Byzantium (Byzantine Empire) - a medieval state from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which the emperor of the Roman Empire Constantine I the Great (306–337) founded Constantinople and in 330 moved the capital here from Rome (see Ancient Rome). In 395 the empire was divided into Western and Eastern; in 476 the Western Empire fell; East survived. Byzantium was its continuation. The subjects themselves called her Romania (Roman power), and themselves - Romans (Romans), regardless of their ethnic origin.

Byzantine Empire in the VI-XI centuries.

Byzantium existed until the middle of the 15th century; until the 2nd half of the 12th century. it was a powerful, richest state that played a huge role in the political life of Europe and the countries of the Middle East. Byzantium achieved its most significant foreign policy successes at the end of the 10th century. - the beginning of the 11th century; she temporarily conquered the western Roman lands, then stopped the offensive of the Arabs, conquered Bulgaria in the Balkans, subjugated the Serbs and Croats and became in essence a Greek-Slavic state for almost two centuries. Its emperors tried to act as the supreme overlords of the entire Christian world. Ambassadors from all over the world came to Constantinople. The sovereigns of many countries of Europe and Asia dreamed of kinship with the emperor of Byzantium. Visited Constantinople around the middle of the 10th century. and Russian princess Olga. Her reception in the palace was described by Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus himself. He was the first to call Russia "Rosia" and spoke about the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Even more significant was the influence of the peculiar and vibrant culture of Byzantium. Until the end of the 12th century. it remained the most cultured country in Europe. Kievan Rus and Byzantium supported from the 9th century. regular trade, political and cultural ties. Invented around 860 by Byzantine cultural figures - the "Thessalonica brothers" Constantine (in monasticism Cyril) and Methodius, Slavic writing in the 2nd half of the 10th century. - early 11th c. penetrated into Russia mainly through Bulgaria and quickly became widespread here (see Writing). From Byzantium in 988, Russia also adopted Christianity (see Religion). Simultaneously with the baptism, Prince Vladimir of Kiev married the emperor's sister (granddaughter of Constantine VI) Anna. In the next two centuries, dynastic marriages between ruling houses Byzantium and Russia were concluded many times. Gradually in the 9th-11th centuries. on the basis of an ideological (then primarily religious) community, an extensive cultural zone (“the world of orthodoxy” - Orthodoxy) developed, the center of which was Byzantium and in which the achievements of Byzantine civilization were actively perceived, developed and processed. The Orthodox zone (it was opposed by the Catholic one) included, in addition to Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria and most of Serbia.

One of the factors holding back the social and state development of Byzantium was the continuous wars that it waged throughout its existence. In Europe, she held back the onslaught of the Bulgarians and nomadic tribes - the Pechenegs, the Uzes, the Polovtsy; waged wars with the Serbs, Hungarians, Normans (in 1071 they deprived the empire of its last possessions in Italy), and finally, with the crusaders. In the East, Byzantium served as a barrier for centuries (like Kievan Rus) for Asian peoples: Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and from the 13th century. - and the Ottoman Turks.

There are several periods in the history of Byzantium. Time from the 4th c. until the middle of the 7th c. - this is the era of the collapse of the slave system, the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Slavery has outlived itself, the ancient policy (city) - the stronghold of the old system - was wrecked. The crisis was experienced by the economy, the state system, and ideology. Waves of "barbarian" invasions hit the empire. Relying on the huge bureaucratic apparatus of power inherited from the Roman Empire, the state recruited part of the peasants into the army, forced others to perform official duties (to carry goods, build fortresses), imposed heavy taxes on the population, attached it to the land. Justinian I (527–565) attempted to restore the Roman Empire to its former borders. His commanders Belisarius and Narses temporarily conquered North Africa from the Vandals, Italy from the Ostrogoths, and part of Southeastern Spain from the Visigoths. The grandiose wars of Justinian were vividly described by one of the largest contemporary historians - Procopius of Caesarea. But the rise was short. By the middle of the 7th c. the territory of Byzantium was reduced by almost three times: possessions in Spain, more than half of the lands in Italy, most of the Balkan Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were lost.

The culture of Byzantium in this era was distinguished by its bright originality. Although Latin was almost until the middle of the 7th century. official language, there was also literature in Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian. Christianity, which became the state religion in the 4th century, had a huge impact on the development of culture. The church controlled all genres of literature and the arts. Libraries and theaters were destroyed or destroyed, schools where "pagan" (ancient) sciences were taught were closed. But Byzantium needed educated people, the preservation of elements of secular scholarship and natural science knowledge, as well as applied arts, the skill of painters and architects. A significant fund of ancient heritage in Byzantine culture is one of its characteristic features. The Christian Church could not exist without a competent clergy. It turned out to be powerless in the face of criticism from pagans, heretics, adherents of Zoroastrianism and Islam, without relying on ancient philosophy and dialectics. On the foundation of ancient science and art, multicolored mosaics of the 5th-6th centuries, enduring in their artistic value, arose, among which the mosaics of churches in Ravenna stand out especially (for example, with the image of the emperor in the church of San Vitale). The Code of Civil Law of Justinian was drawn up, which later formed the basis of bourgeois law, since it was based on the principle of private property (see Roman law). An outstanding work of Byzantine architecture was the magnificent church of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople in 532-537. Anthimius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus. This miracle of building technology is a kind of symbol of the political and ideological unity of the empire.

In the 1st third of the 7th c. Byzantium was in a state of severe crisis. Huge areas of previously cultivated lands were desolate and depopulated, many cities lay in ruins, the treasury was empty. The entire north of the Balkans was occupied by the Slavs, some of them penetrated far to the south. The state saw a way out of this situation in the revival of small free peasant landownership. Strengthening its power over the peasants, it made them its main support: the treasury was made up of taxes from them, an army was created from those obliged to serve in the militia. It helped to strengthen power in the provinces and return the lost lands in the 7th-10th centuries. a new administrative structure, the so-called thematic system: the governor of the province (themes) - the strategist received from the emperor all the fullness of military and civil power. The first themes arose in areas close to the capital, each new theme served as the basis for the creation of the next, neighboring one. The barbarians who settled in it also became subjects of the empire: as taxpayers and warriors, they were used to revive it.

With the loss of lands in the east and west, the majority of its population were Greeks, the emperor began to be called in Greek - "basileus".

In the 8th–10th centuries Byzantium became a feudal monarchy. A strong central government held back the development of feudal relations. Some of the peasants retained their freedom, remaining taxpayers to the treasury. The vassal system in Byzantium did not take shape (see Feudalism). Most of the feudal lords lived in large cities. The power of the basileus was especially strengthened in the era of iconoclasm (726-843): under the flag of the fight against superstition and idolatry (veneration of icons, relics), the emperors subjugated the clergy, who argued with them in the struggle for power, and in the provinces supported separatist tendencies, confiscated the wealth of the church and monasteries . From now on, the choice of the patriarch, and often the bishops, began to depend on the will of the emperor, as well as the welfare of the church. Having solved these problems, the government restored icon veneration in 843.

In the 9th-10th centuries. the state completely subjugated not only the village, but also the city. The gold Byzantine coin - nomisma acquired the role of an international currency. Constantinople became again a "workshop of splendor" that amazed foreigners; as a "golden bridge", he brought into a knot the trade routes from Asia and Europe. Merchants of the entire civilized world and all "barbarian" countries aspired here. But the artisans and merchants of the major centers of Byzantium were subjected to strict control and regulation by the state, paid high taxes and duties, and could not participate in political life. From the end of the 11th century their products could no longer withstand the competition of Italian goods. Uprisings of townspeople in the 11th-12th centuries. brutally repressed. Cities, including the capital, fell into decay. Their markets were dominated by foreigners who bought wholesale products from large feudal lords, churches, and monasteries.

The development of state power in Byzantium in the 8th–11th centuries. - this is the path of gradual revival in a new guise of a centralized bureaucratic apparatus. Numerous departments, courts, and overt and secret police operated a huge machine of power, designed to control all spheres of life of citizens, to ensure their payment of taxes, the fulfillment of duties, and unquestioning obedience. In the center of it stood the emperor - the supreme judge, legislator, military leader, who distributed titles, awards and positions. His every step was decorated with solemn ceremonies, especially the receptions of ambassadors. He presided over the council of the highest nobility (synclite). But his power was not legally hereditary. There was a bloody struggle for the throne, sometimes the synclite decided the matter. Intervened in the fate of the throne and the patriarch, and the palace guards, and all-powerful temporary workers, and the capital's plebs. In the 11th century two main groups of nobility competed - the civil bureaucracy (it stood for centralization and increased tax oppression) and the military (it sought greater independence and expansion of estates at the expense of free taxpayers). Basileus of the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056), founded by Basil I (867-886), under which Byzantium reached the pinnacle of power, represented the civil nobility. The rebellious commanders-usurpers waged a continuous struggle with her and in 1081 managed to put their protege Alexei I Comnenus (1081-1118), the founder of a new dynasty (1081-1185), on the throne. But the Comneni achieved temporary successes, they only delayed the fall of the empire. In the provinces, the rich magnates refused to consolidate the central government; Bulgarians and Serbs in Europe, Armenians in Asia did not recognize the power of the Basils. Byzantium, which was in crisis, fell in 1204, during the invasion of the Crusaders during the 4th Crusade (see Crusades).

In the cultural life of Byzantium in the 7th-12th centuries. changed three stages. Until the 2nd third of the 9th c. its culture is marked by decadence. Elementary literacy became a rarity, secular sciences were almost expelled (except for those related to military affairs; for example, in the 7th century "Greek fire" was invented, a liquid combustible mixture that brought victories to the imperial fleet more than once). Literature was dominated by the genre of biographies of saints - primitive narratives that praised patience and implanted faith in miracles. Byzantine painting of this period is poorly known - icons and frescoes perished during the era of iconoclasm.

The period from the middle of the 9th c. and almost to the end of the 11th century. called by the name of the ruling dynasty, the time of the "Macedonian revival" of culture. Back in the 8th c. it became predominantly Greek-speaking. The "Renaissance" was peculiar: it was based on official, strictly systematized theology. The metropolitan school acted as a legislator both in the sphere of ideas and in the forms of their embodiment. The canon, model, stencil, fidelity to tradition, the unchanging norm triumphed in everything. All types of fine arts were permeated with spiritualism, the idea of ​​humility and the triumph of the spirit over the body. Painting (icon painting, frescoes) was regulated by obligatory plots, images, the arrangement of figures, a certain combination of colors and chiaroscuro. These were not images. real people with their individual traits, but symbols of moral ideals, faces as carriers of certain virtues. But even in such conditions, artists created genuine masterpieces. An example of this is the beautiful miniatures of the Psalter of the early 10th century. (stored in Paris). Byzantine icons, frescoes, book miniatures occupy a place of honor in the world of fine arts (see Art).

Philosophy, aesthetics, and literature are marked by conservatism, a penchant for compilation, and a fear of novelty. The culture of this period is distinguished by external pomposity, adherence to strict rituals, splendor (during worship, palace receptions, organizing holidays and sports, triumphs in honor of military victories), as well as a sense of superiority over the culture of the peoples of the rest of the world.

However, this time was also marked by a struggle of ideas, and by democratic and rationalist tendencies. Major advances have been made in the natural sciences. He was famous for his scholarship in the first half of the 9th century. Lev Mathematician. The ancient heritage was actively comprehended. He was often approached by Patriarch Photius (mid-ninth century), who cared about the quality of teaching at the higher Mangavra school in Constantinople, where the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius were then studying. They relied on ancient knowledge when creating encyclopedias on medicine, agricultural technology, military affairs, and diplomacy. In the 11th century the teaching of jurisprudence and philosophy was restored. The number of schools that taught literacy and numeracy increased (see Education). Passion for antiquity led to the emergence of rationalistic attempts to justify the superiority of reason over faith. In the "low" literary genres, calls for sympathy for the poor and humiliated became more frequent. The heroic epic (the poem "Digenis Akrit") is permeated with the idea of ​​patriotism, consciousness of human dignity, independence. Instead of brief world chronicles, there are extensive historical descriptions of the recent past and events contemporary to the author, where often the devastating criticism of the basileus was heard. Such, for example, is the highly artistic Chronography by Michael Psellos (2nd half of the 11th century).

In painting, the number of subjects increased sharply, technique became more complicated, attention to the individuality of images increased, although the canon did not disappear. In architecture, the basilica was replaced by a cross-domed church with rich decoration. The pinnacle of the historiographical genre was the "History" by Nikita Choniates, an extensive historical narrative, brought to 1206 (including a story about the tragedy of the empire in 1204), full of sharp moral assessments and attempts to clarify the cause-and-effect relationships between events.

On the ruins of Byzantium in 1204, the Latin Empire arose, consisting of several states of Western knights bound by vassal ties. At the same time, three state associations of the local population were formed - the Kingdom of Epirus, the Empire of Trebizond and the Empire of Nicaea, hostile to the Latins (as the Byzantines called all Catholics whose church language was Latin) and to each other. In the long-term struggle for the “Byzantine inheritance”, the Nicaean Empire gradually won. In 1261, she expelled the Latins from Constantinople, but the restored Byzantium did not regain its former greatness. Not all lands were returned, and the development of feudalism led to the 14th century. to feudal disunity. In Constantinople and other large cities, Italian merchants were in charge, having received unheard-of benefits from the emperors. Civil wars were added to the wars with Bulgaria and Serbia. In 1342–1349 the democratic elements of the cities (primarily Thessalonica) revolted against the big feudal lords, but were defeated.

