Chapter 9. Diagnosis of emotional states
9.2. Measuring physiological responses associated with emotions
The most common instrument for measuring physiological reactions caused by emotions is the polygraph, which is more often called a “lie detector.” A lie detector is a device that measures heart rate and breathing rate, blood pressure, activity of the digestive organs, and galvanic skin response. Electrodes are connected to various parts of the subject's body. These electrodes are then connected to a device that detects physiological parameters and records them using a chart recorder.
The device is based on the assumption that lying causes strong emotions. Since intense emotions are accompanied by changes in physiological parameters, the device should register noticeable fluctuations whenever the subject lies. If the subject is telling the truth, then the physiological parameters should remain almost constant. The reliability of the data obtained when using a polygraph as a lie detector is questioned. If a person is subjected to interrogation, and even being entangled in all kinds of wires, this in itself can already arouse emotions in him. In addition, there is significant individual variation in the degree of emotional arousal associated with lying. Some lie with ease, while others feel strong emotions, even if they are simply not sure of the answer.
Psychologists unanimously believe that it is impossible to effectively assess emotions using one method. Even with the simultaneous use of detector readings, verbal descriptions and observations of facial expressions and gestures, it is not always possible to obtain reliable results. Newer methods based on studying changes in electrical and chemical parameters are very expensive, but also do not provide accurate results. However, when several methods are used in parallel, the likelihood of errors decreases.
Chapter 9. Diagnosis of emotional states
9.3. Methods for studying emotional states
Stress scale
Instructions. Read each statement carefully and choose the answer that best matches Your current state, opinion or mood. Circle on the right only one number indicating your answer:
5 = "absolutely true";
4 = “somewhat true”;
3 = “partly true, partly false”;
2 = "rather false";
1 = "absolutely false."
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Statements |
Answers |
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1. I wake up fresh and rested in the morning. | ||||||
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2. I coordinate my movements well | ||||||
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3. I feel tired | ||||||
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4. I need effort to understand what others are saying. | ||||||
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5. Suddenly my heart palpitates. | ||||||
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6. I eat food mechanically without experiencing pleasure. | ||||||
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7. The world around me seems unreal | ||||||
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8. I flinch at sudden noises. | ||||||
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9. I remember individual events so vividly that it’s as if I’m experiencing them all over again. | ||||||
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10. I am absolutely healthy physically | ||||||
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11. I enjoy being around people. | ||||||
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12. I often act as if I am in danger. | ||||||
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13. I can’t be accused of being absent-minded. | ||||||
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14. I often have the same scary dream | ||||||
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15. I definitely feel guilty towards people. | ||||||
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16. Trifles annoy me | ||||||
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17. I try not to watch TV if they show chronicles of dramatic events. | ||||||
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18. I like my job | ||||||
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19. I have experienced a serious loss. | ||||||
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20. I sleep well at night | ||||||
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21. I never have bad dreams | ||||||
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22. Sometimes I want to get drunk | ||||||
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23. My family is very worried about my work. | ||||||
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24. I sometimes have the feeling that time is passing in slow motion. | ||||||
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25. Sometimes I go to the doctor just because I want to get some rest. | ||||||
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26. Many things have lost interest for me | ||||||
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27. I can lose my temper without any reason | ||||||
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28. I should be on a diet | ||||||
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29. I try to avoid talking about unpleasant topics. | ||||||
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30. Sometimes I forget things | ||||||
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31. Sometimes it seems to me that even people close to me do not understand me | ||||||
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32. I need to control my emotions better. | ||||||
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33. Past events are sometimes remembered more vividly than what is happening now | ||||||
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34. Sometimes it seems to me that the world around me is losing color | ||||||
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35. I wake up with sudden fear | ||||||
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36. It costs me a lot of effort to work at the same pace | ||||||
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37. I feel chills at times | ||||||
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38. I want to help people in trouble | ||||||
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39. I recently had to deal with some very dangerous circumstances. | ||||||
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40. I feel more experienced than many of my peers. | ||||||
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41. I have difficulty falling asleep | ||||||
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42. I feel lonely | ||||||
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43. It can be difficult for me to remember things that happened recently. | ||||||
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44. I feel like I'm becoming a different person. | ||||||
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45. Sometimes the smallest things make me happy | ||||||
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46. I feel energized | ||||||
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47. I wake up with great difficulty in the morning. | ||||||
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48. My thoughts constantly return to things I don’t want to think about. | ||||||
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49. I feel ashamed | ||||||
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50. I usually don’t go to the doctor, even if I feel like I’m not entirely healthy. | ||||||
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51. My sleep is so sound that loud noises or bright lights cannot disturb me. | ||||||
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52. People tell me that I cry out in my sleep. | ||||||
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53. I often think about the future | ||||||
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54. Sometimes I get angry | ||||||
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55. I'm afraid that I might do something contrary to my intentions. | ||||||
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56. Sometimes I forget what I wanted to say or do. | ||||||
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57. My mood has gotten worse lately. | ||||||
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58. I have no one to rely on | ||||||
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59. I wish my family would pay more attention to me. | ||||||
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60. I definitely like to take risks. | ||||||
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61. I like "dark humor" | ||||||
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62. I rely on myself for everything | ||||||
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63. I constantly feel the need to chew something, even when I’m not hungry. | ||||||
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64. Sometimes I feel like I'm confused in life. | ||||||
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65. It seems to me that I failed to do what was required of me. | ||||||
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66. I have an interest and zest for life | ||||||
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67. I find it fun and easy in the company of friends | ||||||
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68. I work hard and fruitfully | ||||||
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69. I often forget where I put this or that thing. | ||||||
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70. I try not to discuss my problems with anyone. | ||||||
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71. I have never felt fear | ||||||
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72. It would be useful for me to be alone | ||||||
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73. While doing something, I often think about something completely different. | ||||||
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74. My life is varied and eventful | ||||||
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75. I have never done anything that I would be ashamed of. | ||||||
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76. Few people care about other people’s difficulties | ||||||
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77. I feel much older than my years | ||||||
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78. It seems to me that a happy future awaits me | ||||||
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79. I have experienced things in my life that are better not to remember. | ||||||
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80. I am sensitive to other people's pain. | ||||||
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81. I think I have lost the ability to enjoy life. | ||||||
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82. I have headaches | ||||||
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83. Easy money usually involves breaking the law. | ||||||
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84. I don’t mind earning extra money | ||||||
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85. Extraneous sounds distract me | ||||||
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86. I try not to get into fights unless it concerns me. | ||||||
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87. I believe in the triumph of justice | ||||||
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88. My heart works as usual | ||||||
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89. Sometimes I take pills | ||||||
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90. There are things that I cannot forgive myself | ||||||
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91. I definitely need time to recover. | ||||||
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92. Alcohol relieves any stress well | ||||||
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93. I am not inclined to complain about my health. | ||||||
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94. I want to destroy everything in my path | ||||||
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95. Most people are only concerned about their own well-being | ||||||
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96. I have a hard time controlling my anger. | ||||||
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97. I don’t think the stronger is right | ||||||
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98. I have never fainted | ||||||
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99. I should learn to avoid conflicts | ||||||
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100. I have made good friends in life. | ||||||
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101. I am considered a balanced person | ||||||
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102. Sauna relieves nervous tension well | ||||||
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103. I feel confused | ||||||
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104. I often feel like I am in danger. | ||||||
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105. I work without feeling tired | ||||||
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106. I experience strong internal arousal | ||||||
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107. I often perform involuntary actions in response to an unexpected sound or movement. | ||||||
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108. I find it difficult to concentrate on several things at once. | ||||||
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109. I feel quite confident | ||||||
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110. I have a lot to thank fate for | ||||||
Methodology "Scale" differential emotions». The Differential Emotions Scale (DES) is a self-report instrument designed to assess an individual's expression of fundamental emotions or complexes of emotions.
It is required to determine on a five-point intensity scale the degree of accuracy with which each word describes what the subject is currently feeling.
List of words reflecting various emotional experiences:
Methodology for cognitive self-assessment of basal emotions T. Dembo. The technique was modified by E.V. Trubanova (1988). The subject is offered a list consisting of the names of the five most frequently occurring emotions (joy, fear, pleasure, anger, sadness) and frequency scales for each emotion (always, very often, sometimes, rarely, very rarely, never). The subject must note the frequency of occurrence of each of the basal emotions.
Methodology "Scaling of temper". The technique is a fragment of the questionnaire “Personal Aggression and Conflict” by E.P. Ilyin and P.A. Kovalev and shows the level of self-assessment of emotional excitability.
