.

To resolve the confrontation, Barbarossa transferred the rule of the Duchy of Bavaria to the younger cousin Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony. On June 9, 1156, in Würzburg, Barbarossa married Beatrice of Burgundy. And soon, almost without respite, the next year he intervened in the Danish civil war between Sven III and Valdemar I. In June 1158, Barbarossa prepared a major campaign in Italy. In the years following the coronation, contradictions grew between the emperor and the pope. While Barbarossa believed that the Pope should obey the emperor, Hadrian at the Diet in Besançon argued the opposite.

Upon entering Italy, Barbarossa attempted to restore his imperial power. Walking through the northern part of the country, he conquered city after city, and took Milan on September 7, 1158. As tensions grew, Hadrian began to consider excommunicating the emperor, but he died before he could take any action. In September 1159, a new Pope, Alexander III, was elected, and he immediately began to claim the supremacy of the papal power over the imperial one. In response to Alexander's actions and his excommunication, Barbarossa began to support several antipopes, starting with Victor IV.

Returning to Germany at the end of 1162 to quell the riots instigated by Henry the Lion, he returned to Italy the following year to conquer Sicily. These plans were quickly changed due to the fact that he was forced to suppress the uprising in Northern Italy. In 1166, Barbarossa attacked Rome and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Monte Porzio. His success was short-lived, as the epidemic crippled his army and he was forced to retreat back to Germany. Remaining in his state for six years, he worked to improve diplomatic relations with England, France and the Byzantine Empire.

Lombard League

During this time, some priests from the German clergy took the side of Pope Alexander. Despite this disorder at home, Barbarossa again gathered a large army and crossed the Alpine mountains, heading for Italy. Here he met with the combined forces of the Lombard League, an alliance of the northern cities of Italy, united in the fight on the side of the Pope. After winning several battles, Barbarossa asked Henry the Lion to join him. Expecting to strengthen his power at the expense of the possible defeat of his uncle, Henry refused to help him.

On May 29, 1176, Barbarossa and his army suffered a crushing defeat at Legnano, and the emperor was presumed dead in the battle. Having lost control of Lombardy, Barbarossa made peace with Alexander in Venice on July 24, 1177. Having recognized Alexander as Pope, he was again accepted into the fold of the church. Then the emperor and his army moved north. Arriving in Germany, Barbarossa discovered that Henry the Lion had raised an open rebellion against him. Having invaded Saxony and Bavaria, Barbarossa seized Henry's possessions and forced him to leave the country.

Third Crusade

Although Barbarossa was reconciled with the Pope, he continued to take steps to strengthen his position in Italy. In 1183, he signed a treaty with the Lombard League, alienating it from the Pope. In addition, his son, Henry, married Constance, the Norman princess of Sicily, and was proclaimed king of Italy in 1186. Although these maneuvers led to increased tension in relations with Rome, this did not prevent Barbarossa in 1189 from agreeing to participate in the third crusade.

The paths of the participants in the Third Crusade. The cross marks the place of death of Frederick I Barbarossa

Forging an alliance with Richard I of England and Philip II, King of France, Barbarossa formed a huge army to retake Jerusalem from Saladin. While the English and French kings with their troops reached the Holy Land by sea, Barbarossa's army was too large and had to go overland. Passing through Hungary, Serbia and Byzantine empire, they crossed the Bosphorus and moved to Anatolia (the territory of present-day Turkey). After two battles, they reached the Selif River in southeastern Anatolia. Although versions of further events differ, it is believed that Barbarossa died on June 10, 1190, while crossing this river. His death led to chaos in the army, and only a small part of the original troops, led by his son Frederick VI of Swabia, reached Acre.

barba, "beard", and rossa, "Redhead").

The new king was a young and physically very strong man, with a lively mind, a pleasant and even charming companion, an excellent knight, greedy for difficult enterprises and glory, an honest and generous sovereign, a kind and firm Christian in the faith. But these advantages did not cover the shortcomings common, however, in the then monarchs. So, in moments of anger, Frederick was extremely harsh, did not tolerate opposition, and sometimes, to achieve his goal, he was ready for bloody atrocities. His love for power was immeasurable, but he never dreamed of extraordinary enterprises and rapid success. Everything he undertook was real and thought out. Therefore, luck often accompanied him even in the most difficult enterprises. The main dream of his life - to revive the former power of the empire of Charlemagne - remained unfulfilled.

Frederick Barbarossa created a large European army for his time, the main force of which was the heavy knightly cavalry clad in steel armor, and improved its organization.

He is recognized as a classic of medieval military art. German knighthood under him became an example to follow for many other national chivalric organizations in Europe.

Frederick Barbarossa piously adhered to the feudal right to the title of knight. According to his decree, only one who was a knight by birth had the right to a knightly duel with all its attributes.