The development of Byzantine culture in 1204–1261 lost unity: it proceeded within the framework of the three states mentioned above and in the Latin principalities, reflecting both Byzantine traditions and the characteristics of these new political entities. Since 1261, the culture of late Byzantium has been characterized as a "Paleologian revival". This was a new bright flowering of Byzantine culture, marked, however, by especially sharp contradictions. Literature was still dominated by works on church topics - lamentations, panegyrics, lives, theological treatises, etc. However, secular motifs are beginning to sound more and more insistently. The poetic genre developed, novels in verse on ancient subjects appeared. Works were created in which there were disputes about the meaning of ancient philosophy and rhetoric. Folk motifs, in particular folk songs, began to be used more boldly. The fables ridiculed the vices of the social system. Literature in the vernacular arose. 15th century humanist philosopher Georgy Gemist Plifon exposed the self-interest of the feudal lords, proposed to liquidate private property, to replace obsolete Christianity with a new religious system. In painting, bright colors, dynamic postures, individuality of portrait and psychological characteristics prevailed. Many original monuments of religious and secular (palace) architecture were created.

Starting from 1352, the Ottoman Turks, having captured almost all the possessions of Byzantium in Asia Minor, began to conquer its lands in the Balkans. Attempts to bring the Slavic countries in the Balkans to the union failed. The West, however, promised Byzantium help only on the condition that the church of the empire be subordinated to the papacy. The Ferraro-Florentine union of 1439 was rejected by the people, who protested violently, hating the Latins for their dominance in the economy of the cities, for the robberies and oppression of the crusaders. At the beginning of April 1453, Constantinople, almost alone in the struggle, was surrounded by a huge Turkish army and on May 29 was taken by storm. The last emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, died in arms on the walls of Constantinople. The city was sacked; it then became Istanbul - the capital of the Ottoman Empire. In 1460, the Turks conquered the Byzantine Morea in the Peloponnese, and in 1461 Trebizond, the last fragment of the former empire. The fall of Byzantium, which had existed for a thousand years, was an event of world-historical significance. It resonated with keen sympathy in Russia, in Ukraine, among the peoples of the Caucasus and the Balkan Peninsula, who by 1453 had already experienced the severity of the Ottoman yoke.

Byzantium perished, but its bright, multifaceted culture left a deep mark on the history of world civilization. The traditions of Byzantine culture were carefully preserved and developed in the Russian state, which experienced a rise and soon after the fall of Constantinople, at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, turned into a powerful centralized state. Her sovereign Ivan III (1462–1505), under whom the unification of Russian lands was completed, was married to Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor.

The history of Byzantium, one of the "world" powers of the Middle Ages, a society of peculiar development and high culture, a society at the junction of the West and the East, was full of turbulent internal events, endless wars with neighbors, intense political, economic, cultural relations with many countries of Europe and the Middle East .

The political structure of Byzantium

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at the head. From the 7th century the head of state was often referred to as an autocrator.

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - the East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the prefect of the praetoria of the East (lat. Praefectus praetorio Orientis) and the prefect of the praetoria of Illyricum (lat. Praefectus praetorio Illyrici). Constantinople was singled out as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople (Latin Praefectus urbis Constantinopolitanae).

For a long time, the former system of state and financial management was preserved. But from the end of the 6th century, significant reforms began, mainly related to defense (administrative division into themes instead of exarchates) and the Greek culture of the country (the introduction of the positions of logothete, strategist, drungaria, etc.).

Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have been widely spread, this process has led to the approval of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne do not stop. The two highest military officials were the commander-in-chief of the infantry (lat. magister paeditum) and the head of the cavalry (lat. magister equitum), later these positions were combined (Magister militum); in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia) (lat. Magistri equitum et paeditum in praesenti). In addition, there was the master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strateg of Anatolika), the master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, the master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Stratig of Thrace).

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for nearly a thousand years; in historiography, from that time on, it is usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by vertical mobility. At all times, a man from the bottom could break through to power. In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. So, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820). Vasily I was a peasant, and then a horse rider in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapenus was also a native of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army of the Eastern Roman Empire by 395

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of the existence of Byzantium, she became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability. On the other hand, a military command and control system was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, various technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is built to warn of enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increasing, which the invention of "Greek fire" helps to gain dominance at sea. The Sassanids adopted a fully armored cavalry - cataphracts. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistas and catapults, replaced by simpler stone throwers, are disappearing.

The transition to the theme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat capability. The recruiting system was changed to a typically feudal one, where the nobility was required to supply military contingents for the right to own land. In the future, the army and navy fall into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the existence of the empire they are purely mercenary formations.

In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, was able to field only a 5,000-strong army and 2,500 mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Russ and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. From the 10th century, the ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads. After the Viking Age came to an end in the early 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings) rushed to Byzantium across the Mediterranean. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the crusaders in 1204 and were defeated during the capture of the city.

Of great cultural importance was the period of the reign of emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexei I Komnenos (867-1081). The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the work of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet appeared - Glagolitic, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs. Patriarch Photius put up barriers to the claims of the Roman popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome (see Separation of Churches).

In the scientific sphere, this period is distinguished by unusual fertility and a variety of literary enterprises. In the collections and adaptations of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material, borrowed from writers now lost, has been preserved.

Economy

The state included rich lands with a large number of cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In the cities, artisans and merchants united into estates. Belonging to a class was not a duty, but a privilege; joining it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were summarized in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the eparch. Despite a corrupt system of government, very high taxes, a slave economy and court intrigues, the Byzantine economy for a long time was the strongest in Europe. Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east.

Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the wealth of the country caused great envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

In the initial period of the history of the state, the basis of the economy was production and customs structure. 85-90 percent of production in all of Eurasia (with the exception of India and China) came from the Eastern Roman Empire. Absolutely everything was made in the empire: from consumer products (oil lamps, weapons, armor, the production of primitive elevators, mirrors, some other items related to cosmetics), which are now quite widely represented in all museums of the world, to unique works of art, in other areas of the world not represented at all - icon painting, painting, and so on.

Medicine in Byzantium

Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire.

At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in a severe decline, but subsequently Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arabic and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance. In the last century of the empire's existence, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in early Renaissance Italy. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great declared the city of Byzantium his capital, renaming it "New Rome" (Constantinople is an unofficial name).

The new capital was located on the most important trade route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, along which grain was transported. In Rome, new contenders for the throne constantly appeared. Having defeated rivals in exhausting civil wars, Constantine wanted to create a capital, initially and completely subject to him alone. A deep ideological upheaval was called upon to serve the same goal: until recently, persecuted in Rome, Christianity was declared the state religion in the reign of Constantine. Constantinople immediately became the capital of the Christian empire.

The final division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western took place in 395 after the death of Theodosius I the Great. The main difference between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire was the predominance of Greek culture on its territory. Differences grew, and over the course of two centuries the state finally acquired its individual appearance.

The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518. During this period, through the borders on the Danube and the Rhine, numerous barbarian, mainly Germanic tribes penetrated into Roman territory. The situation in the East was no less difficult, and a similar ending could be expected after the Visigoths won the famous battle of Adrianople in 378, the emperor Valens was killed and King Alaric devastated all of Greece. But soon Alaric went west - to Spain and Gaul, where the Goths founded their state, and the danger from their side for Byzantium was over. In 441, the Goths were replaced by the Huns. Their leader Attila started a war several times, and only by paying a large tribute it was possible to buy him off. In the battle of the peoples on the Catalaunian fields (451), Attila was defeated, and his power soon disintegrated.

In the second half of the 5th century, danger came from the Ostrogoths - Theodoric the Great ravaged Macedonia, threatened Constantinople, but he also went west, conquering Italy and founding his state on the ruins of Rome.

In 1204, Constantinople surrendered for the first time under the onslaught of the enemy: enraged by an unsuccessful campaign in the "promised land", the crusaders broke into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.

The new formation did not last long: on July 51, 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople without a fight, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The dynasty he founded ruled Byzantium until its fall, but this rule was rather miserable. In the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and even plundered church and private property in kind.

By the beginning of the XIV century, only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small scattered enclaves in southern Greece remained from the former territories. The desperate attempts of the last emperor of Byzantium, Manuel II, to enlist the military support of Western Europe were not successful. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was conquered for the second and last time.

Religion of Byzantium

In Christianity, diverse trends fought and clashed: Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism. While in the West the popes, beginning with Leo the Great (440-461), asserted the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril (422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria. In addition, as a result of these unrest, old national strife and separatist tendencies surfaced.

Political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict.

Since 502, the Persians resumed their onslaught in the east, the Slavs and Bulgars began raids south of the Danube. Internal unrest reached its extreme limits, in the capital there was an intense struggle between the parties of "green" and "blue" (according to the colors of the chariot teams). Finally, the strong memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of ​​the need for the unity of the Roman world, constantly turned minds to the West. To get out of this state of instability, a powerful hand was needed, a clear policy with precise and definite plans. This policy was pursued by Justinian I.

The national composition of the empire was very diverse, but starting from the 7th century, Greeks made up the majority of the population. Since then, the Byzantine emperor began to be called in Greek - "basileus". In the 9th-10th centuries, after the conquest of Bulgaria and the subjugation of the Serbs and Croats, Byzantium became, in essence, a Greek-Slavic state. Based on the religious community around Byzantium, an extensive "zone of orthodoxy (Orthodoxy)" was formed, including Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and most of Serbia.

Until the 7th century, the official language of the empire was Latin, but there was literature in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Georgian. In 866, the "Thessalonica brothers" Cyril (c.826-869) and Methodius (c.815-885) invented the Slavic letter, which quickly spread in Bulgaria and Russia.

Despite the fact that the whole life of the state and society was permeated with religion, secular power in Byzantium was always stronger than church power. The Byzantine Empire has always been distinguished by stable statehood and strictly centralized administration.

By its political structure, Byzantium was an autocratic monarchy, the doctrine of which was finally formed here. All power was in the hands of the emperor (basileus). He was the supreme judge, directed foreign policy, issued laws, commanded the army, and so on. His power was considered divine and was practically unlimited, however, (paradox!) It was not legally hereditary. The result of this was constant unrest and wars for power, ending in the creation of another dynasty (a simple warrior, even from the barbarians, or a peasant, thanks to his dexterity and personal abilities, could often take a high position in the state or even become an emperor. The history of Byzantium is full of such examples).

In Byzantium, a special system of relations between secular and ecclesiastical authorities, called Caesaropapism, developed (the Emperors, in essence, ruled the Church, becoming "popes." The Church became only an appendage and instrument of secular power). The power of the emperors was especially strengthened during the infamous period of "iconoclasm", when the clergy were completely subordinate to the imperial power, deprived of many privileges, the wealth of the church and monasteries were partially confiscated. As for cultural life, the result of "iconoclasm" was the complete canonization of spiritual art.

Byzantine culture

In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which were distinguished by the noble elegance of forms, figurative vision of thought, refinement of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. The direct successor of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, in terms of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. Since the 6th century, Constantinople has been turning into a glorified artistic center of the medieval world, into a "palladium of sciences and arts." It is followed by Ravenna, Rome, Nicaea, Thessalonica, which also became the focus of the Byzantine artistic style.

The process of artistic development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had epochs of ups and downs, periods of the triumph of progressive ideas and gloomy years of domination by reactionaries. There were several periods, more or less prosperous, marked by a special flourishing of art:

Time of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) - "golden age of Byzantium"

and the so-called Byzantine "renaissances":

The reign of the Macedonian dynasty (mid-IX - late XI century) - "Macedonian renaissance".

The reign of the Komnenos dynasty (end of the 11th - the end of the 12th centuries) - "the Komnenos' renaissance".

Late Byzantium (since 1260) - "Paleologian Renaissance".

Byzantium survived the invasion of the crusaders (1204, IV crusade), but with the formation and strengthening on its borders Ottoman Empire its end was inevitable. The West promised help only on the condition of converting to Catholicism (the Ferraro-Florentine Union, indignantly rejected by the people).

In April 1453, Constantinople was surrounded by a huge Turkish army and two months later taken by storm. The last emperor - Constantine XI Palaiologos - died on the fortress wall with a weapon in his hands.

Since then, Constantinople has been called Istanbul.