Instructions. Read the statements given to you and answer: “yes” or “no”.
Questionnaire text:
1. I get irritated easily, but calm down quickly.
2. If someone makes me angry, I don't pay attention to it.
3. I'm much more irritable than I think.
4. I always react calmly to criticism, even if it seems unfair to me.
5. I get angry when people make fun of me.
6. I never have angry outbursts.
7. I am outraged when people push me on the street or in public transport.
8. B conflict situation I'm being calm.
9. I don’t know how to restrain myself when I’m unfairly reproached.
10. It’s usually difficult to make me angry.
Self-assessment test “Characteristics of emotionality.” The test was developed by E.P. Ilyin and is intended for self-assessment of the severity of various characteristics of emotions: emotional excitability, intensity, stability, influence on the effectiveness of activities.
Instructions. For each of questions asked Answer “yes” if you agree with what is being asked, or “no” if you don’t.
1. In a conversation, are you easily offended over trifles?
2. Do you worry a lot when you pass an exam (certification, state audit) less successfully than you expected?
3. Are you often unable to fall asleep because disturbing thoughts enter your head?
4. When you are very worried, does everything fall out of your hands?
5. Are you quick-tempered and are you easily hurt by hints and jokes made at you?
6. Do you lose your temper and become seriously angry?
7. Do you quickly move away after getting angry?
8. Does anxiety help you gather your thoughts during an exam, during a meeting that is significant for you, etc.?
9. Can you get angry quickly?
10. Do you become angry when you are treated unfairly?
11. How long does it take for you to forgive an offense done to you?
12. Have you ever “lost your head” from fear?
13. Can you cry easily during touching scenes in the theater or cinema?
14. Do you get very nervous before a responsible task or conversation?
15. Do you really worry about trifles for a long time?
16. Can you do something stupid out of extreme excitement?
17. Do you easily respond to the grief of others?
18. Are you able to admire, admire something or someone?
19. How long do you worry about the fact that you said something that you shouldn’t have said?
20. Do you not lose control of yourself, even if you are very worried?
21. Are you easily offended if you are criticized?
22. Do you fall into deep despair when you are disappointed?
23. Is it true that you don’t survive your disappointments for long?
24. Does it happen that out of indignation you cannot utter a word, as if your tongue was stuck to your throat?
25. Do you get angry quickly or become angry?
26. Do you get very nervous during exams or before a meeting that is important to you?
27. Do you sulk at the offender for a long time?
28. Has it often happened that during tests and exams, due to strong anxiety, you could not show everything you were capable of?
29. Do you worry about trifles?
30. Do you really take everything to heart?
31. Do you really tend to quickly forget your failures?
32. Is it true that during a quarrel you “don’t mince words”?
Methodology for assessing “emotional intelligence” (questionnaire EQ). The technique was proposed by N. Hall to identify the ability to understand personal relationships, represented in emotions, and to manage the emotional sphere based on decision-making.
Instructions. You will be offered statements that in one way or another reflect various aspects of your life. Based on the assessment of your answers, write the number:
Completely disagree - 3
Mostly disagree - 2
Somewhat disagree - 1
Partially agree + 1
Mostly agree +2
Completely agree + 3
Questionnaire text:
1. For me both negative and positive emotions serve as a source of knowledge on how to act in life.
2. Negative emotions help me understand what I need to change in my life.
3. I am calm when I feel pressure from others.
4. I am able to observe changes in my feelings.
5. When necessary, I can be calm and focused in order to act in accordance with life's demands.
6. When necessary, I can evoke a wide range of positive emotions such as amusement, joy, elation, and humor.
7. I pay attention to how I feel.
8. After something has upset me, I can easily cope with my feelings.
9. I am able to listen to other people's problems.
10. I don't dwell on negative emotions.
11. I am sensitive to the emotional needs of others.
12. I can have a calming effect on other people.
13. I can force myself to face obstacles again and again.
14. I try to approach life's problems creatively.
16. I can easily enter a state of calm, alertness and focus.
17. When time allows, I address my negative feelings and figure out what the problem is.
18. I am able to quickly calm down after unexpected upset.
19. Knowing my true feelings is important to staying in “good shape.”
20. I understand other people's emotions well, even if they are not expressed openly.
21. I can recognize emotions well by facial expressions.
22. I can easily put aside negative feelings when action is necessary.
23. I am good at picking up signs in communication that indicate what others need.
24. People consider me to be a good judge of other people's experiences.
25. People who are aware of their true feelings manage their lives better.
26. I am able to improve other people's moods.
27. You can consult me on issues of relationships between people.
28. I am good at tuning into other people's emotions.
29. I help others use their motivations to achieve personal goals.
30. I can easily disconnect from experiencing troubles.
M. Snyder's diagnostic method for assessing self-control in communication. Carefully read ten sentences describing reactions to certain situations. You must evaluate each of them as true or false in relation to yourself. If the sentence seems true to you, put the letter “B”; if it is false or mostly false, put the letter “H”.
1. I find the art of imitating other people's habits difficult.
2. I could probably play the fool in order to attract attention or amuse others.
3. I could make a good actor.
4. Other people sometimes think that I experience something more deeply than I actually do.
5. In a company, I rarely find myself in the center of attention.
6. In different situations and when communicating with different people, I often behave completely differently.
7. I can only stand for what I am sincerely convinced of.
8. To succeed in business and in relationships with people, I try to be what people expect me to be.
9. I can be friendly with people I can't stand.
10. I am not always what I seem.
Eysenck's Temperament Questionnaire
Instructions. You are asked several questions. Answer “yes” or “no” to each question.
1. Do you often experience a craving for new experiences, to be distracted, to experience strong sensations?
2. Do you often feel that you need friends who can understand, encourage, and sympathize with you?
3. Do you consider yourself a carefree person?
4. Is it very difficult for you to give up your intentions?
5. Do you think about your affairs slowly and prefer to wait before acting?
6. Do you always keep your promises, even if it is not beneficial for you?
7. Do you often have ups and downs in your mood?
8. Do you usually act and speak quickly?
9. Have you ever had the feeling that you are unhappy, although there was no serious reason for this?
10. Is it true that in a “dispute” you are able to decide on anything?
11. Do you feel embarrassed when you want to meet someone of the opposite sex who you like?
12. Does it ever happen that when you get angry, you lose your temper?
13. Does it often happen that you act thoughtlessly, on the spur of the moment?
14. Do you often worry about the idea that you shouldn't have done or said something?
15. Do you prefer reading books to meeting people?
16. Is it true that you are easily offended?
17. Do you often like to be in company?
18. Do you ever have thoughts that you would not like to share with others?
19. Is it true that sometimes you are so full of energy that everything in your hands burns, and sometimes you feel tired?
20. Do you try to limit your circle of acquaintances to a small number of your closest friends?
21. Do you dream a lot?
22. When people shout at you, do you respond in kind?
23. Do you consider all your habits to be good?
24. Do you often have the feeling that you are to blame for something?
25. Are you sometimes able to give free rein to your feelings and have carefree fun in a cheerful company?
26. Can we say that your nerves are often stretched to the limit?
27. Are you reputed to be a lively and cheerful person?
28. After something is done, do you often mentally return to it and think that you could have done it better?
29. Do you feel restless when in a large company?
30. Does it happen that you spread rumors?
31. Does it happen that you can’t sleep because different thoughts come into your head?
32. If you want to know something, do you prefer to find it in a book or ask people?
33. Do you have palpitations?
34. Do you like work that requires concentration?
35. Do you have tremors?
36. Do you always tell the truth?
37. Do you find it unpleasant to be in a company where they make fun of each other?
38. Are you irritable?
39. Do you like work that requires speed?
40. Is it true that you are often haunted by thoughts about various troubles and horrors that could happen, although everything ended well?
41. Is it true that you are leisurely in your movements and somewhat slow?
42. Have you ever been late for work or a meeting with someone?
43. Do you often have nightmares?
44. Is it true that you love to talk so much that you don’t miss any opportunity to talk with a new person?
45. Do you have any pain?
46. Would you be upset if you couldn’t see your friends for a long time?
47. Are you a nervous person?
48. Are there people among your friends who you clearly don’t like?
49. Are you a confident person?
50. Are you easily offended by criticism of your shortcomings or your work?
51. Do you find it difficult to really enjoy events that involve a lot of people?
52. Does the feeling that you are somehow worse than others bother you?
53. Would you be able to bring some life into a boring company?
54. Does it happen that you talk about things that you don’t understand at all?
55. Are you worried about your health?
56. Do you like to make fun of others?
57. Do you suffer from insomnia?
Conclusion
Our attitude towards emotions is very similar to our attitude towards old age, which, according to Cicero’s witty remark, everyone wants to achieve, but having achieved it, they blame it. The mind constantly rebels against the unlimited power of emotions in human relationships. But his protest can most often be heard “after a fight,” when it becomes crystal clear that fear, anger, or excessive joy were not the best advisors in communication. “There was no need to get excited,” suggests the mind, which was rightly called “backward,” “you should have weighed everything first, and then revealed your attitude towards your interlocutor.”