After a short trip to Germany, Frederick returned to Lombardy in the fall of 1163 and began to prepare for a campaign against Rome. However, new difficulties stopped him. Venice, Verona, Vicenza and Padua united in an anti-German league. Victor IV died in April. Paschal III, who was elected to replace him, had much fewer supporters than Alexander III. The emperor tried to attack Verona, but he had too little strength to wage a serious war. In the fall of 1164, he went to Germany, where he hoped to gather a new army. Business again detained him for a year and a half. Only in the spring of 1165, Frederick with a large army crossed the Alps and moved directly to Rome. On June 24, the Germans laid siege to the castle of Saint Angel and occupied the entire left bank of the Tiber. Alexander III took refuge in the Frangipani castle next to the Colosseum. Frederick suggested that both popes resign and hold new elections to avoid bloodshed. Alexander refused, and this greatly hurt him in the eyes of the townspeople. The Romans, notorious for their fickleness, turned against the pope, and he had to flee to Benevent. The emperor solemnly entered the city, and on June 30 the enthronement of Paschalia took place in the church of St. Peter. However, Frederick did not leave his supporter even a shadow of the power that the popes had enjoyed before him. The senate and the prefect of the city began to submit personally to the emperor, who thus took control of Rome into his own hands. It seemed that Frederick had reached the limits of his desires. But then unforeseen circumstances confused all his plans: in August, a severe epidemic began in the German army.

There were so many dead that Frederick hastily took his soldiers to northern Italy. Here he was dismayed to find that the positions of his enemies were strengthened. The previously formed league was joined by Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, as well as the inhabitants of Milan, who were hastily rebuilding their city. Unfortunately, Frederick no longer had an army, and he had to watch powerlessly from Pavia as the rebellion flared up. On December 1, 1167, sixteen rebel cities united in the Lombard League. They vowed not to conclude a separate peace and to wage war until they returned all the privileges and freedoms that they had under the previous emperors. In early 1168, Frederick decided to make his way to Germany. On the way to Susa, he was almost captured, and he had to flee, dressed in someone else's dress.

This time, the emperor spent seven years in Germany, busy solving urgent matters and strengthening his power. In 1173 he announced his decision to return to Italy and lead an army against the Lombard League. In order not to depend on the princes, who more than once left him without warriors at the most critical moment, he recruited many Brabant mercenaries. In September 1174, Frederick crossed the Alps for the fifth time, and in October he laid siege to Alessandria. The Lombards stubbornly defended themselves. In April of the following year, without having achieved success, Frederick began negotiations and dismissed the soldiers for whom he had nothing to pay. But consultations, which lasted almost a whole year, did not lead to anything, since the positions of the parties were too different. It was necessary to prepare again for war.

For this, the Pope removed the excommunication from him. After making peace with the Pope, Frederick returned to Lombard affairs. But it was not possible to come to an agreement with the insurgent cities. In July 1177 in Venice, Frederick signed an armistice with them for six years and in the summer of 1178 went to Burgundy, where he was crowned in Arles as king of Burgundy. In Germany, he took advantage of the first excuse to start oppressing Henry the Lion.

From the western Saxon lands, Frederick formed the new Duchy of Westphalia, which he left behind. Bavaria was given to Count Otto von Wittelsbach. From her, the Styrian mark was also taken away, turned into a duchy. In 1180, the emperor led troops into Saxony, took Braunschweig and laid siege to Lubeck. In the summer of 1181, Henry the Lion realized that his case was lost. In November, he arrived at the convention in Erfurt and threw himself at Frederick's feet, begging for forgiveness. Barbarossa forgave him, returned Braunschweig, but retained all the rest of the Welf possessions. Besides, who agreed to give up his aunt. All of them had their own troops and were constantly at odds with each other, claiming the main command and the glory of the victor. During his absence, Frederick handed over the administration of the state to his son Henry in the spring, for which the Byzantine emperor provided the Germans with food and promised to transport them across the strait.

wedding of Frederick I Barbarossa and Beatrice of Burgundy. A fresco on the ceiling of the Imperial Hall. Würzburg

The death of Frederick Barbarossa is shrouded in mystery. It is traditionally believed that he drowned while crossing the Salef River in Armenia (present-day Turkey). However, the emperor's contemporaries already expressed doubts about this version. The emperor knew how to swim well and his soldiers were with him. There is another version that the emperor stopped to rest on the banks of the river and decided to refresh himself in its waters. But the water turned out to be very cold and maybe a cramp, or maybe a desire to swim right after lunch, caused the death of almost seventy-year-old Barbarossa.

Be that as it may, the death of the leader forced many of the crusaders to turn back. And those who remained, struggling with diseases and the Seljuks, were unable to reconquer Jerusalem. The fate of the emperor's body is also unknown. It was embalmed to be taken to Germany, but it was not returned to its homeland. This gave rise to many legends in the minds of the emperor's admirers.

According to legend, the emperor sits at the table, and his long red beard wraps around the table. From time to time, Barbarossa wakes up and sends two ravens to see if the quarrels in Germany have subsided. When this happens, and the beard is wrapped around the table three times, the emperor will rise and put his hand in order.