The fall of Byzantium was a huge blow to the Orthodox (and Christian in general) world. Distracting from politics and economics, Christian theologians have seen main reason its death in that decline in morals and in that hypocrisy in matters of religion that flourished in Byzantium in the last centuries of its existence. So, Vladimir Solovyov wrote:

"After many delays and a long struggle with material decay, the Eastern Empire, long dead morally, was finally just before

the revival of the West, demolished from the historical field. ... Proud of their orthodoxy and piety, they did not want to understand that simple and self-evident truth that true orthodoxy and piety require that we somehow conform our lives to what we believe and what we honor - they did not want to understand that the real advantage belongs to the Christian kingdom over others only insofar as it is organized and governed in the spirit of Christ. ... Finding itself hopelessly incapable of its high purpose - to be a Christian kingdom - Byzantium was losing internal cause of its existence. For the current, ordinary tasks of state administration could, and even much better, be performed by the government of the Turkish Sultan, which, being free from internal contradictions, was more honest and stronger and, moreover, did not interfere in the religious field of Christianity, did not compose dubious dogmas and malicious heresies, but also did not defend Orthodoxy by massacre of heretics and solemn burning of heresiarchs at the stake.

Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium

During its thousand-year history, the Byzantine Empire, which absorbed the magnificent heritage of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as the Hellenistic East, went through the same main stages of social development as many countries of the medieval world. The unique geographical location of the empire, which had possessions both in Europe and Asia, and in other periods of history in Africa, made the country, as it were, a link between East and West. The mixture of different cultures - Eastern, Greek and Roman - could not help but leave imprints on all aspects of the life of Byzantine society - the state system, religion, culture and art. The so-called openness of the Byzantine civilization arose due to the established economic and political relations that connected Byzantium with many countries of Europe and Asia. At the same time, Byzantium went its own historical path. She claimed to be the ruler of the entire civilized world. rulers of Western and South Eastern Europe sought to imitate the customs and methods of state administration and diplomacy of Byzantium.

In the history of the Byzantine Empire, if we consider its internal development and the role it played in the international life of the Middle Ages, we can distinguish several periods: the formation of the empire, the time of its highest prosperity, the fall under the blows of the crusaders and the final death under the onslaught of the Seljuk Turks and Turks. Ottomans.

At the origins of civilization

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople. The city was built on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium on the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara. The new capital was named in honor of the emperor Constantinople - "the city of Constantine." And in 395 the Great Roman Empire broke up into eastern and western parts. It is this date that is considered to be the beginning of the Byzantine Empire proper. Since that time, the history of Byzantine civilization opens. In its early period, Byzantium had possessions in Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. After the collapse of the Roman state, the richest regions were under the rule of Byzantium.

The vast Byzantine Empire included the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the islands of Crete and Cyprus, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Egypt, parts of Mesopotamia, Armenia and Arabia. Byzantine possessions were also in the Northern Black Sea region. The territory of the empire was vast. The nature and climate of this state were very diverse: hot and dry summers with warm and rainy winters in one part of the empire, cold and snowy winters in another.

High mountains in Greece and Asia Minor, wide fertile plains in Thessaly and Thrace, fat lands of the Nile Valley - the Byzantine Empire was rich. In Egypt and Thrace, wheat and barley were grown. The coastal regions of the Aegean were famous for their orchards and extensive vineyards, while Greece was famous for its olive oil. In Egypt, flax was grown, and in Syria and Phoenicia they were engaged in sericulture, which brought fame to Byzantium as a manufacturer of valuable silk fabrics. Cattle breeding was developed in the mountainous regions and in the steppes.

“The great state road, leading from west to east, passed through Thessalonica and involuntarily persuaded travelers to stop and buy everything they needed here. Therefore, we turned out to be the owners of all sorts of blessings, whatever you can name. The streets of the city were always filled with a motley crowd of Thessalonians and passing guests, so it was easier to count the grains of sand on the seashore than the people passing through the market square and busy with trading affairs ... ”, - this is how the Thessalonian priest John Kameniata (beginning of the 10th century) described trade in the cities of the Byzantine Empire. c.) in his essay "The Capture of Thessalonica".

Byzantine lands were famous for their natural resources: scaffolding, stone and marble, gold and silver, iron and copper. Iron ore was delivered to Byzantium from the distant Caucasian ranges, and silver and copper from Armenia. The most important writing material, papyrus, was brought from Egypt, and a special shell was mined off the coast of Asia Minor and Phenicia, which served as raw material for the manufacture of the famous purple paint. Only one drop of this paint could be obtained from one shell, so it was terribly expensive and was mainly used to dye imperial clothes. Byzantine merchants in search of new goods went to different countries, sometimes making their way to the most remote corners of the world. Merchants were often scouts: they tried to learn as much as possible about the customs, strengths and weaknesses of the countries they visited. “It is more reliable to defeat the enemy with ingenuity, intelligence or even cunning than by force of arms,” the Byzantines believed. And although the empire was constantly at war, since its rich lands always attracted invaders, nevertheless the Romans - subjects of the Byzantine kings - preferred to pay rather than fight. At the same time, they maintained a well-trained professional army. Byzantium managed to happily avoid the fate of the Western Roman Empire - it did not know the complete conquest of the entire country by barbarian tribes and did not experience the death of a centralized state. Until the 7th century Latin was considered the official language of Byzantium, but books were written in Greek, Armenian, Syriac, and Georgian. The majority of the population were Greeks. The inhabitants of the empire called themselves Romans, their state - the Roman kingdom, and Constantinople - New Rome. The ruler of the Byzantine Empire was called Basileus. According to the Byzantines, he was the only legitimate heir to the Roman emperors.

Birth of an empire

The first period of the history of the empire covers three and a half centuries - from the 4th to the middle of the 7th century. In Byzantium, there were about a thousand cities in which many different peoples who spoke different languages. But the biggest was, of course, Constantinople, it was inhabited by more than half a million people. It had a favorable geographical position: the main trade routes crossed here, which led from west to east - to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, from the Black Sea - to the Mediterranean. On one side, the walls of Constantinople were washed by the waters of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara, on the other, there was the Golden Horn Bay. This bay was an excellent harbor for Byzantine ships, and in case of danger, the entrance to the bay was blocked by a special iron chain.

The fortified city walls and towers of Constantinople that have survived to this day amaze with their power and grandeur. It was also the largest port in the entire Mediterranean. Byzantium throughout almost the entire early Middle Ages was a great maritime power. It was the presence of the fleet that contributed to the economic and political influence Byzantium in the medieval world.

In the IV century. around the world, the products of skilled Byzantine craftsmen were already known, who made items of the most sophisticated luxury. The works of jewelers, mosaicists, enamellers, wood and stone carvers and other Byzantine craftsmen served as an unattainable standard for artisans in many countries. The Byzantines called their capital "the vast workshop of the universe." Luxurious patterned silk fabrics, the finest linen and woolen fabrics were famous all over the world. But merchants were not allowed to sell purple, scarlet, purple fabrics to foreigners, since wearing clothes of such colors was the exclusive privilege of the emperor. The sale of such fabrics was considered an encroachment on the imperial colors, and therefore on the very dignity of the emperor.

The works of Byzantine jewelers were distinguished by their extraordinary beauty and delicate taste. Valuable handwritten books, magnificently illustrated with artistic miniatures, were highly valued throughout the civilized world.

“The crusaders could not even imagine that there was such a mighty city in the world before they saw the high walls and powerful towers surrounding it, its magnificent palaces, high cathedrals. And there are so many of them that you can’t believe it without seeing with your own eyes the expanse and distance of it, the city that stands as a king over other cities, ”wrote J. Villardouin from Champagne, who participated in the capture of Constantinople.

The beauty and grandeur of the city amazed contemporaries. Admired by the beautiful appearance of palaces and temples, writers and poets glorified the splendor and exquisite charm of the Byzantine capital in their works: “A city of cities, the light of the universe, the glory of the world, the mother of churches, the foundation of faith, the patron of science and art, the fatherland and the hearth of beauty.”

Merchants from different countries came to Constantinople, and the Byzantines themselves went to the most remote corners of the ecumene. In the east, they traded with such fantastic countries as Europeans imagined, such as India and Ceylon, distant China. In the south they reached Arabia and rich in gold and ivory Ethiopia, in the north - the harsh coast of Scandinavia and the misty islands of Albion.

State structure of the empire

According to its state structure, Byzantium was an autocratic monarchy. The emperor-autocrat - basileus was considered the sovereign ruler of the country. According to Roman tradition, the emperor was elected by the senate, the army and the people. His power was considered sacred. He had the power to make and amend laws, appoint and dismiss officials, sentence his subjects to death, and confiscate their property. The emperor was the supreme judge, commander-in-chief of the army, he was in charge of all foreign policy. Vasivlevs was the ruler of the country, but still not its owner, which could be observed in the eastern states. The power of the emperor in Byzantium was not inherited. The emperor had to prove himself "a faithful servant of Christ God." In the case of unrighteous deeds, he lost the support of God. And then anyone could encroach on his power. If the attempt to seize power was successful, then the usurper became emperor, otherwise he was blinded. Many Byzantine rulers reigned for a short time and ended their lives at best in a monastery, at worst - death at the hands of assassins. The researchers noted that "in Byzantium during its existence, one hundred and nine emperors ruled, and only thirty-four of them died a natural death." So, the fate of many of them was tragic: “Michael III was stabbed to death at a feast in his country residence, Nicephorus II was killed in his own bedroom, John I was poisoned, Roman III was drowned in a bath. In just a hundred years from the beginning of the reign of Basil II (976) to the beginning of the reign of Alexei I Komnenos (1081), there were about 50 conspiracies and rebellions. (S. B. Dashkov, Emperors of Byzantium, M.: 1996). Even a person of no noble birth could become an emperor. For example, Emperor Justinian was the son of a peasant, and his wife, the beautiful Theodora, was an actress in the past; Vasily I and Roman I also came from peasants, and Mikhail IV was a money changer. However, it was in Byzantium that the Christian church substantiated the theory of the divine origin of imperial power, laying the foundation for an unlimited Christian monarchy.

The emperor had a powerful but cumbersome administrative system under his control. The whole empire was divided into themes (districts), at the head of each was a strategist, who had military and civil power in it. He managed the district and was obliged to report annually to the basileus. He could be moved to manage another district. Subordinate to the strategist was a judge in charge of the civil administration. Money was needed to maintain such a large state apparatus. Therefore, all subjects of the emperor were obliged to pay taxes. Special employees determined the amounts of these taxes, and collectors collected them. Each village was jointly responsible for paying the tax. If someone did not pay, then others were obliged to pay for it.

The second person in the state was the patriarch, who led all the clergy and was subordinate to the emperor.

Byzantine army

Byzantium preserved the traditions of Roman military art, published and studied works on the theory, strategy and tactics of military affairs. However, by the end of the existence of the empire, the army became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability.

Many written monuments and images have survived to our time, thanks to which we can reconstruct the weapons of Byzantine soldiers. Sculptures confirm that late Italic armaments were preserved until the emperor Theodosius (346-395). At the same time, the Roman military historian Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius (end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century) complains that defensive weapons gradually disappeared from the army, especially for light infantry.

The Byzantine army was divided into several classes according to the types of weapons: heavy cavalry, or cataphracts, light cavalry, heavy infantry and light infantry, artillery, which was not numerous and was used mainly during the siege and storming of cities.

Simultaneously with the professional army, there were personal squads of generals and private individuals, called bucellaria. Vigilantes were recruited from the barbarians more often only for the duration of a military campaign, since the maintenance of such a detachment was quite expensive. To protect the emperor and empress, there were guards - tagmas. They were divided into horse tagmas (scholas, escuvites, arithms, ikanats) and foot tagmas - numbers and walls. In addition, there were also hired foreign guards - etheria - and palace guards: kuvikularii, candidates and wiggles.

Eteria - commanded by an etheriarch, a detachment of several thousand heavily armed infantrymen. Byzantine historians Michael Psellus, Nicephorus Bryennius, Anna Komnena refer to etheria either as “those who wear swords on their shoulders”, or as “armed with axes”, meaning, respectively, the Anglo-Saxon and Varangian-Russian parts of it. In terms of armament and methods of combat, it was a very good heavy infantry.

The shock part of the army was made up of warriors-riders - cataphracts, whose spear attacks often decided the outcome of the battle. Their weapons are spears, swords, daggers, clubs, shields. The body of a warrior was protected by chain mail, over which they put on a klibanion shell - metal or armor made of thick leather, equipped with pterygiums - leather stripes on the shoulders. The lower part of the shell, which was called cremasmata, protected the stomach and thighs. The rider's arms and legs were protected from injury by halcotube leggings and panikelia bracers that covered the arm from elbow to hand, as well as leather gloves. During excavations of a large palace in Constantinople, face masks were found worn by cataphract warriors. In addition, the armor protected the horse. Sometimes some cataphract warriors were armed with bows and darts instead of spears. “The Byzantine cataphracts bore little resemblance to the Western European knightly militia, they were quite disciplined, organized into permanent units, and even had (this was a common feature of the Byzantine army) uniform elements: cloaks and horsehair tufts on helmets certain color, denoting the belonging of a warrior to a particular unit. (S. B. Dashkov, Emperors of Byzantium, M.: 1996).

The light cavalry were armed with shields, spears and bows with arrows. The offensive weapons of the heavy infantry were swords, and the defensive weapons were shields and chain mail. The light infantry were armed with bows and arrows, javelins and slings. Often, weapons were provided to soldiers at the expense of the treasury.