Due to the rapid development of scientific and technological progress, especially recently, the pace of life has increased sharply. In a unit of time, a person does not have time to complete the amount of work that modern life imposes on him. Trying to keep up with progress, a person is in constant tension and practically does not relax (does not have time to rest), he becomes stressed, i.e. neuropsychic stress. Trying to protect yourself from stress, a person follows the path of least resistance. He splashes out his emotions on those around him (i.e., he discharges himself, relieving tension), thereby spoiling the health of himself and others.
Traditional medicine places emotions in first place in terms of their influence on our health. Weak, short-term and varied emotions provide unconditional positive help to the body and provide a kind of emotional massage to the organs. Well, strong in magnitude and short in time, as well as weak and long in time emotions cause various functional disorders in the organs and systems of the body.
We must know: strong anger affects the liver; constant feeling fear, sadness - kidneys; long-term yearning- lungs; constant anxiety– spleen, pancreas; excessive (unbridled) joy, jealousy or envy- heart. There is also the opposite law - a diseased liver causes a feeling of anger, diseased kidneys - a feeling of fear, etc.
Failure to understand that emotions can and should be managed is the cause of tension and conflict in relationships between people. The crisis state of society, sudden economic changes with a decrease in people’s living standards, changes in values and ideological ideas, interethnic conflicts, as well as natural and environmental disasters causing population migration, breaking life stereotypes significantly affect the mental state of members of society, giving rise to stress in them, frustration, anxiety, insecurity, depression.
Scientists such as A.V. studied the emotional state of a person. Alekseev, P.K. Anokhin, V.M. Bekhterev, V.V. Boyko, L.S. Vygotsky, E. Hanslick, V.M. Igumenov, E.P. Ilyin, K. Izard, R. Nelson-Jones, I.G. Pestalozzi, I.A. Pereverzeva, I.G. Schultz, Coue, Baudouin, P.V. Simonov and other scientists.
Modern life requires from people the utmost mobilization of physical and mental resources, our task is to help understand complex world emotions.
The study of the dynamics of manifestations of emotions and feelings in people’s behavior is associated with the tasks of optimizing the system of interaction between members of our society and improving interpersonal relationships. Market relations presuppose that contemporaries have not only knowledge, skills and abilities of all kinds of activities, but also the ability to intelligently resolve psycho-emotional conflicts. The main condition for a healthy emotional life is a change in the value attitude towards emotions and the removal of the ban on feelings, understanding their important, effective and positive role in a person’s life. It is very important to learn how to properly handle your emotions. Self-understanding, which is impossible without awareness of one’s own emotions, is a necessary condition for self-determination, especially in difficult moments. The task of emotional psychohygiene is to develop the skill of differentiating feelings.
The study of emotional states is the most important key to realizing personal potential, which is no less important for identifying positive qualities and weaknesses; correction in the desired direction of behavioral stereotypes and reactions that impede the achievement of goals.
Overcoming barriers to mutual understanding that arise in various communication situations is not easy. To do this, you need to have a good understanding of the nuances of human psychology, including your own. Another thing that is much simpler is not to create these barriers yourself. In order not to be the main obstacle to mutual understanding with others, a person needs to know the psychological rules of communication and, first of all, learn to manage his emotions, which most often become a source of interpersonal conflicts.
Thus, in the changing conditions of economic activity, it is important for modern man to increase the ability to understand, differentiate and verbalize feelings, which will allow him to manage them.
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Application
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To begin with, let us define the range of development of this problem and briefly list the scientists.
Scientists who dealt with the problem of diagnosing emotions: A. Wessman, D. Ricks, P. Ekman, W. Friesen, S. V. Velieva, etc.
Concept
Definition
Emotions represent a specific class of subjectively experienced states, various sensations of pleasant and unpleasant, the very attitude of a person to the world, himself and others.
Emotions are difficult to diagnose because of their frequent variability. In addition, due to their specificity, it is better to use projective methods. But it should be remembered that using projective techniques it is impossible to obtain standardized data, which makes it difficult for an experienced specialist to work and is not recommended for use by a beginner.
General characteristics of methods for assessing emotional states
As a rule, methods for studying emotional reactions are:
- Questionnaire
- Game methods (for children)
- Art therapy methods (suitable for both children and adults. Art therapy is a unique and fairly simple technique. In addition, its results are quite accurate. The principle of its action is projection, that is, in fact, subjects can unconsciously depict this or that problem, which a specialist will help decipher).
Assessment of emotional expressions includes three levels:
- adaptive-mobilizing (detection of changes in state parameters at the physiological level),
- behavioral-expressive (tracking external expressions of states in facial expressions, behavior, voice),
- subjective-evaluative (the subject orally or in writing expresses a subjective assessment of his experiences based on his own perception and analysis).
Diagnosis of emotional manifestations usually occurs in three directions:
- The study of conscious components of the emotional state, expressed in subjective experiences.
- The study of expressive components of the state, manifested in behavior, speech, pantomime, and products of activity.
- Study of unconscious manifestations reflected in vegetative changes in the body.
Methods for assessing emotional manifestations
“Self-Assessment of Emotional States”, A. Wessman and D. Ricks
This technique is effective if it is necessary to identify changes in a person’s emotional state over a certain period of time.
- Calm - anxiety
- Energy – fatigue
- Elation - depression
- Feeling confident – feeling helpless
- Total condition assessment.
Questionnaire “Well-being, activity, mood” (SAN), V. A. Doskin, N. A. Lavrentieva, V. B. Sharai and M. P. Miroshnikov
The stimulus material of the technique is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. “SAN Method”
The methodology includes the following scales:
- Well-being
- Activity
- Mood.
Methods for differential diagnosis of depressive states, V. A. Zhmurov
Designed to diagnose the level of severity (depth, severity) of a person’s depressive state, mainly melancholy or melancholic depression, at the time of examination.
Scale for assessing the significance of emotions, B. I. Dodonov
The technique is aimed at identifying the prevailing emotional reactions of a person by ranking statements.
Methodology “Visual-associative self-assessment of emotional states”, N. P. Fetiskin
The technique is intended for express diagnosis of a number of emotional states based on the selection of reference masks that, in the opinion of the subject, correspond to his state at the moment.
The stimulus material of the technique is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. “Method “Visual-associative self-assessment of emotional states”
Traditional methods for studying emotional states are observation, questionnaires, and questionnaires. For preschool and younger age game and color diagnostic methods are used. Diagnosis of emotional states is possible at three levels: adaptive-mobilizing (detection of changes in state parameters at the physiological level), behavioral-expressive (external expressions of states in facial expressions, behavior, voice are monitored) and subjective-evaluative (the subject expresses a subjective assessment orally or in writing their experiences based on their own perception and analysis). The emotional state has an external expression (verbal and non-verbal signs), interior plan content (a person’s understanding and awareness of his condition) and physiological basis (changes in the state of the body). In accordance with this, the diagnosis of emotional states can be carried out in three directions:
1) Study of the conscious components of the emotional state, expressed in subjective experiences.
2) Study of the expressive components of the state, manifested in behavior, speech, pantomime, and products of activity.
3) Study of unconscious manifestations reflected in vegetative changes in the body.
Physiological indicators and diagnosis of emotions. Since the emergence of emotions is associated with changes in physiological parameters, it is natural for researchers diagnosing the presence of a particular emotional state to rely on these “objective” indicators.
Among the vegetative indicators, the most commonly used are heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and galvanic skin response (GSR), less often - gas exchange and energy expenditure.
O.V. Ovchinnikova And N.I. Naenko(1968) used skin temperature on the fingers to measure emotional tension. The temperature of the fingers, from their point of view, makes it possible to differentiate emotional stress from operational stress: with the first, the temperature is lowered, with the second, it is increased. It is difficult to say how legitimate this is, since there is evidence that the same dynamics depend on the sign of the emotion: with anxiety and depression, a decrease in temperature is observed, and positive emotions are accompanied by an increase.