Judging by the information presented by Emperor Leo VI in his treatise "Tactics" (beginning of the 10th century), the main offensive weapons of heavily armed warriors, both on foot and on horseback, were long spears and swords. The protective armament of heavily armed foot soldiers (hoplites) consisted of a round or oval shield with a metal umbon covered with thick rawhide, a round helmet with a high crest and earpieces, a chain mail shirt, sometimes equipped with a hood, and lamellar armor made of interconnected metal plates. .

The main part of the Byzantine army was made up of light infantry. The body of the foot soldier was protected by soft armor, which was made of multi-layered felt. Infantrymen initially used round shields for protection, which gradually gave way to elongated almond-shaped ones, which made it possible to cover almost the entire figure of a warrior. Slings, darts and daggers served as offensive weapons for lightly armed infantrymen, they also used powerful composite bows and arrows.

At the peak of power

Emperor Justinian the Great (482–565)

The Byzantine Empire reached its peak in the early period under Justinian I. During this period, the empire not only successfully repelled the onslaught of barbarian tribes, but also began to pursue a broad policy of conquest in the West. The Byzantines conquered North Africa from the Vandals, Italy from the Ostrogoths, and part of Spain from the Visigoths. For some time, the Roman Empire was restored to its former borders. However, under the successors of Justinian, most of these conquests were again lost. The future emperor Justinian was born into the family of a poor Illyrian peasant, and his wife and faithful assistant Theodora was previously a circus actress and courtesan. Her extraordinary beauty and mind conquered Justinian, and he made Theodora his wife and empress. Theodora, according to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea (between 490 and 507 - after 562), was "small in stature, beautifully built and graceful, with an amazingly beautiful oblong matte face, witty, cheerful, slanderous and intelligent." (Procopius of Caesarea. Secret History. / Translated by S. P. Kondratiev. // VDI. 1938. No. 4).

In the 7th century The Byzantines invented a special combustible mixture, which they called "Greek fire." It was a truly terrible weapon. The fire even spread through the water and spread from ship to ship.

Justinian was an intelligent and energetic ruler, a tireless reformer who dreamed of the revival of the Great Roman Empire. And at the same time, although he gave the impression of a generous, accessible and easy-to-handle person, he was merciless to opponents, two-faced and insidious. During his reign, the cruel persecution of pagans and heretics began, whose property was taken away to the treasury, they were also forbidden to enter the public service. “It is fair,” wrote Justinian, “to deprive earthly goods of one who wrongly worships God.” (S. B. Dashkov, Emperors of Byzantium, M.: 1996), strengthened his power with iron and blood. He literally drowned the largest Nika uprising in Constantinople in blood. By the way, Theodora's determination played a big role in this. He dealt ruthlessly with the recalcitrant nobility, taking the property of the condemned to the treasury. Justinian became famous for his legislative and administrative activities. He owns the famous code of civil laws "Code of Justinian", which formed the basis of the legal systems of many states.

Byzantine culture

The Byzantines have always believed that culture is exactly what distinguishes them from the barbarians. The historical writings of the Byzantine historians Procopius, Psellos, Anna Komnina, and George Pachymer and others have survived to our time. From the age of eight, children began to study at a school that provided primary education. Then those wishing to receive a more complete education continued it under the guidance of a teacher paid by their parents. They studied "Homer and geometry, dialectics and other philosophical disciplines, rhetoric and arithmetic, astronomy, music and other Hellenic sciences." It was also possible to enter the University of Constantinople, which was founded by the decree of Theodosius II in 425. “The departments of Greek and Latin grammar and rhetoric, law and philosophy were established at the university. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin. The total number of teachers was determined at 31 people, of which ten Greek and ten Latin grammarians, three Latin and five Greek rhetors, two law professors and one philosopher ”(S. Valyansky, D. Kalyuzhny. From the history of education. Byzantine education).

During the reign of Emperor Justinian, Byzantine art flourished. Only in Constantinople, by his decree, 30 churches were erected and the most famous temple of Hagia Sophia (Temple of Wisdom), which became a symbol of the "golden age" of Byzantium. The cathedral was designed by the Byzantine architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthimius of Thrall. From all over the country were invited to Constantinople the best masters. To decorate the temple, the best rocks of granite and marble were delivered, eight columns were broken out of the temple of Artemis in Ephesus and brought. According to the figurative expression of the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea: “In height, it (the temple of Hagia Sophia) rises as if to the sky and, like a ship on the high waves of the sea, stands out among other buildings.” The dome of St. Sophia Cathedral, 54 m high, was "so light, so airy that it seemed that it was not held on masonry, but was suspended from the sky on a golden chain."

The interior of the cathedral was filled with light, which was reflected from the sparkling mosaics that adorned the walls of the temple.

And this was not accidental: according to the definition of Basil the Great, Archbishop of Caesarea Cappadocia, "light is the visible form of the Divine." The columns were decorated with exquisite carvings, the floors and walls were carved from multi-colored marble, silver lamps that looked like trees descended from the ceiling. “It is famous for its inexpressible beauty… One could say that this place is not illuminated by the sun from the outside, but that the brilliance is born in itself: such an amount of light spreads in this temple. The ceiling is lined with pure gold, connecting with beauty and magnificence; competing in brilliance, its brilliance defeats the brilliance of stones. On either side are two galleries; and their ceiling is a dome, and the decoration is gold. One of these galleries is designated for praying men, the other for women. Who could count the splendor of the columns and marbles with which the temple is adorned? One would think that you are in a luxurious meadow covered with flowers, ”wrote the admiring Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea. (War with the Persians. War with the Vandals. Secret History. Aletheia, St. Petersburg - 1998).

The dome of the cathedral was decorated with a large golden cross. Hagia Sophia and now serves as an adornment of the capital of Turkey - Istanbul, the former Constantinople. The cathedral houses the Hagia Sophia mosque, surrounded by four majestic minarets, and the magnificent mosaics that once adorned its walls have disappeared under a layer of plaster.

In many parts of the empire, temples were erected that resembled the Hagia Sophia. The temple covered with a dome, as it were, personified the image of the universe, the elevated vault of the church - the "heaven of heaven", and the wide and beautiful arches that supported the dome - the four cardinal points. The Byzantines loved to decorate their temples with mosaics. From particles of smalt (pieces of colored glass mass, marble and multi-colored stone), they made amazing pictures. So, the mosaic of Hagia Sophia depicts Emperor Constantine and his wife, Empress Zoya, their images embodied the idea of ​​royalty. On the mosaics of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, a solemn procession is shown: on the one hand, surrounded by courtiers, the emperor Justinian moves, he carries a precious cup as a gift to the temple; on the other - his wife Theodora, along with the ladies of the court, in her hands is a chalice (chalice for communion), which she also carries as a gift to the church. The clothes of the emperor and empress are made of expensive fabrics, decorated with gold embroidery and precious stones, their heads are crowned with imperial crowns studded with jewels. The figures, as it were, protrude from the sparkling golden background surrounding them, giving them solemnity and significance.

The Byzantines also decorated their houses with great love: they could see expensive fabrics, famous Byzantine silks with woven patterns that were used as curtains, precious utensils, beautiful furniture, magnificent floors. Tables were covered with especially expensive carpets. The rooms in the houses were lit with oil lamps in the form of lily flowers or a two-humped camel, a fish, the head of a terrible dragon.

Education received in Byzantium was highly valued: “No European could be considered sufficiently educated if he had not studied at least for some time in Constantinople,” wrote Pope Pius II (1405–1464).

Particularly magnificent was the palace of Vasileus - the Grand Imperial Palace, erected on the very shore of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara. The palace was a whole complex of luxurious buildings. Beautiful palaces with beautifully decorated ceremonial halls and living rooms, with open terraces and luxurious baths - all this was surrounded by gardens and fountains. Special closed passages led to the imperial box at the hippodrome and to other buildings of the palace complex. The size and scale of the buildings were amazing. Visited Constantinople in 1348-1349. Stefan of Novgorod recorded: “There is a palace right there, called the Chamber of the Faithful Tsar Constantine.” Its walls are very high, higher than the city walls, the palace is great, it is like a city, it stands near the Hippodrome by the sea. (“The Journey of Stefan of Novgorod” in the book by I. Maleto “Anthology of the Journeys of Russian Travelers. XII-XV centuries”. M .: Nauka, 2005).

The walls and floors in the palaces were decorated with multi-colored marble and mosaics, the motives of many of them were dedicated to the military victories of Emperor Justinian over the barbarians. Not only the walls of the palace, but also the floors were decorated with magnificent mosaic compositions - here in front of us is a peasant milking a goat, a fisherman is fishing on the river bank, a beautiful girl carries a heavy jug filled with water in her hands, and a young man plays the flute.

Expensive fabrics adorned the walls, they were draped window and doorways. Thrones, stools and boxes were inlaid with precious metals and ivory. But the most magnificent room of the palace was, of course, the “Golden Throne Room”, called Chrysotriclinium, where solemn receptions of foreign ambassadors were held.

There were legends about the luxury and wealth of the Byzantine imperial palace. “In front of the throne of the emperor stood a bronze gilded tree, on the branches of which birds of different breeds, also made of gilded bronze, sat, singing according to their bird breed in different voices. The throne of the emperor was so skillfully built that one moment it seemed low, the next - higher, and after that elevated. This throne, as it were, was guarded by lions of unusual size, I don’t know, made of bronze or wood, but gilded. They beat the floor with their tails, opened their mouths and, moving their tongues, uttered a growl. At my appearance, lions roared, birds chirped, each in its own way, when, bowing before the emperor, I bowed for the third time, then, raising my head, I saw him, whom I had just seen sitting on a small dais, now sitting almost under the ceiling of the hall and dressed in other clothes. I could not understand how this happened: he must have been lifted up by a machine ..., - wrote, without hiding his admiration for the reception held in the Constantinople palace, the ambassador of the German emperor Liutprand of Cremona (Liutprand of Cremona. Anatapodosis, or Retribution). To supply the huge city with water, a whole system of aqueducts and cisterns was built. During the reign of Justinian, the largest and most magnificent reservoir in the city was erected - this structure resembles a beautiful palace, decorated with many elegant marble columns, but located underground and filled with clear water. Water came here through special water pipes and aqueducts from springs located in the forest 19 km from the city. When the Turks captured Constantinople, they, amazed by the beauty and splendor of the reservoir, called it "A Thousand and One Columns."

The hippodrome was the center of social and cultural life of the capital. Here, with a huge gathering of people, and the hippodrome could accommodate about a hundred thousand spectators, various celebrations, public executions, chariot races, all kinds of sports competitions, animal hunting and other similar spectacles took place. The hippodrome was decorated with ancient monuments brought to the city from different places as trophies: a snake column from Delphi, an Egyptian obelisk of Thutmose III delivered by order of Constantine from Luxor. The gates to the hippodrome were decorated with magnificent bronze horses, sculpted by the greatest Greek sculptor Lysippos and subsequently taken by the crusaders to Venice. “... Along this square (hippodrome) there was a wall that had a good 15 feet in height and 10 in width; and on top of this wall were the figures of both men and women, and horses, and bulls, and camels, and bears, and lions, and many other animals, cast in copper. And all of them were so well made and so naturally sculpted that neither in pagan countries nor in the Christian world can one find such a skilled craftsman who could imagine and cast the figures so well as these were cast. (Description of the hippodrome by Robert de Clary, a member of the Fourth Crusade).

Byzantine Empire in the 7th-11th centuries

The Byzantine Empire flourished. Nevertheless, this greatness was bought at too high a price - devastating wars gradually undermined the country's economy, the population was impoverished. And the lands and wealth of the empire attracted powerful neighbors. The successors of Justinian no longer thought about conquest campaigns, they were forced only to defend the borders of the state. Soon, many of the lands conquered by Justinian in the west were lost.

The next, the 7th century, brought Byzantium some hardships - it was one of the most difficult periods in the history of the empire. Sassanid Iran fought with Byzantium for trade routes, and from the north, the blows were delivered by the Slavs. Prolonged wars with Persia and confrontation with the Slavic tribes, who poured in an unstoppable stream from behind the Danube and settled on the lands of the empire - all this led to the fact that Byzantium began to lose its possessions. By the middle of the 7th century Slavic tribes captured the Balkan provinces: Dalmatia, Istria, Macedonia, Moesia, Peloponnese and Thrace.

Soon another powerful enemy appeared - the Arab Caliphate. Byzantium lost most of its possessions in Syria and Palestine, then in Upper Mesopotamia and Egypt, and later - lands in North Africa, the Arabs even besieged Constantinople. It should be noted that the country itself was restless - many cities were ruined and deserted, internal unrest significantly undermined the country's economy.

The Basilica Cistern is one of the largest and well-preserved ancient underground reservoirs in Constantinople. It is located in the historical center of Istanbul opposite the Hagia Sophia. The construction of the cistern was started by the Greeks during the reign of Emperor Constantine I (306–337) and completed in 532 under Emperor Justinian. The dimensions of the underground structure are 145 × 65 m, the capacity is 80,000 m3 of water. The vaulted ceiling of the cistern is supported by 336 columns (12 rows of 28 columns) eight meters high, they stand at a distance of 4.8 m from each other. The 4 m thick walls are made of refractory bricks and covered with a special waterproofing mortar.

Period from the 7th to the 11th century. turned out to be difficult for the Byzantine Empire. However, the emperors of the new Macedonian dynasty, who came to power at this difficult time, managed not only to bring the country out of the crisis, but also to make the empire more united and monolithic. They carried out a number of transformations in the state structure and in the army. Greek became the official language. At the end of the 9th century, starting from the reign of Basil I, the Byzantine Empire again experienced a brief flowering, the Macedonian dynasty 867-1081. provided Byzantium with one hundred and fifty years of prosperity and power. During this period, which is often called the “golden age” of Byzantine statehood, successful military campaigns against the Arabs were carried out, the borders of the empire were again extended up to the Euphrates and Tigris, Armenia and Iberia were conquered. This period is also characterized by the flourishing of culture.

Decline of an empire

After a brief heyday during the reign of the powerful Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire enters a period of decline. The reasons for the weakness of the empire in these last centuries are complex and varied. They lurked in the slowness of the socio-economic development of Byzantium, the strengthening of feudal fragmentation - the rulers of the provinces in this period had little regard for the central government. Cities gradually fell into decay, the army and navy weakened. At the same time, the still remaining power and wealth of the Byzantine Empire aroused the envy of its neighbors, and at the beginning of the 13th century. she experienced a severe shock. In 1204, the knights of the Fourth Crusade, supported by the Venetians, captured and sacked Constantinople. The Byzantine historian Nikita Choniates (mid-12th century - 1213), who was in the city at that time, described what was happening with horror: abandoned by their own people were destroyed. About the looting of the main temple (Hagia Sophia) one cannot even listen indifferently. The holy lecterns, woven with jewels and of extraordinary beauty that led to amazement, were cut into pieces and divided among the soldiers along with other magnificent things. When they needed to take out of the temple sacred vessels, objects of extraordinary art and extreme rarity, silver and gold, which were lined with chairs, ambos and gates, they brought mules and horses with saddles into the vestibules of the temples. (Nikita Choniates. Nikita Choniates is a story beginning with the reign of John Comnenus. VIPDA. St. Petersburg: 186–862). One of the participants in the assault and the author of the chronicle “The Conquest of Constantinople,” Robert de Clary, amazed at the wealth of the city and the greed of the crusaders, recalls: “There were so many rich utensils made of gold and silver, and so many gold-woven fabrics, and so many rich treasures that it was a real miracle. , all this huge goodness that was demolished there. I myself think that even in the 40 richest cities in the world there was hardly as much goodness as was found in Constantinople. And the very people who were supposed to guard the good, took away the jewels of gold and everything they wanted, and so plundered the good; and each of the powerful men took either golden utensils, or golden-woven silks, or what he liked best, and then carried away. After the fall of the empire, the crusaders conquered and divided the entire empire and established their own rules in it. The powerful Byzantine Empire broke up into several independent states: the Empire of Trebizond was formed on the Black Sea coast, the Kingdom of Epirus was formed on the Balkan Peninsula, the Nicaean Empire was located in Asia Minor. The crusaders created the Latin Empire, under whose rule were the lands of Central Greece, Thrace and the Peloponnese peninsula. In 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos (1258-1282) succeeded in liberating Constantinople from the Latins and was re-proclaimed emperor in the Hagia Sophia. The deserted city was a very sad sight. Most of the palaces, temples, public buildings were ruins, which were overgrown with grass and shrubs, among these ruins the locals grazed goats and sheep. “Nothing but a plain of destruction filled with rubble and ruins,” the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Grigora later wrote (The Roman History of Nicephorus Grigora, beginning with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins / Per. M. L. Shalfeev / / VIPDA. Spb., 1862). The possessions of the empire were significantly reduced - partly as a result of invasions from the west, partly due to the unstable situation in Asia Minor, in which in the middle of the 13th century. The country was torn apart by civil unrest and strife on religious grounds.

In the XV century. The Byzantine Empire met with a new, much more formidable enemy - the Ottoman Turks. In April 1453, a huge (according to various historians, from eighty to three hundred thousand people) Turkish army, led by Sultan Mehmed II, besieged the Byzantine capital. The defenders of the city fought valiantly and managed to repulse several attacks, but the forces were too unequal, the ranks of the defenders were melting, and there was no replacement for them. And already at the end of May, despite the stubborn resistance of the inhabitants of the city, Turkish troops broke into Constantinople and subjected it to a three-day pogrom. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos (1405–1453), fought alongside the city's defenders like a common soldier and died in battle. The picture of the plundered city was truly terrible. “Military happiness was already leaning on the side of the Turks, and one could see a spectacle full of shudder, for the Romans and Latins, preventing those who were moving the stairs to the walls, some were cut by them, while others, closing their eyes, fell from the wall, crushing their bodies and losing their lives in a terrible way. . The Turks now began to put up the stairs without hindrance and climbed the wall like flying eagles, ”wrote the Byzantine historian Michael Duka about the last hours of the siege of Constantinople by the Turks. According to eyewitnesses, "in many places the ground could not be seen because of the many corpses." About 60,000 inhabitants were enslaved. Magnificent temples and palaces were looted and burned, and many beautiful art monuments were destroyed. On May 30, 1453, Sultan Mehmed II solemnly entered the capital and, amazed by the beauty and grandeur of Hagia Sophia, ordered the central temple of the city to be converted into a mosque. With the fall of Constantinople, the once majestic Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, striking contemporaries with its luxury, high level of culture and enlightenment. Its thousand-year history, which had such a beneficial effect on the culture of Western Europe and Ancient Russia, has ended.

One of the greatest state formations of antiquity, in the first centuries of our era fell into decay. Numerous tribes, standing on the lower levels of civilization, destroyed much of the heritage of the ancient world. But the Eternal City was not destined to perish: it was reborn on the banks of the Bosphorus and for many years amazed contemporaries with its magnificence.

Second Rome

The history of the emergence of Byzantium dates back to the middle of the 3rd century, when Flavius ​​Valery Aurelius Constantine, Constantine I (the Great) became the Roman emperor. In those days, the Roman state was torn apart by internal strife and besieged by external enemies. The state of the eastern provinces was more prosperous, and Constantine decided to move the capital to one of them. In 324, the construction of Constantinople began on the banks of the Bosphorus, and already in 330 it was declared the New Rome.

Thus began its existence Byzantium, whose history spans eleven centuries.

Of course, there was no talk of any stable state borders in those days. Throughout its long life, the power of Constantinople then weakened, then again gained power.

Justinian and Theodora

In many ways, the state of affairs in the country depended on the personal qualities of its ruler, which is generally characteristic of states with an absolute monarchy, to which Byzantium belonged. The history of its formation is inextricably linked with the name of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) and his wife, Empress Theodora, a very extraordinary woman and, apparently, extremely gifted.

By the beginning of the 5th century, the empire had turned into a small Mediterranean state, and the new emperor was obsessed with the idea of ​​reviving its former glory: he conquered vast territories in the West, achieved relative peace with Persia in the East.

History is inextricably linked with the era of the reign of Justinian. It is thanks to his care that today there are such monuments of ancient architecture as a mosque in Istanbul or the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. Historians consider one of the most notable achievements of the emperor to be the codification of Roman law, which became the basis of the legal system of many European states.

Medieval manners

Construction and endless wars demanded huge expenses. The Emperor raised taxes endlessly. Discontent grew in society. In January 532, during the appearance of the emperor at the Hippodrome (a kind of analogue of the Colosseum, which accommodated 100 thousand people), riots broke out, which grew into a large-scale riot. It was possible to suppress the uprising with unheard of cruelty: the rebels were persuaded to gather in the Hippodrome, as if for negotiations, after which they locked the gates and killed everyone to the last.

Procopius of Caesarea reports the death of 30 thousand people. It is noteworthy that the emperor's crown was kept by his wife Theodora, it was she who convinced Justinian, who was ready to flee, to continue the fight, saying that she prefers death to flight: "royal power is a beautiful shroud."

In 565, the empire included parts of Syria, the Balkans, Italy, Greece, Palestine, Asia Minor, and the northern coast of Africa. But the endless wars had an adverse effect on the state of the country. After the death of Justinian, the borders began to shrink again.

"Macedonian Revival"

In 867, Basil I came to power, the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, which lasted until 1054. Historians call this era the "Macedonian revival" and consider it the maximum flourishing of the world medieval state, which at that time was Byzantium.

The history of the successful cultural and religious expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire is well known to all the states of Eastern Europe: one of the most characteristic features of the foreign policy of Constantinople was missionary work. It was thanks to the influence of Byzantium that the branch of Christianity spread to the East, which after 1054 became Orthodoxy.

Cultural Capital of the European World

The art of the Eastern Roman Empire was closely associated with religion. Unfortunately, for several centuries, political and religious elites could not agree on whether the worship of sacred images was idolatry (the movement was called iconoclasm). In the process, a huge number of statues, frescoes and mosaics were destroyed.

Extremely indebted to the empire, history throughout its existence was a kind of guardian of ancient culture and contributed to the spread of ancient Greek literature in Italy. Some historians are convinced that the Renaissance was largely due to the existence of the New Rome.

During the era of the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire managed to neutralize the two main enemies of the state: the Arabs in the east and the Bulgarians in the north. The history of victory over the latter is very impressive. As a result of a sudden attack on the enemy, Emperor Basil II managed to capture 14,000 prisoners. He ordered them to be blinded, leaving only one eye for every hundredth, after which he let the crippled people go home. Seeing his blind army, the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil suffered a blow from which he never recovered. Medieval customs were indeed very severe.

After the death of Basil II, the last representative of the Macedonian dynasty, the history of the fall of Byzantium began.

End rehearsal

In 1204, Constantinople surrendered for the first time under the onslaught of the enemy: enraged by an unsuccessful campaign in the "promised land", the crusaders broke into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.

The new formation did not last long: on July 51, 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople without a fight, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The dynasty he founded ruled Byzantium until its fall, but this rule was rather miserable. In the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and even plundered church and private property in kind.

Fall of Constantinople

By the beginning, only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small scattered enclaves in southern Greece remained from the former territories. Desperate attempts by the last emperor of Byzantium, Manuel II, to enlist military support were unsuccessful. On May 29, Constantinople was conquered for the second and last time.

The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II renamed the city Istanbul, and the main Christian temple of the city, the Cathedral of St. Sophia, turned into a mosque. With the disappearance of the capital, Byzantium also disappeared: the history of the most powerful state of the Middle Ages ceased forever.

Byzantium, Constantinople and New Rome

It is a very curious fact that the name "Byzantine Empire" appeared after its collapse: for the first time it is found in the study of Hieronymus Wolf already in 1557. The reason was the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Constantinople was built. The inhabitants themselves called it none other than the Roman Empire, and themselves - the Romans (Romeans).

The cultural influence of Byzantium on the countries of Eastern Europe can hardly be overestimated. However, the first Russian scientist who began to study this medieval state was Yu. A. Kulakovsky. "History of Byzantium" in three volumes was published only at the beginning of the twentieth century and covered the events from 359 to 717. In the last few years of his life, the scientist prepared the fourth volume of the work for publication, but after his death in 1919, the manuscript could not be found.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE
the eastern part of the Roman Empire, which survived the fall of Rome and the loss of the western provinces at the beginning of the Middle Ages and existed until the conquest of Constantinople (the capital of the Byzantine Empire) by the Turks in 1453. There was a period when it stretched from Spain to Persia, but it was always based on Greece and other Balkan lands and Asia Minor. Until the middle of the 11th century. Byzantium was the most powerful power in the Christian world, and Constantinople was the largest city in Europe. The Byzantines called their country the "Empire of the Romans" (Greek "Roma" - Roman), but it was extremely different from the Roman Empire of Augustus. Byzantium retained the Roman system of government and laws, but in terms of language and culture it was a Greek state, had an oriental-type monarchy, and most importantly, zealously preserved the Christian faith. For centuries, the Byzantine Empire acted as the guardian of Greek culture; thanks to it, the Slavic peoples joined the civilization.
EARLY BYZANTIA
Founding of Constantinople. It would be legitimate to start the history of Byzantium from the moment of the fall of Rome. However, two important decisions that determined the character of this medieval empire - the conversion to Christianity and the founding of Constantinople - were taken by Emperor Constantine I the Great (reigned 324-337) about a century and a half before the fall of the Roman Empire. Diocletian (284-305), who ruled shortly before Constantine, reorganized the administration of the empire, dividing it into East and West. After the death of Diocletian, the empire was plunged into a civil war, when several applicants fought for the throne at once, among whom was Constantine. In 313, Constantine, having defeated his opponents in the West, retreated from the pagan gods with whom Rome was inextricably linked, and declared himself an adherent of Christianity. All of his successors, except one, were Christians, and with the support of the imperial power, Christianity soon spread throughout the empire. Another important decision of Constantine, taken by him after he became the sole emperor, having overthrown his rival in the East, was the election as the new capital of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, founded by Greek sailors on the European coast of the Bosporus in 659 (or 668) BC . Constantine expanded Byzantium, erected new fortifications, rebuilt it according to the Roman model and gave the city a new name. The official proclamation of the new capital took place in 330 AD.
Fall of the Western Provinces. It seemed that Constantine's administrative and financial policies breathed new life into the united Roman Empire. But the period of unity and prosperity did not last long. The last emperor who owned the entire empire was Theodosius I the Great (reigned 379-395). After his death, the empire was finally divided into East and West. Throughout the 5th c. at the head of the Western Roman Empire were mediocre emperors who were unable to protect their provinces from barbarian raids. In addition, the welfare of the western part of the empire has always depended on the welfare of its eastern part. With the division of the empire, the West was cut off from its main sources of income. Gradually, the western provinces disintegrated into several barbarian states, and in 476 the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was deposed.
The struggle to save the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantinople and the East as a whole were in a better position. The Eastern Roman Empire was led by more able rulers, its borders were not so long and better fortified, and it was also richer and had a larger population. On the eastern borders, Constantinople retained its possessions during the endless wars with Persia that began in Roman times. However, the Eastern Roman Empire also faced a number of serious problems. The cultural traditions of the Middle Eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were very different from those of the Greeks and Romans, and the population of these territories regarded the domination of the empire with disgust. Separatism was closely connected with ecclesiastical strife: in Antioch (Syria) and Alexandria (Egypt) every now and then new teachings appeared, which the Ecumenical Councils condemned as heretical. Of all the heresies, Monophysitism has been the most troubling. Constantinople's attempts to reach a compromise between orthodox and Monophysite teachings led to a schism between the Roman and Eastern churches. The split was overcome after the accession to the throne of Justin I (reigned 518-527), an unshakable orthodox, but Rome and Constantinople continued to drift apart in doctrine, worship and church organization. First of all, Constantinople objected to the pope's claim to supremacy over the entire Christian church. Discord arose from time to time, which led in 1054 to the final split (schism) of the Christian Church into the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox.