Of the psychomotor indicators, the most sensitive indicators of emotional arousal have proven themselves to be tremor, kinematometry (reproduction of given amplitudes of movements), reflexometry (measurement of the time of simple and complex sensorimotor reactions), reaction to a moving object (RMO) and measuring time intervals.
Yu.M. Zabrodin et al. (1989) developed a method for assessing personal and situational anxiety using the assessment of time intervals.
Electromyographic methods for diagnosing emotions by facial expression (measurement of facial expression) have been developed.
P. Ekman And W. Friesen developed a method called FACS (Facial Action Coding System) – “a system for coding the activity of facial muscles.” The method is based on a detailed study of the anatomy of the facial muscles for more than 10 years. 41 motor units were isolated, from which 24 patterns of reactions of individual facial muscles and 20 patterns reflecting the work of muscle groups involved, for example, in lip biting, were compiled. The use of this technique has shown that during negative emotions (anger, fear, disgust, sadness), about 41% of all facial muscles are activated. Three muscles that are activated during disgust have been identified: one raises the central part of the upper lip, another raises and tenses the wings of the nose, and the third aggravates the nasolabial fold.
Diagnosis of emotions using speech analysis. In a number of situations, the only channel through which information about a person’s emotional state can be received (pilots, astronauts, meteorologists in the Far North, etc.) is speech. In this regard, the development of objective (hardware) methods for diagnosing these conditions according to various parameters speech is of great practical importance. A number of such methods were developed in the laboratory of V.I. Galunov with the participation of V.X. Manerova. The following characteristics are distinguished: the frequency of the fundamental tone of speech for each period, average frequency the fundamental tone of speech for any segment of the utterance, the interval of change in the frequency of the fundamental tone, the ruggedness of the fundamental tone curve. These indicators allow you to determine the degree of emotional arousal of the speaker.
Use of questionnaires. Psychological methods for studying the emotional sphere of a person are mainly based on questionnaires and reveal emotional characteristics person (predominant emotions in his life, dominant means of expression and emotional stability).
In the laboratory A.E. Olshannikova Four methods (questionnaires) for studying emotionality were developed: three to identify the modality of leading (“basal”) emotions and one to identify means of expressing emotions (expressiveness).
There is a technique self-assessments of basic emotional states, proposed K. Izard(1976). This technique (scale of differentiated emotions) is a list of commonly used emotional states, standardized and translating an individual description of emotional experience into separate categories of emotions.
Methodology “self-assessment of emotional states”- a questionnaire developed by American psychologists A. Wessman And D. Ricks. Measurement in this technique is carried out using a 10-point (wall) system. The subject is asked to choose from each of the proposed sets of judgments the one that best describes his state now. The following indicators are measured: “calmness - anxiety”, “energy - fatigue”, “elation - depression”, “feeling of self-confidence - feeling of helplessness”. Diagnostics is suitable for both adolescence, adolescence, and adulthood.
Scale for assessing the significance of emotions– methodology proposed B.I. Dodonov. It is carried out using ranking of emotional preferences.
Projective methods for assessing emotional states.
Methods for studying the emotional states of children are of practical interest to psychologists. preschool age, developed S.V. Velieva(2001). Methodology "Locomotive" (for children over 2.5 years old) is based on the Luscher color test. It is aimed at determining the degree of positive and negative mental state. A white train and 8 multi-colored carriages (red, yellow, green, blue, purple, gray, brown, black) are used as stimulus material. The subject is asked to build an unusual train. Depending on the place of the trailer on the train, it is assigned a certain number of points. The sum of points determines the sign and degree of expression of the child’s emotional state at the moment.
The emotional attitude of the child towards family members, peers, their attitude towards the child can be determined by the method "Flower-eight-flower". The material is multi-colored petals (red, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, gray, black), the core of the flower is white. The details are arranged randomly on a white background. The research is carried out in the form of a game-conversation. The child is asked to choose the petal that he likes best, then choose the petal whose color is similar to... for example, mom (dad, brother, grandfather, grandmother). The color of the petal, to whom it is addressed, and the child’s comments are recorded. The location of the petal chosen by the child for himself in relation to other family members is analyzed. The results obtained by S.V. Velieva, in the course of examining normally developing preschool children using this technique, showed that each color tone, regardless of age, has certain personal characteristics attached to it in the mind of a preschooler.
The use of drawing tests for diagnosing the emotional states of children, the child’s emotional attitude towards peers, certain types of activities, parents, and teachers is widespread. These are techniques such as "Drawing of a family"(projective technique for diagnosing the characteristics of intra-family relationships), graphic technique "Cactus"(goal: determination of the child’s emotional states, the presence of aggressiveness, its direction, intensity), methodology "Resentment"(to assess the severity of the state of resentment in children of senior school age).
Methodology N.P. Fetiskina “Visual-associative self-assessment of emotional states” is intended for express diagnostics of emotional states based on the selection of reference masks that, in the opinion of the subject, correspond to his state at the moment.
A mental state is called a holistic characteristic of mental activity over a certain period of time, showing the uniqueness of the course of mental processes depending on the reflected objects and phenomena of reality, the previous state and mental properties of the individual (N.D. Levitov).
Classification of mental states distinguishes two types of states: emotional and functional.
Joy (satisfaction, fun).
Sadness (apathy, sadness, depression).
Anger (aggression, bitterness).
Fear (anxiety, fear).
Surprise (curiosity).
Disgust (contempt, disgust).
Calm wakefulness.
Active attention (orienting reaction).
Intense attention (anxiety, stress mobilization).
Fatigue (exhausted attention, distress).
Emotional states for which, by the way, designations have been found in the languages, facial expressions and gestures of almost all peoples studied by psychologists (P. Ekman):
Functional states associated with the level of wakefulness and attention:
The repertoire and frequency of emotional and functional states observed in a child are closely related to temperament and character traits. Thus, more active and resilient children more often experience “sthenic” emotions of joy or anger, while melancholic children (emotionally unstable and introverted) experience “asthenic” emotions (sadness and fear).
The most accurate registration of the functional state requires special equipment (devices for physiological recording of respiratory rate, pulse, GSR, muscle tone (myogram), blood filling of blood vessels (plethysmogram), etc.
IN school conditions functional states can be effectively diagnosed using easy-to-use pencil-and-paper techniques, tests, and tests for the productivity of activities that require high-speed attention. Examples: Bourdon's letter test, computer game tests.
An experienced teacher is very good at determining the functional state of children by external signs of their behavior and fluctuations in the accuracy and productivity of their main educational activities. Functional diagnostics in school are necessary to determine the optimal teaching load in the classroom and to determine a reasonable amount of homework available to that particular child.
Still the best tool operational diagnosis of emotional states is an analytical expert assessment of intonation, facial expressions, posture and gestures of a person. To teach such visual assessment, video training with a reference set of videotapes is currently actively used.
The subject of diagnosis of conditions is relatively unstable mental properties that change over time. These properties, apparently, are one of the leading system-forming factors in the functioning of the psyche at a given specific moment (or, more precisely, interval) of time. The state in which a person is located determines the nature of his various mental processes, and, as a consequence, the nature of his actions, specific types activity and all mental life activity.
The above determines the importance of diagnosing conditions in the practical work of a psychologist. Two points need to be highlighted here. Firstly, short-term - such as an autogenic training session or a one-time consultation, and long-term, for example, a course personal psychotherapy) can be formulated as a problem of change psychological state from the initial, non-optimal in some sense to the final (target), optimal in the same sense. With this approach, psychodiagnostics of conditions can be used both for selection potential clients to provide psychological assistance, and to monitor the effectiveness of this assistance.
Secondly, depending on whether the client is in a particular state, the effectiveness of using certain methods of psychotechnical influence in working with him also changes. Thus, knowledge of the client’s mental state determines the choice of strategy and means for working with him. The adequacy of the direct perception of the state of another is limited by the personal experience of the perceiver, both in terms of accuracy and in terms of the variety of states correctly determined by their external manifestations, as well as the depth of their understanding. In this regard, there is a need for special methods psychodiagnostics of states useful in his practical work.
Measuring people's states that arise during activities can be used to develop recommendations:
on organizing work and rest schedules;
optimization of the process of performing activities;
normalization of working conditions;
normalization of workloads, etc.
It was these problems (among others) that psychotechnicians quite successfully solved in the 20s and 30s. XX century Diagnosis of mental states of individual individuals is needed for the following:
determining their suitability in extreme situations;
assessing their reliability in complex and dangerous situations;
preventing “forbidden” states;
As a rule, methods and ways of studying mental states depend on the author’s concept, ideas about the structure of states, causes, etc. At the same time, considering different ideas, one can find a lot in common. So, N.D. Levitov, as ways and methods for studying mental states, proposes to establish at the beginning of the study what mental state a person is in and whether he has an alleged mental state. This, in the author’s opinion, can be provided by observation of the external behavior and activity of the subject, supplemented by film and photography, as well as expression: facial expressions, pantomime, etc. Very important for the study of mental states, in the author’s opinion, is the verbal report of the subject, and also the study of the products of activity. It also offers natural and laboratory experiments. He considers fiction to be one of the methods for studying and understanding mental states; moreover, he believes that the main source of knowledge of mental states, due to the poor development experimental methods, are literary and artistic works.
Yu.E. Sosnovikova identifies three large groups of methods for studying mental states: theoretical study of philosophical issues of the problem; obtaining medical, physiological and biological characteristics and parameters; actual psychological methods: observation, conversations, questionnaires, self-observation, tests, etc.
There is no need to disclose the content of each group of methods; they are generally known. At the same time, it should be noted that the use of physiological methods does not make it possible to interpret mental states: with the same physiological indicators psychological characteristics states may be different, i.e. the same mental state is often characterized by multidirectional shifts on the part of physiological systems, and different mental states can have the same physiological changes. For example, indignation and enthusiasm have the same physiological characteristics, but at the same time they are different states. Therefore, a number of researchers of mental states consider the use of physiological indicators mainly as additional energetic components of mental states.
Analysis of forms for describing mental states carried out V.A.Ganzen And V.N.Yurchenko , allowed them to identify three main forms: qualitatively loose descriptions in literary language (artistic) , descriptions are qualitatively strict (terminological), quantitative descriptions obtained as a result of experimental measurements (empirical). In their opinion, all three types of descriptions, complementing each other, make a significant contribution to the creation of a holistic image of a person’s mental state. The results of experimental studies represent a quantitative expression of the changes occurring in a person in a particular state. Generalization and scientific analysis of all data is carried out in terminological descriptions. According to the authors, the procedure for systemic analysis of mental states is aimed at elucidating the component composition, structure, function of the object of study in their relationships, as well as system-forming factors.
The opinion expressed by E.P. Ilyin on the issue of diagnosing mental states is interesting. He believes that the choice of methods and indicators for diagnosing mental states should be targeted and determined based on the structure functional system, forming according to the criterion of a useful result. The author suggests that under different conditions, different systems from various subsystems, which largely determines the specificity of the response (state). Therefore, before you begin to diagnose a condition, you need to know their structural model. This approach eliminates the need to use as many indicators and techniques as possible in diagnosis. Therefore, you can get by with 4-5 indicators, provided that they reflect all the necessary levels and subsystems of an integral functional system: motivation and emotions, autonomics and motor skills.
In this context, A.B. Leonova believes that traditional psychodiagnostic methods are of little use when studying functional states (states of a working person), because they lack an initial orientation towards analyzing constant changes in the subject of testing ( functional states) occurring over a period of time. Various methods for subjective assessment of functional states must have professional specialization, i.e. correspond to and reflect the specific features of the profession and the structure of this labor activity, as well as a sufficient number of adequate and correctly formulated subjective symptoms.
A difficult issue in the diagnosis of mental states is the question of the relationship between objective and subjective methods. In some works, subjective characteristics are considered as some kind of second-rate material, less suitable for scientific analysis compared to the so-called objective methods, i.e. indicators recorded by instruments and devices. We cannot completely agree with this position. For example, V.P.Zinchenko emphasizes that carefully collected “subjective material” about a particular mental phenomenon represents completely complete data, in no way less suitable for an in-depth analysis of the phenomena under study than objective data.
You can refer to the opinion A. B. Leonova , which believes that introspective data contains a wealth of material about the various manifestations of human states, because they contain pro- and subsystems of an integral functional system: motivation and emotions, autonomics and motor skills.
In this context A.B. Leonova believes that traditional psychodiagnostic methods are of little use when studying functional states (states of a working person), because they contain the potential for obtaining a holistic description of the phenomenon being studied.
Thanks to subjective assessment, we can give a proper qualitative assessment of the state, separating it from another state; subjective assessment is more sensitive to changes in mental state.
The importance of self-awareness and self-reflection for diagnosing a condition is confirmed by the researchers’ focus on “experience” as a unit of mental states.
Thus, the “subjective factor” in the diagnosis of a person’s mental states makes it possible to qualitatively interpret a mental state, allows one to separate one state from another, and assess its intensity. As many studies show, without such an interpretation, the study of mental states is uninformative. Specific subjective methods for diagnosing mental states of an individual should include clear verbal descriptions of symptoms and manifestations of a mental state from various psychological manifestations, including behavioral ones, taking into account the activity of the subject.
At the same time, the attitude towards the use and application of subjective indicators as a psychological tool in the study of mental states should not be somehow frozen, inert in the system of psychological methods, but entirely determined by the subject, object, goals and objectives of the study. In other words, the balance between subjective and objective methods is fluid and depends on the theoretical ideas of the author, the latter is reflected in the use of one or another tool. So, for example, the extent of the use of subjective methods in the study of functional states will differ from the use of these methods in the study of mental states of the individual, where the “weight” of subjective factors is immeasurably higher.
So, the complexity of the concept of “condition” determines the variety of methodological techniques for diagnosing conditions. Summarizing all the known classifications of methods for psychodiagnostics of mental states, we can distinguish three main groups of methods.
The first group consists of self-report methods- questionnaires, checklists, methods such as semantic differential, in which the subject, with the help of specially selected material that organizes and controls his introspection, himself assesses his state. Self-report methods are focused on phenomenology - the emotional state. Methods of this type include the “Well-being, activity, mood” test ( SAN )V.A. Doskina etc., examination anxiety questionnaire Orlova Yu.M. ., Phillips school anxiety test, Spielberger-Khanin situational and personal anxiety scale, E. Beck depression scale, V.V. method of diagnosing the level of emotional burnout. Boyko et al.
The second group consists projective methods in which the assessment of the state is based not so much on the characteristics of the course of activity in the process of performing test tasks, but on the analysis of its results. Methods of this kind include the color preference test by M. Luscher, the Wagner hand test in the adaptation of T.N. Kurbatova, S. Rosenzweig’s method of frustration reactions, L. Szondi’s method of portrait selection, drawing techniques.
Third group of methods assessment of mental states through the measurement of their hypothetical correlates of a physiological nature (for example, heart rate, GSR, etc.).
Diagnosis of the motivational sphere of personality.
In the structure of personality, motivation occupies a special place and is the main concept used to explain driving forces human behavior and activity. Theoretical certainty and unambiguous views on the phenomena of motivation are still far from being completed. This, in particular, is reflected in the polysemy of definitions of the basic concepts of this area of psychology, such as need, motive, motivation.
Need - the state of an individual created by the felt need for objects necessary for his existence and development, and which serves as a source of his activity.
Classification of needs, the need for their diagnosis.
It is difficult to name a generally accepted classification of personal motives. However, at the level of the most global needs that are significant in childhood, there is more agreement than in the classification of motives that are already relevant for adolescence. And this is not accidental, since the motivational sphere of the individual develops along the path of differentiation.
So, global needs that are characteristic of a person literally from the first years of life:
Vital life support needs.
Organic Pleasure Needs(erogenous, pre-sexual needs, which are partially satisfied in childhood sensations of taste, tactile and other sensory pleasure).
Needs for movement and novelty(in motor games, physical relaxation, impressions).
The need for communication and love from others(in contact and acceptance from parents and other people).
The need for self-affirmation and achievement(competitive motives for increasing personal success and opportunities).
Needs for cognition and cognitive consonance(in building a coherent and consistent picture of the world).
The Need for Compassionate Love(this is the altruistic equivalent of the natural egoistic need for the love of others, a necessary basis for the mental maturity of an adult as a parent and educator of his own children).
The need for productive self-realization(in creating pragmatically or aesthetically valuable products of one’s own constructive and creative activity).
Need for meaning in life(in building a coherent system of knowledge and beliefs and in implementing moral values in one’s own life).