Justinian I. A large-scale attempt to regain power over the West was made by Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527-565). Military campaigns led by outstanding commanders - Belisarius, and later Narses - ended with great success. Italy, North Africa and southern Spain were conquered. However, in the Balkans, the invasion of the Slavic tribes, crossing the Danube and devastating the Byzantine lands, could not be stopped. In addition, Justinian had to content himself with a tenuous truce with Persia, following a long and inconclusive war. In the empire itself, Justinian maintained the traditions of imperial luxury. Under him, such masterpieces of architecture as the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople and the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, aqueducts, baths, public buildings in cities and border fortresses were also built. Perhaps Justinian's most significant achievement was the codification of Roman law. Although in Byzantium itself it was later replaced by other codes, in the West, Roman law formed the basis of the laws of France, Germany and Italy. Justinian had a wonderful assistant - his wife Theodora. Once she saved the crown for him by persuading Justinian to stay in the capital during the riots. Theodora supported the Monophysites. Under her influence, and also faced with the political realities of the rise of the Monophysites in the east, Justinian was forced to move away from the orthodox position he had held in the early period of his reign. Justinian is unanimously recognized as one of the greatest Byzantine emperors. He restored cultural ties between Rome and Constantinople and prolonged the period of prosperity for the North African region by 100 years. During his reign, the empire reached its maximum size.

FORMATION OF MEDIEVAL BYZANTH
A century and a half after Justinian, the face of the empire changed completely. She lost most of her possessions, and the remaining provinces were reorganized. Greek replaced Latin as the official language. Even the national composition of the empire changed. By the 8th c. the country effectively ceased to be the Eastern Roman Empire and became the medieval Byzantine Empire. Military setbacks began shortly after Justinian's death. The Germanic tribes of the Lombards invaded northern Italy and established duchies in their own right further south. Byzantium retained only Sicily, the extreme south of the Apennine Peninsula (Bruttius and Calabria, i.e. "sock" and "heel"), as well as the corridor between Rome and Ravenna, the seat of the imperial governor. The northern borders of the empire were threatened by the Asian nomadic tribes of the Avars. Slavs poured into the Balkans, who began to populate these lands, establishing their principalities on them.
Heraclius. Together with the attacks of the barbarians, the empire had to endure a devastating war with Persia. Detachments of Persian troops invaded Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Asia Minor. Constantinople was almost taken. In 610 Heraclius (reigned 610-641), the son of the governor of North Africa, arrived in Constantinople and took power into his own hands. He devoted the first decade of his reign to raising a crushed empire from ruins. He raised the morale of the army, reorganized it, found allies in the Caucasus, and defeated the Persians in several brilliant campaigns. By 628, Persia was finally defeated, and peace reigned on the eastern borders of the empire. However, the war undermined the strength of the empire. In 633, the Arabs, who had converted to Islam and were full of religious enthusiasm, launched an invasion of the Middle East. Egypt, Palestine and Syria, which Heraclius managed to return to the empire, were again lost by 641 (the year of his death). By the end of the century, the empire had lost North Africa. Now Byzantium consisted of small territories in Italy, the Balkan provinces constantly devastated by the Slavs, and in Asia Minor, which now and then suffered from the raids of the Arabs. Other emperors of the Heraclius dynasty fought off the enemies, as far as it was in their power. The provinces were reorganized, and administrative and military policies were radically revised. The Slavs were allocated state lands for settlement, which made them subjects of the empire. With the help of skillful diplomacy, Byzantium managed to make allies and trading partners of the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Khazars, who inhabited the lands north of the Caspian Sea.
Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty. The policy of the emperors of the Heraclius dynasty was continued by Leo III (ruled 717-741), the founder of the Isaurian dynasty. The Isaurian emperors were active and successful rulers. They could not return the lands occupied by the Slavs, but at least they managed to keep the Slavs out of Constantinople. In Asia Minor, they fought off the Arabs, driving them out of these territories. However, they failed in Italy. Forced to repel the raids of the Slavs and Arabs, absorbed in ecclesiastical disputes, they had neither the time nor the means to protect the corridor connecting Rome with Ravenna from the aggressive Lombards. Around 751, the Byzantine governor (exarch) surrendered Ravenna to the Lombards. The Pope, who himself was attacked by the Lombards, received help from the Franks from the north, and in 800 Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as emperor in Rome. The Byzantines considered this act of the pope an infringement on their rights and in the future did not recognize the legitimacy of the Western emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The Isaurian emperors were especially famous for their role in the turbulent events around iconoclasm. Iconoclasm is a heretical religious movement against the worship of icons, images of Jesus Christ and saints. He was supported by broad sections of society and many clergy, especially in Asia Minor. However, it went against ancient church customs and was condemned by the Roman church. In the end, after the cathedral restored the veneration of icons in 843, the movement was suppressed.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE MEDIEVAL BYZANTINE
Amorian and Macedonian dynasties. The Isaurian dynasty was replaced by the short-lived Amorian, or Phrygian, dynasty (820-867), whose founder was Michael II, formerly a simple soldier from the city of Amorius in Asia Minor. Under Emperor Michael III (reigned 842-867), the empire entered into a period of new expansion that lasted almost 200 years (842-1025), which made us recall its former power. However, the Amorian dynasty was overthrown by Basil, the harsh and ambitious favorite of the emperor. A peasant, in the recent past a groom, Vasily rose to the post of great chamberlain, after which he achieved the execution of Varda, the powerful uncle of Michael III, and a year later he deposed and executed Michael himself. By origin, Basil was an Armenian, but was born in Macedonia (northern Greece), and therefore the dynasty he founded was called the Macedonian. The Macedonian dynasty was very popular and lasted until 1056. Basil I (reigned 867-886) was an energetic and gifted ruler. His administrative transformations were continued by Leo VI the Wise (reigned 886-912), during whose reign the empire suffered setbacks: the Arabs captured Sicily, the Russian prince Oleg approached Constantinople. Leo's son Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (reigned 913-959) focused on literary activity, and military affairs were run by the co-ruler, naval commander Roman I Lakapin (ruled in 913-944). The son of Constantine Roman II (reigned in 959-963) died four years after accession to the throne, leaving two young sons, until the age of majority of which the outstanding military leaders Nicephorus II Phocas (in 963-969) and John I Tzimisces (in 969) ruled as co-emperors -976). Having reached adulthood, the son of Roman II ascended the throne under the name of Basil II (reigned 976-1025).

Successes in the fight against the Arabs. The military successes of Byzantium under the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty took place mainly on two fronts: in the struggle against the Arabs in the east, and against the Bulgarians in the north. The advance of the Arabs into the interior regions of Asia Minor was stopped by the Isaurian emperors in the 8th century, however, the Muslims fortified themselves in the southeastern mountainous regions, from where they continually raided the Christian regions. The Arab fleet dominated the Mediterranean. Sicily and Crete were captured, and Cyprus was under the complete control of the Muslims. In the middle of the 9th c. the situation has changed. Under pressure from the large landowners of Asia Minor, who wanted to push the borders of the state to the east and expand their possessions at the expense of new lands, the Byzantine army invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia, established control over the Taurus Mountains and captured Syria and even Palestine. Equally important was the annexation of two islands - Crete and Cyprus.
War against the Bulgarians. In the Balkans, the main problem in the period from 842 to 1025 was the threat from the First Bulgarian Kingdom, which took shape in the second half of the 9th century. states of the Slavs and Turkic-speaking Proto-Bulgarians. In 865, the Bulgarian prince Boris I introduced Christianity among the people subject to him. However, the adoption of Christianity in no way cooled the ambitious plans of the Bulgarian rulers. The son of Boris, Tsar Simeon, invaded Byzantium several times, trying to capture Constantinople. His plans were violated by the naval commander Roman Lekapin, who later became co-emperor. Nevertheless, the empire had to be on the alert. At a critical moment, Nikephoros II, who focused on conquests in the east, turned to the Kiev prince Svyatoslav for help in pacifying the Bulgarians, but found that the Russians themselves were striving to take the place of the Bulgarians. In 971, John I finally defeated and expelled the Russians and annexed the eastern part of Bulgaria to the empire. Bulgaria was finally conquered by his successor Vasily II during several fierce campaigns against the Bulgarian king Samuil, who created a state on the territory of Macedonia with the capital in the city of Ohrid (modern Ohrid). After Basil occupied Ohrid in 1018, Bulgaria was divided into several provinces as part of the Byzantine Empire, and Basil received the nickname Bulgar Slayer.
Italy. The situation in Italy, as had happened before, was less favorable. Under Alberic, "princeps and senator of all the Romans," papal power was unaffected by Byzantium, but from 961 control of the popes passed to the German king Otto I of the Saxon dynasty, who in 962 was crowned in Rome as Holy Roman Emperor. Otto sought to conclude an alliance with Constantinople, and after two unsuccessful embassies in 972, he still managed to get the hand of Theophano, a relative of Emperor John I, for his son Otto II.
Internal achievements of the empire. During the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantines achieved impressive success. Literature and art flourished. Basil I created a commission tasked with revising the legislation and formulating it in Greek. Under Basil's son Leo VI, a collection of laws was compiled, known as the Basilicas, partly based on the code of Justinian and in fact replacing it.
Missionary. No less important in this period of development of the country was missionary activity. It was started by Cyril and Methodius, who, as preachers of Christianity among the Slavs, reached Moravia itself (although in the end the region ended up in the sphere of influence of the Catholic Church). The Balkan Slavs who lived in the neighborhood of Byzantium adopted Orthodoxy, although this did not go without a short quarrel with Rome, when the cunning and unprincipled Bulgarian prince Boris, seeking privileges for the newly created church, put either Rome or Constantinople. The Slavs received the right to hold services in their native language (Old Church Slavonic). Slavs and Greeks jointly trained priests and monks and translated religious literature from Greek. About a hundred years later, in 989, the church achieved another success when Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Christianity and established close ties between Kievan Rus and its new Christian church with Byzantium. This union was sealed sister Vasily Anna and Prince Vladimir.
Patriarchy of Photius. In the last years of the Amorian dynasty and the first years of the Macedonian dynasty, Christian unity was undermined by a major conflict with Rome in connection with the appointment of Photius, a layman of great learning, as Patriarch of Constantinople. In 863, the pope declared the appointment null and void, and in response, in 867, a church council in Constantinople announced the removal of the pope.
DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The collapse of the 11th century After the death of Basil II, Byzantium entered into a period of reign of mediocre emperors that lasted until 1081. At this time, an external threat loomed over the country, which eventually led to the loss of most of the territory by the empire. From the north, the Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs advanced, devastating the lands south of the Danube. But far more devastating for the empire were the losses suffered in Italy and Asia Minor. Beginning in 1016, the Normans rushed to southern Italy in search of fortune, serving as mercenaries in endless petty wars. In the second half of the century, they began to wage wars of conquest under the leadership of the ambitious Robert Guiscard and very quickly took possession of all the south of Italy and expelled the Arabs from Sicily. In 1071, Robert Guiscard occupied the last remaining Byzantine fortresses in southern Italy and, having crossed the Adriatic Sea, invaded Greece. Meanwhile, the raids of the Turkic tribes on Asia Minor became more frequent. By the middle of the century, Southwestern Asia was captured by the armies of the Seljuk khans, who in 1055 conquered the weakened Baghdad Caliphate. In 1071, the Seljuk ruler Alp-Arslan defeated the Byzantine army led by Emperor Roman IV Diogenes at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia. After this defeat, Byzantium was never able to recover, and the weakness of the central government led to the fact that the Turks poured into Asia Minor. The Seljuks created a Muslim state here, known as the Rum ("Roman") Sultanate, with its capital in Iconium (modern Konya). At one time, young Byzantium managed to survive the invasions of Arabs and Slavs into Asia Minor and Greece. To the collapse of the 11th century. gave special reasons that had nothing to do with the onslaught of the Normans and Turks. The history of Byzantium between 1025 and 1081 is marked by the reign of exceptionally weak emperors and the ruinous strife between the civil bureaucracy in Constantinople and the military landed aristocracy in the provinces. After the death of Basil II, the throne passed first to his incompetent brother Constantine VIII (ruled 1025-1028), and then to his two elderly nieces, Zoe (ruled 1028-1050) and Theodora (1055-1056), the last representatives of the Macedonian dynasty. Empress Zoe was not lucky with three husbands and an adopted son, who did not stay in power for long, but nevertheless devastated the imperial treasury. After Theodora's death, Byzantine politics came under the control of a party headed by the powerful Duca family.