Primary natural, organismic needs:
Primary social, individual needs:
Higher personal, secondary needs develop in children, usually in adolescence and adolescence in favorable circumstances - on the basis of satisfied natural and social needs (but do not develop in case of their chronic frustration and suppression - this is the position of supporters of humanistic psychology on this complex issue):
Internal discomfort from a feeling of dissatisfaction plus a certain situational stimulus can cause a mental state that is characterized by the actualization of a certain need. The need seeks its satisfaction in a specific object (A.N. Leontyev, 1971). When she finds this object, a stable “need-object” connection is formed in experience, which becomes the driving motive of behavior. For example, during infancy, almost the majority of the child’s needs are objectified in the image of the mother. But in principle, the same need can create different motives for behavior in people. For example, cases of formation mental disorders associated with inadequate sexual orientation (homosexuality, narcissism, sexual fetishism, etc.) = examples of the formation of inadequate “need-object” connections. In this case, the primary need for sexual pleasure finds satisfaction in a naturally and socially inadequate object and method of its satisfaction.
The natural unprogrammed nature of the “need-object” connections in humans (compared to animals, in which these connections are usually fixed instinctively) creates for him not only the advantages of flexible adaptation, but also the risk of dramatic errors of pseudo-adaptation.
Motivation - impulses that cause the activity of the body and determine its direction.
Motive - incentives for activity related to meeting the needs of the subject; a set of external and internal conditions that cause the subject’s activity and determine its direction; motivating and determining the choice of direction of activity; the conscious reason underlying the choice of actions and actions of the individual; a material or ideal object that motivates and directs an activity or action and for the sake of which they are carried out. (Psychology: Dictionary/Under the general editorship of A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky.-M., 1990.-P.219).
In Russian psychology, motive is understood as perceived need(A. G. Kovalev, 1965), as an object of need (A. N. Leontiev, 1975) and is identified with need (P. S. Simonov, 1981).
In the content of a motive, one can distinguish both specific, individually unique, determined by a specific situation, and stable, for which this particular object or phenomenon is nothing more than one of the possible forms of embodiment. Such stable objective content characterizes not so much the object of need itself, but rather the person experiencing this need.
Motivation not only determines (determines) human activity, but also literally permeates most areas of his mental activity. X. Heckhausen (1986) distinguished between motive and motivation as follows. The concept of “motive” includes, in his opinion, concepts such as need, motivation, attraction, inclination, desire, etc. The motive is determined by the target state of the “individual environment” relationship. Motives are formed in the process of individual development as relatively stable evaluative attitudes of a person towards the environment. People differ in individual manifestations of character and the strength of certain motives. A person’s behavior at a certain moment is motivated not by any or all possible motives, but by that of the highest motives, which, under given conditions, is most associated with the possibility of achieving a goal (effective motive). The motive remains effective, i.e. participates in the motivation of behavior until the goal is achieved or changing conditions make another motive more pressing for a given person.
In contrast to motive, X. Heckhausen defines motivation as an inducement to action by a certain motive. Motivation is understood as a process of choosing between various possible actions, as a process that regulates and directs action to achieve states specific to a given motive and supports this direction. An activity is said to be motivated when it is aimed at achieving the goal of a specific motive. Motivation determines how and in what direction a person’s various functional abilities, interests and aspirations will be used.
Motivational sphere of personality - This a complex system diverse motives (attitudes, needs, interests), reflecting different sides human activities and his social roles.
Personality orientation – this is the stable dominance of some drive or interest, which determines the vector of behavior; it is a set of unidirectional motives.
When diagnosing motivation, they try to experimentally activate the types of motivations, while the validity of the technique consists of the validity of the diagnostic situation and the adequacy of the rating scales to the subject of diagnosis. Hence, direct diagnostic methods (questionnaires, questionnaires), which do not create the actual situation, have low validity even with the correct content.
Diagnosis of a specific motive does not clearly determine the diagnosis of the corresponding type of motivation. The contribution of determinants must be taken into account specific situation. Thus, the intensity of actual motivation consists of the intensity of the latent motive and the intensity of situational determinants of motivation. This feature is used in experimental and diagnostic procedures when, through different types instructions try to actualize different types and levels of motivation in an experimental situation.
Methods for diagnosing the motivational sphere of personality
In the psychodiagnostics of motivation, there are three main groups of methods: direct methods, personality questionnaires and projective methods.
Direct methods– are used to clarify apparent motives, stereotypes, socially desirable value orientations, rather than about actual motives of behavior and activity: - questionnaires (list of motives that need to be differentiated), interviews, direct surveys.
Example: the “Value Orientations” method by M. Rokeach. Consists of two lists of values of 18 each. The subject ranks values by importance. The hierarchy of terminal and instrumental values is analyzed (terminal values are the belief that some ultimate goal of individual existence is worth striving for; instrumental values are the belief that a certain course of action or personality traits are preferable in any situation) .
2. Personality questionnaires. Questionnaires offer statements regarding certain behavioral characteristics that do not directly correspond to motives, but are empirically related to them. The main problem of measuring motivation using questionnaires is associated with a decrease in the objectivity of answers due to the effect of the factor of social desirability or protective motivation.
The most used ones are:
Methodology of A. Edwards, based on the list of needs of G. Murray. The test contains 15 scales, which are composed of indicators of needs in the form of 210 pairs of statements. The test taker must choose one answer from each pair. The final need index expresses its strength relative to other needs from the list.
Achievement Motivation Questionnaire by A. Mehrabyan, 1960: 2 scales – striving for success and avoiding failure.
Motivation analysis test (R. Cattell, D. Child, 1975): in 4 subtests, consisting of 208 points, the main personality tendencies are identified (Ergi: focus on a partner, self-confidence, narcissism, quarrelsomeness, etc.) and curturally formed tendencies (feelings: conscience, attitude towards oneself and others, parents, career, etc.).
The “Personal Orientation” method by V. Smekayl and M. Kucher: 30 questions allows you to identify three types of orientation: towards yourself, towards relationships and towards the task.
Projective techniques. Projective methods are based on the analysis of products of imagination and fantasy. They are based on research into the influence of motivation on imagination and perception. Projective methods are used to diagnose deep motivational formations, especially unconscious motives.
TAT(thematic apperception test) - a projective technique for studying personality (H. Morgan, G. Murray, 1935). Stimulus material – 30 black and white paintings and one empty frame for the fantasy task, the paintings depict vague ambiguous situations, while having a certain general meaning. In 2 stages, 10 pictures are presented to the subject in a certain sequence with an interval between series. The subject must come up with a short story about: 1) what led to the situation in the picture, 2) what is happening there, 3) what the characters are thinking and feeling, 4) how the situation will end (the story is written down verbatim, using technology).
The time from the moment of presentation to the beginning of the story and the total time of the story for each picture are recorded. The final survey clarifies details, reservations and errors of perception.
TAT analysis:
finding a hero with whom the subject identifies himself;
determining the hero's needs;
environmental pressure on the hero;
The comparison of the hero's powers and the pressures of the external environment defines the main theme.
The topic reveals: what the test taker actually does, what he strives for, what he is not aware of, repressing into fantasy, what he is currently experiencing, what he is thinking about his future.
List of basic needs according to G. Murray 1) humiliation, 2) achievement, 3) affiliation, 4) aggression, 5) independence, 6) opposition, 7) respect, 8) defense, 9) dominance, 10) attracting attention, 11) avoiding harm, 12 ) avoiding failures, 13) patronage, 14) order, 15) games, 16) rejection, 17) comprehension, 18) sexual relations, 19) dependence, 20) understanding.
Additional needs: 21) acquisition, 22) avoidance of blame, 23) recognition, 24) creation, 25) clarification, 26) recognition, 27) frugality and accumulation.
TAT has a lot of modifications: E.T. Sokolova’s children’s apperception test, the “Four Pictures” test, Heckhausen’s thematic apperception test, etc.
Humorous phrases test (TUF )A. G. Shmeleva And V. S. Boldyreva (1982). The latest version of the technique consists of 43 phrases printed on 9x5 cm cards and one blank card of the same format, which must be divided into 9 topics: “aggression (self-defense)”, “gender relations”, “addictions (drunkenness)”, “money”, “fashion”, “career”, “family troubles”, “human stupidity”, “mediocrity in art”.
The advantages and disadvantages of diagnostic methods for the motivational sphere of personality are presented in Table 5.
METHODS FOR STUDYING EMOTIONS
An important role in the study of emotional disorders belongs to the anamnestic method, with the help of which the emotional sphere is studied during the life of the patient, and clinical observation of his behavior. To objectively characterize emotional reactions, states and relationships, physiological, biochemical and experimental psychological methods are used.
When studying emotions, especially great importance is attached to vegetative reactions. One of the most sensitive indicators of changes in the autonomic nervous system is the galvanic skin response (GSR). As an indicator of the emotional sphere of a person, GSR (in the literature of past years - the psychogalvanic reflex) has been studied by many authors
In our studies and those led by us, various variants of methods based on recording galvanic skin reactivity were used. The most widely used psychophysiological method is in the form of a modification of the associative experiment, which consists in the use of verbal stimuli of varying emotional significance for the patient, in combination with registration of GSR. In such an experiment, physiological changes are determined by a person’s selective attitude to the content of the stimulus and, therefore, have not only physiological, but also psychological meaning.
In the work of V. M. Shklovsky, a technique was used that took into account both quantitative and qualitative indicators of galvanic skin reactivity, including the presence of outbreaks of spontaneous fluctuations, more pronounced reactions in response to situationally significant words compared to insignificant ones, and the aftereffect (increased response to an insignificant word if it comes after a significant one). GSR when mentally imagining a psycho-traumatic situation. The GSR amplitude and total reaction duration were measured.
L.K. Bogatskaya described a psychophysiological technique for studying emotional relationships in mentally ill patients. Registration of GSR was combined with an attempt to include patients in imaginary situations reflecting relationships that were significant to them. For mental representation, the subject was presented with 5 content-significant and 4 indifferent plots. With content-significant plots, they tried to evoke in mentally ill patients (mainly with severe apatho-abulic disorders) ideas associated with systems of relationships relating to family, immediate environment, work, and the future.
To quantitatively characterize emotional relationships, this work used, in particular, a special emotionality index. In order to calculate this index, the maximum amplitude among GSR reactions to content-significant ideas is measured; the average amplitude is determined for indifferent representations; a ratio is found that shows how many times the intensity of the reaction to the most emotionally significant idea exceeds the reaction to the indifferent one.
Among other vegetative characteristics used in the study of emotions, the frequency and rhythm of heart contractions, ECG, respiratory parameters (respiratory frequency, amplitude of respiratory waves, etc.), changes in blood pressure, and electromyograms are taken into account.
Among the autonomic indicators, the importance of cardiac reactions as an indicator of emotional states and its relative independence from other physiological indicators is emphasized, and the variability of cardiovascular reactions is considered as a particularly reliable indicator of mental stress. The rhythmogram is a sequential series of intersystolic intervals of the heart. For visual analysis, the rhythmogram is recorded graphically on a paper tape, where the R-R intervals are sequentially recorded. ECG in the form of vertical lines. Usually the frequency, amplitude of respiratory waves, the time of formation of cardiac reactions to the initial level after exposure, etc. are analyzed.
Numerous studies have been devoted to the search for electroencephalographic correlates of emotional stress in humans [Bobkova V.V., 1967; Ekelova-Bagaley E. M. et al., 1975 Rusalova M. N., 1979, etc.]. It is more often indicated that emotions are accompanied by inhibition of the alpha rhythm and an increase in fast oscillations. However, recently other authors have emphasized that h-p Against the background of emotional stress, amplitudes often increase. alpha rhythm, alpha index increases, slow rhythms intensify. M. N. Rusalova showed that electroencephalographic shifts during emotions represent the result of the interaction of systems that realize, on the one hand, emotional tension itself, and on the other, regulating attention processes (their direction, intensity, degree of novelty of an emotionally significant stimulus) , which, according to the author, explains the differences detected in the electroencephalogram.
Modern psychophysiological technology makes it possible to study various physiological indicators as correlates of emotional reactions and relationship states, often with their one-time polygraphic registration. So, in Fig. 2 provide a recording of the electroencephalogram, electrocardiogram, respiration and GSR in a patient with hysteria in response to the indifferent word “air” and the emotionally significant word “Kolya” (the name of the husband included in psychogeny). More pronounced and longer-lasting reactions to an emotionally significant word are revealed - EEG, GSR, breathing (see Fig. 2.6.).
Beginning with the famous works of W. Cannon (1927), the attention of researchers was drawn to the biochemical correlates of emotional states. In recent decades, an increase in the number of these works has been facilitated by growing interest in the problem of emotional stress.
In many studies [Gubachev Yu. M., Iovlev B. V., Karvasarsky B. D. et al., 1976; Myager V.K., 1976; Levi L., 1970, 1972, etc.] not only confirmed the fact of changes in the levels of biochemically active substances during emotional changes, but also showed that certain emotions may be accompanied by characteristic changes in certain biochemical substances.
Our comparison of biochemical and psychological indicators indicates that, despite the importance of taking into account the degree and nature of emotional and affective tension in the relationship between emotions and biochemical changes in patients with neuroses, what plays a role is not a simple intensification of emotional reactions, but their refraction through the characteristics of the individual and the system of his relationships .
The study of the facial side of emotions has a long history. Begun by C. Darwin and V. M. Bekhterev, research in these directions has not lost its relevance to the present day. Moreover, in a number of cases (for example, during space flight, the activities of underwater vehicle operators), when only radio and television communication channels can be used, the importance of human expressive manifestations (facial expressions, speech, etc.) for assessing the emotional state sharply increases. Of the huge number of publications of the last period, we will indicate only a few.
V. A. Barabanshchikova and T. N. Malkova (1980), based on the research of P. Ekman (1973), in which facial manifestations of such emotions as anger, fear, surprise, disgust, joy, grief were identified and described, developed a methodology for quality and quantification perception of the emotional manifestations of another person. The authors have given standards for facial expressions of emotions. In a number of works carried out under the leadership of A. A. Bodalev [Labunskaya V. A., 1976, etc.], objective and subjective conditions affecting the success of recognizing an emotional state by facial expression were studied. V. A. Labunskaya (1976) includes indicators of the level of development of nonverbal intelligence, extroversion and emotional mobility among the subjective conditions established in the experiment.
Other expressive manifestations of a person used in the study of emotions are often speech, its phonetic characteristics, How speech intonation, manner of speaking, etc. Various authors use them to identify the emotional state (Bazhin E.F., Korneva T.V., 1978, etc.].
Let us dwell in some detail on the method of E.F. Bazhin and co-workers, which made it possible to obtain new results that are significant primarily for treatment and rehabilitation practice. The methodology was based on tape recordings of the speech of 23 patients with schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis, who were in various emotional states. The patients uttered the same phrases consisting of emotionally neutral sentences. Identification of emotional states was carried out by a commission of medical experts using a special multidimensional scale, which included low mood, fear, anger, joy, and apathy. The subject could use an alphabet containing a number of shades of the indicated emotional states, for example, for a low mood - mild sadness, severe sadness (sadness), melancholy.
When processing the received data, the degree of correspondence of the auditor’s assessment to the experts’ assessment was determined using a six-point system, after which the average test score, characterizing his “auditing abilities,” was calculated for each auditor. In studies by E. F. Bazhin and T. V. Korneva, it was shown that identifying the emotional state of a speaker from speech devoid of an arbitrary lexical-semantic aspect is a feasible task, which all subjects coped with to one degree or another, although the quality of its performance was not the same. To a certain extent, it turned out to be related to the gender, age characteristics of the subjects and their personal characteristics [Korneva T.V., 1978].
Based on the fact that facial expressions and emotional intonation of speech act as the most essential elements of expression, N. A. Ganina and T. V. Korneva (1980) proposed a technique in which the subject is simultaneously presented with samples of speech and facial expression (30 photographs of faces with emotional 58
states that most correspond to the patterns of speech expression described above in the audit analysis technique).
Numerous studies have been devoted to instrumental (objective) analysis of speech in order to determine the emotional state of the speaker. In the work of V. X. Manerov (1975), the frequency of the fundamental tone of speech for each period was taken into account; the average frequency of the fundamental tone for any segment of the utterance; pitch frequency dispersion; jaggedness of the pitch curve. The author came to the conclusion that the most informative parameters are those related to the fundamental frequency; measurement of melodic contour indentation, dispersion and mean pitch frequency can be used to determine the degree of emotional arousal speaking by comparing them with the values obtained normally using the same standard phrases. The work emphasizes that instrumental speech analysis currently does not allow, however, to successfully determine the type of emotional state.
A broad overview of other methods for studying the expressive component of emotions is presented in the monograph by K. Izard (1980) “Human Emotions,” published in Russian.
The presence of a connection between color sensitivity and the emotional sphere of a person served as the basis for the development of methods that characterize the emotional state of the subject by changes in his color sensitivity. F. I. Sluchevsky (1974) points to such a method developed by his collaborator E. T. Dorofeeva (1967, 1970) and based on the indication of emotional tone in relation to color perception thresholds determined using an anomaloscope. The method makes it possible to differentiate (though without determining the degree of severity) six gradations and shades of mood, which can be psychopathologically designated as manic - depressive, dysphoric - anxious, euphoric - asthenic. In experiments, in particular, it was found that in an elevated, joyful, manic state, color perception of red increases, and blue - worsens. Negative emotions, on the contrary, are accompanied by an increase in sensitivity to blue and a decrease in sensitivity to red.