The Komnenos dynasty. The further decline of the empire was temporarily suspended with the coming to power of a representative of the military aristocracy, Alexei I Komnenos (1081-1118). The Komnenos dynasty ruled until 1185. Alexei did not have the strength to expel the Seljuks from Asia Minor, but at least he managed to conclude an agreement with them that stabilized the situation. After that, he began to fight with the Normans. First of all, Alexei tried to use all his military resources, and also attracted mercenaries from the Seljuks. In addition, at the cost of significant trading privileges, he managed to buy the support of Venice with its fleet. So he managed to restrain the ambitious Robert Guiscard, who was entrenched in Greece (d. 1085). Having stopped the advance of the Normans, Alexei again took up the Seljuks. But here he was seriously hampered by the crusader movement that had begun in the west. He hoped that mercenaries would serve in his army during campaigns in Asia Minor. But the 1st crusade, which began in 1096, pursued goals that differed from those outlined by Alexei. The crusaders saw their task as simply driving the infidels out of Christian holy places, in particular from Jerusalem, while they often ravaged the provinces of Byzantium itself. As a result of the 1st crusade, the crusaders created new states on the territory of the former Byzantine provinces of Syria and Palestine, which, however, did not last long. The influx of crusaders into the eastern Mediterranean weakened the position of Byzantium. The history of Byzantium under Komnenos can be characterized as a period not of rebirth, but of survival. Byzantine diplomacy, which has always been considered the greatest asset of the empire, succeeded in playing off the crusader states in Syria, the strengthening Balkan states, Hungary, Venice and other Italian cities, as well as the Norman Sicilian kingdom. The same policy was carried out with respect to various Islamic states, which were sworn enemies. Inside the country, the policy of the Komnenos led to the strengthening of large landlords at the expense of weakening the central government. As a reward for military service, the provincial nobility received huge possessions. Even the power of the Komnenos could not stop the slide of the state towards feudal relations and compensate for the loss of income. Financial difficulties were exacerbated by the reduction in revenue from customs duties in the port of Constantinople. After three prominent rulers, Alexei I, John II and Manuel I, in 1180-1185 weak representatives of the Komnenos dynasty came to power, the last of which was Andronicus I Komnenos (reigned 1183-1185), who made an unsuccessful attempt to strengthen the central power. In 1185, Isaac II (reigned 1185-1195), the first of the four emperors of the Angel dynasty, seized the throne. The Angels lacked both the means and the strength of character to prevent the political collapse of the empire or to oppose the West. In 1186 Bulgaria regained its independence, and in 1204 a crushing blow fell upon Constantinople from the west.
4th crusade. From 1095 to 1195, three waves of crusaders passed through the territory of Byzantium, who repeatedly looted here. Therefore, every time the Byzantine emperors were in a hurry to send them out of the empire as soon as possible. Under the Komnenos, Venetian merchants received trade concessions in Constantinople; very soon most of the foreign trade passed to them from the owners. After the accession to the throne of Andronicus Komnenos in 1183, Italian concessions were withdrawn, and Italian merchants were either killed by a mob or sold into slavery. However, the emperors from the dynasty of Angels who came to power after Andronicus were forced to restore trade privileges. The 3rd Crusade (1187-1192) turned out to be a complete failure: the Western barons were completely unable to regain control over Palestine and Syria, which were conquered during the 1st Crusade, but lost after the 2nd Crusade. Pious Europeans cast envious glances at the Christian relics collected in Constantinople. Finally, after 1054, a clear schism emerged between the Greek and Roman churches. Of course, the popes never directly called for the Christians to storm the Christian city, but they sought to use the situation in order to establish direct control over the Greek church. Eventually, the crusaders turned their weapons against Constantinople. The pretext for the attack was the removal of Isaac II Angel by his brother Alexei III. Isaac's son fled to Venice, where he promised the aged Doge Enrico Dandolo money, assistance to the crusaders, and the union of the Greek and Roman churches in exchange for support from the Venetians in restoring his father's power. The 4th crusade, organized by Venice with the support of the French military, was turned against the Byzantine Empire. The crusaders landed at Constantinople, meeting only token resistance. Alexei III, who usurped power, fled, Isaac became emperor again, and his son was crowned as co-emperor Alexei IV. As a result of the outbreak of a popular uprising, a change of power took place, the aged Isaac died, and his son was killed in the prison where he was imprisoned. Enraged crusaders in April 1204 took Constantinople by storm (for the first time since its founding) and betrayed the city to plunder and destruction, after which they created a feudal state here, the Latin Empire, headed by Baldwin I of Flanders. Byzantine lands were divided into fiefs and transferred to the French barons. However, the Byzantine princes managed to maintain control over three regions: the Despotate of Epirus in northwestern Greece, the Empire of Nicaea in Asia Minor, and the Empire of Trebizond on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea.
NEW RISE AND FINAL COLLAPSE
Restoration of Byzantium. The power of the Latins in the Aegean region was, generally speaking, not very strong. Epirus, the Empire of Nicaea, and Bulgaria vied with the Latin Empire and with each other, making attempts by military and diplomatic means to regain control of Constantinople and drive out the western feudal lords who had entrenched themselves in various parts of Greece, in the Balkans and in the Aegean Sea. The Empire of Nicaea became the winner in the struggle for Constantinople. July 15, 1261 Constantinople surrendered without resistance to Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. However, the possessions of the Latin feudal lords in Greece turned out to be more stable, and the Byzantines did not succeed in putting an end to them. The Byzantine dynasty of Palaiologos, which won the battle, ruled Constantinople until its fall in 1453. The empire's possessions were significantly reduced, partly as a result of invasions from the west, partly as a result of the unstable situation in Asia Minor, in which in the middle of the 13th century. the Mongols invaded. Later, most of it ended up in the hands of small Turkic beyliks (principalities). Greece was dominated by Spanish mercenaries from the Catalan Company, which one of the Palaiologos invited to fight the Turks. Within the significantly reduced borders of the empire split into parts, the Palaiologos dynasty in the 14th century. torn apart by civil unrest and strife on religious grounds. The imperial power turned out to be weakened and reduced to supremacy over a system of semi-feudal appanages: instead of being controlled by governors responsible to the central government, the lands were transferred to members of the imperial family. The financial resources of the empire were so depleted that the emperors depended to a large extent on loans granted by Venice and Genoa, or on the appropriation of wealth in private hands, both secular and ecclesiastical. Most of the trade in the empire was controlled by Venice and Genoa. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine church was significantly strengthened, and its tough opposition to the Roman church was one of the reasons why the Byzantine emperors failed to obtain military assistance from the West.

Fall of Byzantium. At the end of the Middle Ages, the power of the Ottomans increased, who initially ruled in a small Turkish udzha (border inheritance), only 160 km away from Constantinople. During the 14th century The Ottoman state took over all other Turkish regions in Asia Minor and penetrated into the Balkans, formerly belonging to the Byzantine Empire. A wise domestic policy of consolidation, coupled with military superiority, ensured that the Ottoman sovereigns dominated their strife-torn Christian adversaries. By 1400, only the cities of Constantinople and Thessaloniki, plus small enclaves in southern Greece, remained from the Byzantine Empire. During the last 40 years of its existence, Byzantium was actually a vassal of the Ottomans. She was forced to supply recruits to the Ottoman army, and the Byzantine emperor had to personally appear at the call of the sultans. Manuel II (reigned 1391-1425), one of the brilliant representatives of Greek culture and Roman imperial tradition, visited the capitals of European states in a vain attempt to secure military assistance against the Ottomans. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, while the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, fell in battle. Athens and the Peloponnese held out for several more years, Trebizond fell in 1461. The Turks renamed Constantinople Istanbul and made it the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

GOVERNMENT
Emperor. Throughout the Middle Ages, the tradition of monarchical power, inherited by Byzantium from the Hellenistic monarchies and imperial Rome, was not interrupted. The basis of the entire Byzantine system of government was the belief that the emperor was the chosen one of God, his viceroy on Earth, and that the imperial power was a reflection in time and space of the supreme power of God. In addition, Byzantium believed that its "Roman" empire had the right to universal power: in accordance with a widely spread legend, all sovereigns in the world formed a single "royal family", headed by the Byzantine emperor. The inevitable consequence was an autocratic form of government. Emperor, from the 7th c. who bore the title of "basileus" (or "basileus"), single-handedly determined the domestic and foreign policy of the country. He was the supreme legislator, ruler, protector of the church, and commander in chief. Theoretically, the emperor was elected by the senate, the people and the army. However, in practice, the decisive vote belonged either to a powerful party of the aristocracy, or, which happened much more often, to the army. The people vigorously approved the decision, and the elected emperor was crowned king by the Patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor, as the representative of Jesus Christ on earth, had a special duty to protect the church. Church and state in Byzantium were closely connected with each other. Their relationship is often defined by the term "caesaropapism". However, this term, implying the subordination of the church to the state or emperor, is somewhat misleading: in fact, it was about interdependence, not subordination. The emperor was not the head of the church, he did not have the right to perform the religious duties of a clergyman. However, the court religious ceremonial was closely connected with worship. There were certain mechanisms that supported the stability of imperial power. Often children were crowned immediately after birth, which ensured the continuity of the dynasty. If a child or an incapable ruler became emperor, it was customary to crown junior emperors, or co-rulers, who might or might not belong to the ruling dynasty. Sometimes commanders or naval commanders became co-rulers, who first acquired control over the state, and then legitimized their position, for example, through marriage. This is how the naval commander Roman I Lekapin and the commander Nicephorus II Phocas (reigned 963-969) came to power. In this way, the most important feature Byzantine system of government was a strict succession of dynasties. There were sometimes periods of bloody struggle for the throne, civil wars and mismanagement, but they did not last long.
Right. Byzantine legislation was given a decisive impetus by Roman law, although traces of both Christian and Middle Eastern influences are clearly felt. Legislative power belonged to the emperor: changes in laws were usually introduced by imperial edicts. Legal commissions have been set up from time to time to codify and revise existing laws. Older codices were in Latin, the most famous of them being Justinian's Digests (533) with additions (Novels). Obviously Byzantine in character was the collection of laws of the Basilica compiled in Greek, work on which began in the 9th century. under Basil I. Up to last stage In the history of the country, the church had very little influence on the law. Basilicas even canceled some of the privileges received by the church in the 8th century. However, gradually the influence of the church increased. In the 14-15 centuries. both laity and clergy were already placed at the head of the courts. The spheres of activity of church and state overlapped to a large extent from the very beginning. Imperial codes contained provisions relating to religion. The Code of Justinian, for example, included rules of conduct in monastic communities and even attempted to define the goals of monastic life. The emperor, like the patriarch, was responsible for the proper administration of the church, and only secular authorities had the means to maintain discipline and carry out punishments, whether in church or secular life.
Control system. The administrative and legal system of Byzantium was inherited from the late Roman Empire. In general, the organs of the central government - the imperial court, the treasury, the court and the secretariat - functioned separately. Each of them was headed by several dignitaries directly responsible to the emperor, which reduced the danger of the appearance of too strong ministers. In addition to actual positions, there was an elaborate system of ranks. Some were assigned to officials, others were purely honorary. Each title corresponded to a certain uniform worn on official occasions; the emperor personally paid the official an annual remuneration. In the provinces, the Roman administrative system was changed. In the late Roman Empire, the civil and military administration of the provinces was separated. However, since the 7th century, in connection with the needs of defense and territorial concessions to the Slavs and Arabs, both military and civil power in the provinces was concentrated in one hand. The new administrative-territorial units were called themes (a military term for an army corps). Themes were often named after the corps based in them. For example, the Fem Bukelaria got its name from the Bukelaria Regiment. The system of themes first appeared in Asia Minor. Gradually, during the 8th-9th centuries, the system of local government in the Byzantine possessions in Europe was reorganized in a similar way.
Army and Navy. The most important task of the empire, which almost continuously waged wars, was the organization of defense. The regular military corps in the provinces were subordinate to the military leaders, at the same time - to the governors of the provinces. These corps, in turn, were divided into smaller units, the commanders of which were responsible both for the corresponding army unit and for the order in the given territory. Along the borders, regular border posts were created, headed by the so-called. "Akrits", who have become virtually undivided masters of the borders in a constant struggle with the Arabs and Slavs. Epic poems and ballads about the hero Digenis Akrita, "the lord of the border, born of two peoples," glorified and glorified this life. The best troops were stationed in Constantinople and at a distance of 50 km from the city, along the Great Wall that protected the capital. The imperial guard, which had special privileges and salaries, attracted the best soldiers from abroad: at the beginning of the 11th century. these were warriors from Russia, and after the conquest of England by the Normans in 1066, many Anglo-Saxons expelled from there. The army had gunners, craftsmen who specialized in fortification and siege work, artillery to support the infantry, and heavy cavalry, which formed the backbone of the army. Since the Byzantine Empire owned many islands and had a very long coastline, a fleet was vital to it. The solution of naval tasks was entrusted to the coastal provinces in the south-west of Asia Minor, the coastal districts of Greece, as well as the islands of the Aegean Sea, which were obliged to equip ships and provide them with sailors. In addition, a fleet was based in the area of ​​​​Constantinople under the command of a high-ranking naval commander. Byzantine warships varied in size. Some had two rowing decks and up to 300 rowers. Others were smaller, but developed more speed. The Byzantine fleet was famous for its destructive Greek fire, the secret of which was one of the most important state secrets. It was an incendiary mixture, probably prepared from oil, sulfur and saltpeter, and thrown onto enemy ships with the help of catapults. The army and navy were recruited partly from local recruits, partly from foreign mercenaries. From the 7th to the 11th century in Byzantium, a system was practiced in which residents were provided with land and a small payment in exchange for service in the army or navy. Military service passed from father to eldest son, which provided the state with a constant influx of local recruits. In the 11th century this system was destroyed. The weak central government deliberately ignored the needs of defense and allowed residents to pay off military service. Moreover, local landlords began to appropriate the lands of their poor neighbors, in fact turning the latter into serfs. In the 12th century, during the reign of the Comneni and later, the state had to agree to granting certain privileges to large landowners and exemption from taxes in exchange for the creation of their own armies. Nevertheless, at all times, Byzantium was largely dependent on military mercenaries, although the funds for their maintenance fell on the treasury as a heavy burden. Starting from the 11th century, the support from the navy of Venice, and then Genoa, cost the empire even more expensive, which had to be bought with generous trade privileges, and later with direct territorial concessions.
Diplomacy. The principles of defense of Byzantium gave a special role to its diplomacy. As long as it was possible, they never skimped on impressing foreign countries with luxury or buying potential enemies. Embassies to foreign courts presented magnificent works of art or brocade garments as gifts. Important envoys arriving in the capital were received in the Grand Palace with all the splendor of imperial ceremonials. Young sovereigns from neighboring countries were often brought up at the Byzantine court. When an alliance was important to Byzantine politics, there was always the option of proposing marriage to a member of the imperial family. At the end of the Middle Ages, marriages between Byzantine princes and Western European brides became commonplace, and since the time of the Crusades, Hungarian, Norman or German blood flowed in the veins of many Greek aristocratic families.
CHURCH
Rome and Constantinople. Byzantium was proud to be a Christian state. By the middle of the 5th c. the Christian church was divided into five large regions under the control of the supreme bishops, or patriarchs: Roman in the West, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria - in the East. Since Constantinople was the eastern capital of the empire, the corresponding patriarchate was considered the second after Rome, while the rest lost their significance after the 7th century. Arabs took over. Thus, Rome and Constantinople turned out to be the centers of medieval Christianity, but their rituals, church politics and theological views gradually moved further and further away from each other. In 1054, the papal legate anathematized Patriarch Michael Cerularius and "his followers", in response he received anathemas from the council that met in Constantinople. In 1089, it seemed to Emperor Alexei I that the schism was easily overcome, but after the 4th Crusade in 1204, the differences between Rome and Constantinople became so clear that nothing could force the Greek Church and the Greek people to abandon the schism.
Clergy. The spiritual head of the Byzantine Church was the Patriarch of Constantinople. The decisive vote in his appointment was with the emperor, but the patriarchs did not always turn out to be puppets of the imperial power. Sometimes the patriarchs could openly criticize the actions of the emperors. Thus, Patriarch Polyeuctus refused to crown Emperor John I Tzimisces until he refused to marry the widow of his rival, Empress Theophano. The patriarch headed the hierarchical structure of the white clergy, which included metropolitans and bishops who headed the provinces and dioceses, "autocephalous" archbishops who did not have bishops under their command, priests, deacons and readers, special cathedral ministers, such as custodians of archives and treasuries, as well as the regents who were in charge of church music.
Monasticism. Monasticism was an integral part of Byzantine society. Originating in Egypt in the early 4th century, the monastic movement has fired the Christian imagination for generations. In organizational terms, it took different forms, and among the Orthodox they were more flexible than among the Catholics. Its two main types were cenobitic ("coenobitic") monasticism and hermitage. Those who chose cenobitic monasticism lived in monasteries under the guidance of abbots. Their main tasks were the contemplation and celebration of the liturgy. In addition to monastic communities, there were associations called laurels, the way of life in which was an intermediate step between kinovia and hermitage: the monks here gathered together, as a rule, only on Saturdays and Sundays to perform services and spiritual communion. The hermits made various kinds of vows on themselves. Some of them, called stylites, lived on poles, others, dendrites, lived on trees. One of the numerous centers of both hermitage and monasteries was Cappadocia in Asia Minor. The monks lived in cells carved into the rocks called cones. The purpose of the hermits was solitude, but they never refused to help the suffering. And the more holy a person was considered, the more peasants turned to him for help in all matters of everyday life. In case of need, both the rich and the poor received help from the monks. Widowed empresses, as well as politically dubious persons, were removed to monasteries; the poor could count on free funerals there; monks surrounded orphans and elders with care in special houses; the sick were nursed in the monastic hospitals; even in the poorest peasant hut, the monks provided friendly support and advice to those in need.
theological disputes. The Byzantines inherited from the ancient Greeks their love of discussion, which in the Middle Ages usually found expression in disputes over theological issues. This propensity for controversy led to the spread of heresies that accompanied the entire history of Byzantium. At the dawn of the empire, the Arians denied the divine nature of Jesus Christ; the Nestorians believed that the divine and human nature existed in it separately and separately, never completely merging into one person of the incarnated Christ; Monophysites were of the opinion that only one nature is inherent in Jesus Christ - divine. Arianism began to lose its positions in the East after the 4th century, but it was never completely possible to eradicate Nestorianism and Monophysitism. These currents flourished in the southeastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Egypt. The schismatic sects survived under Muslim rule, after these Byzantine provinces had been conquered by the Arabs. In the 8th-9th centuries. iconoclasts opposed the veneration of images of Christ and saints; their teaching was for a long time the official teaching of the Eastern Church, which was shared by emperors and patriarchs. Of greatest concern were the dualistic heresies, which held that only spiritual world is the kingdom of God, and the material world is the result of the activity of the lower devilish spirit. The reason for the last major theological dispute was the doctrine of hesychasm, which split the Orthodox Church in the 14th century. It was about the way in which a person could know God while still alive.
Church cathedrals. All the Ecumenical Councils in the period before the division of the churches in 1054 were held in the largest Byzantine cities - Constantinople, Nicaea, Chalcedon and Ephesus, which testified both to the important role of the Eastern Church and to the wide spread of heretical teachings in the East. The 1st Ecumenical Council was convened by Constantine the Great in Nicaea in 325. Thus, a tradition was created in accordance with which the emperor was responsible for maintaining the purity of the dogma. These councils were primarily ecclesiastical assemblies of bishops, who were responsible for formulating rules concerning doctrine and church discipline.
Missionary activity. The Eastern Church devoted no less energy to missionary work than the Roman Church. The Byzantines converted the southern Slavs and Russia to Christianity, they also began its spread among the Hungarians and the Great Moravian Slavs. Traces of the influence of Byzantine Christians can be found in the Czech Republic and Hungary, their huge role in the Balkans and in Russia is undoubted. Starting from the 9th c. Bulgarians and other Balkan peoples were in close contact with both the Byzantine church and the civilization of the empire, since church and state, missionaries and diplomats acted hand in hand. The Orthodox Church of Kievan Rus was directly subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire fell, but its church survived. As the Middle Ages came to an end, the church among the Greeks and Balkan Slavs gained more and more authority and was not broken even by the domination of the Turks.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE OF BYZANTIA
Diversity within the empire. Diverse by ethnic composition the population of the Byzantine Empire was united by belonging to the empire and Christianity, and also to some extent were influenced by Hellenistic traditions. Armenians, Greeks, Slavs had their own linguistic and cultural traditions. but Greek language always remained the main literary and state language of the empire, and fluency in it was certainly required from an ambitious scientist or politician. There was no racial or social discrimination in the country. Among the Byzantine emperors were Illyrians, Armenians, Turks, Phrygians and Slavs.
Constantinople. The center and focus of the entire life of the empire was its capital. The city was ideally located at the crossroads of two great trade routes: the land route between Europe and Southwest Asia and the sea route between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The sea route led from the Black to the Aegean Sea through the narrow Bosphorus (Bosporus) Strait, then through the small Sea of ​​Marmara squeezed by land and, finally, another strait - the Dardanelles. Immediately before the exit from the Bosphorus to the Sea of ​​Marmara, a narrow crescent-shaped bay, called the Golden Horn, deeply protrudes into the shore. It was a magnificent natural harbor that protected ships from dangerous oncoming currents in the strait. Constantinople was erected on a triangular promontory between the Golden Horn and the Sea of ​​Marmara. From two sides the city was protected by water, and from the west, from the land side, by strong walls. Another line of fortifications, known as the Great Wall, ran 50 km to the west. The majestic residence of the imperial power was also a trading center for merchants of all conceivable nationalities. The more privileged had their own quarters and even their own churches. The same privilege was given to the Anglo-Saxon Imperial Guard, which at the end of the 11th century. belonged to a small Latin church of St. Nicholas, as well as Muslim travelers, merchants and ambassadors who had their own mosque in Constantinople. Residential and commercial areas mainly adjoined the Golden Horn. Here, and also on both sides of the beautiful, wooded, steep slope that towered over the Bosphorus, residential quarters grew up and monasteries and chapels were erected. The city grew, but the heart of the empire was still a triangle, on which the city of Constantine and Justinian originally arose. The complex of imperial buildings, known as the Grand Palace, was located here, and next to it was the church of St. Sofia (Hagia Sophia) and the Church of St. Irene and St. Sergius and Bacchus. Nearby were the hippodrome and the Senate building. From here Mesa (Middle Street), the main street, led to the western and southwestern parts of the city.
Byzantine trade. Trade flourished in many cities of the Byzantine Empire, for example, in Thessaloniki (Greece), Ephesus and Trebizond (Asia Minor) or Chersonese (Crimea). Some cities had their own specialization. Corinth and Thebes, as well as Constantinople itself, were famous for the production of silk. As in Western Europe, merchants and artisans were organized into guilds. A good idea of ​​trade in Constantinople is given by a 10th-century An eparch's book containing a list of rules for artisans and merchants, both in everyday goods such as candles, bread or fish, and in luxury items. Some luxury items, such as the finest silks and brocades, could not be exported. They were intended only for the imperial court and could only be taken abroad as imperial gifts, for example, to kings or caliphs. The importation of goods could only be carried out in accordance with certain agreements. A number of trade agreements were concluded with friendly peoples, in particular with the Eastern Slavs, who created in the 9th century. own state. Along the great Russian rivers, the Eastern Slavs descended south to Byzantium, where they found ready markets for their goods, mainly furs, wax, honey and slaves. The leading role of Byzantium in international trade was based on income from port services. However, in the 11th c. there was an economic crisis. The gold solidus (known in the West as "bezant", the monetary unit of Byzantium) began to depreciate. In Byzantine trade, the dominance of the Italians, in particular the Venetians and Genoese, began, who achieved such excessive trading privileges that the imperial treasury was seriously depleted, which lost control over most of the customs fees. Even trade routes began to bypass Constantinople. At the end of the Middle Ages, the eastern Mediterranean flourished, but all the riches were by no means in the hands of the emperors.
Agriculture. Even more important than customs duties and trade in handicrafts was agriculture. One of the main sources of income in the state was the land tax: both large land holdings and agricultural communities were subject to it. Fear of tax collectors haunted smallholders who could easily go bankrupt due to bad harvest or the loss of several heads of livestock. If a peasant abandoned his land and ran away, his share of the tax was usually collected from his neighbors. Many small landowners preferred to become dependent tenants of large landowners. Attempts by the central government to reverse this trend were not particularly successful, and by the end of the Middle Ages, agricultural resources were concentrated in the hands of large landowners or were owned by large monasteries.