A. M. Etkind (1980) proposed a color relationship test, created on the basis of a color-associative experiment. Previous studies have shown that color associations to emotional terms are high level significance (p<0,001) дифференцируют основные эмоциональные состояния. Методика позволяет получить такие характеристики отношения, как их значимость для личности, выявить осознаваемый и неосознаваемый уровни отношений и др.
As an illustration, let us refer to the results of a study of a patient suffering from neurosis presented in the work of A. M. Etkind. The neurotic state developed after the patient was unexpectedly abandoned by her fiancé. In the patient’s verbal layout, they occupy the last place in the system of persons significant to her.
At the same time, she associates it with the color green, which comes first in terms of attractiveness. Here the maximum ver-
The score-color discrepancy and the corresponding low correlation between the verbal and color layouts may indicate a low degree of awareness of the patient’s significance of this relationship and the important role of the latter in the origin of psychogenic behavior.
To study the emotional sphere and, in particular, emotional relationships, a semantic differential was used [Bespalko I. G., 1975; Galunov V.I., Manerov V.Kh., 1979].
In conclusion, we should name several methods that, along with those mentioned above, reflect a personal approach to the study of emotions. These are the technique of B.V. Zeigarnik (1927, 1976), based on the phenomenon of “unfinished actions”, the “methodology of conjugate motor actions” by A.R. Luria (1928) for assessing emotional-motor stability and the technique of K.K. Platonov (1960 ), which allows us to identify the emotional and sensory stability of the individual.
Finally, ideas about emotional disorders, primarily emotional states and relationships, can be obtained using various projective techniques (associative experiment, TAT, Rorschach, etc.), questionnaires and scales (MMPI, Hainowski, Wesman-Rix, etc. ). Some additional references to methods for studying emotions based on direct self-reports of emotional experiences are contained in the already mentioned work of K. Izard (1980).
METHODS FOR STUDYING VOLITIONAL PROCESSES
The volitional properties of a patient can be characterized on the basis of a targeted study of his life history and by observing his behavior at home, in the ward, during occupational therapy, etc. Observations can be carried out under normal conditions and when simulating situations of varying degrees of difficulty for the subject. An idea of volitional processes can also be obtained using a number of instrumental methods.
Various types of reactometers make it possible to take into account the motor reaction of a person under experimental conditions, considered! as a simple act of will. |
To study muscle performance and its stability;
and the dynamics of fatigue, due to the characteristics of volitional effort,” research on a special device - an ergograph - is widely used. The recording obtained on this device is called an ergogram;
mine and in healthy people is characterized by a certain height, indicating satisfactory muscle strength, uniformity and tempo. In Fig. Below is a normal ergogram. Rice. 3.6c illustrates a violation of muscle strength, uniformity and tempo on the ergograms of patients with schizophrenia with apato-abou-
The volitional effort of the subject can be characterized by the curve of his mental performance, obtained using the Kraepelin test.
In one of the early works of V. N. Myasishchev (1930), it is indicated that, in essence, in experimental psychology there was no objective method for studying volitional effort. Typically, it was not so much volitional effort that was studied as work productivity. The author proposed a methodology based on his experimentally confirmed position that a person’s implementation of volitional effort in the process of purposeful activity is accompanied by a number of simultaneously occurring physiological processes, the dynamics of which, being closely related to the dynamics of volitional effort, reflects the characteristics of the latter. This makes it possible to multi-effector registration of physiological processes accompanying volitional effort. When analyzing experimental materials, the main attention was paid to the correlative study of the subject’s performance of tasks of increasing difficulty and the corresponding vegetative-somatic changes.
Based on this principle, we have developed a new version of the technique, in which, while maintaining the condition of parallel study of a number of effectors, we used modern technical capabilities for recording physiological indicators characterizing neurovegetative reactivity (bioelectric activity of the cerebral cortex, rheoencephalogram, electrocardiogram, galvanogram and respiration). In connection with the need to study effort in patients with mental illness, a different system of stimuli and special tasks was proposed (Karvasarsky B. D., 1969; Karvasarsky B. D. et al., 1969].
Opening and closing of the eyes, sound, photostimulation were used as functional stimuli, after which the patient was sequentially presented with tasks of increasing difficulty: increasingly complex counting, a dosed increase in physical activity on a dynamometer (10 kg, 15 kg, maximum compression) and breath holding that increased over time. (15s, 20s, maximum delay). When performing each task, the first most
"her easy tasks were repeated to extinguish the indicative reactions
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nia physiological reactive deviations as the difficulty of counting, dynamometry and breath-holding tasks increases. The qualitative features of performing these tasks were also taken into account (counting accuracy, maximum result, the difference between the average and maximum result; according to A.F. Lazursky (1916), the greater this difference, the greater the effort).
The use of the multi-effector principle makes it possible to evaluate the degree of effort not depending on the individual excitability of individual effector systems, but according to a number of physiological indicators, which ensures greater reliability of the conclusion about effort. A similar goal was pursued by the inclusion of functional tests and tasks of varying quality in the psychophysiological methodology.
In Fig. Figure 4 presents the results of the study of effort using the described psychophysiological technique. The complication of the counting task is accompanied by an increase in physiological reactions: a prolongation of the period of depression of the EEG alpha rhythm, increased heart rate, a decrease in the amplitude of the rheoencephalogram, a change in the galvanogram with the appearance of a number of galvanic skin reflexes, and increased respiration.
In the Department of Rehabilitation Therapy for Mentally Patients of the Institute named after. V. M. Bekhterev [Kabanov M. M., 1978] for objective;
Myotonometry and tapping test were used to take into account the severity of volitional disorders and their dynamics under the influence of rehabilitation influences. Due to their simplicity and accessibility, they satisfy the requirements of studying patients even with a deep apato-abulic defect.
In the case of myotonometry, a special device called a myotonometer sequentially measures the amount of muscle tone at the same point - with the task of first relaxing the forearm muscles as much as possible, and then tightening them as much as possible. The difference between the two indicators is taken into account. The choice of this technique is determined by the fact that the degree of change in tone (oscillation amplitude), i.e., voz-;
The ability to relax and tense skeletal muscles depends on the patient’s ability to develop a certain effort. Since it is not the muscle tone itself that is taken into account, but its change, then the patient’s degree of fitness and muscle strength do not significantly affect the effort indicators.
The second method was based on the tapping test, or measuring the rate of muscle movements. The pace of muscle movements is determined using a device called a “finger strike counter,” which records the strikes and displays their number on a special scale. The patient's results are compared, shown for 15 seconds at an arbitrary pace and then at a maximum pace. To assess the degree of effort in different patients, the formula proposed by I. G. Bespalko and B. V. Iovlev (1969) is used.
Among the few techniques that allow one to obtain a quantitative assessment of the volitional sphere, the technique developed by E. M. Ekelova-Bagaleya and L. A. Kalinina (1976) deserves attention. It uses the principle of studying mental satiety by A. Carsten. The subject performs a long and monotonous task (for example, adding numbers), leading him to the end of the
p P
Tsov to a state of satiety, refusal to further complete the task. The entire experimental process is divided by the authors into 4 stages. If the subject refuses to complete the task during the first three stages, he is forced to continue without explanation. At the 4th stage, the experimenter changes tactics, creating a motive for the necessity of the work performed, the significance of its results for the social reputation of the subject, i.e., what G. P. Chkhartishvili (1955) called a “volitional motive” is used. Productive-
The performance of the subject’s work at stages 2-4 is assessed in relation to productivity at stage 1, taken as 100%. The authors proceed from the assumption that the realization of a volitional motive is hampered by a state of satiety, and therefore effort is required to overcome it. The magnitude of the increase in work productivity at the 4th stage compared to the 3rd makes it possible to judge the degree of volitional effort. A study of 2 groups of subjects - healthy and patients with a decrease in effort according to clinical data - showed that if in the first group the increase in work productivity was 40% at the 4th stage, then in the second group of patients there was a decrease of 8%;
the differences are statistically significant to a high degree.
Considering that independence acts as one of the most significant characteristics of a person’s volitional qualities, the opposite trait - suggestibility - to a certain extent also gives an idea of their characteristics.
Among a number of studies, we point out the work performed in our clinic by V. I. Petrik (1979). The technique included recording the relative change in the temperature of the finger under the influence of suggestion. The suggestion was aimed at generating heat in the finger. The duration of suggestion was aimed at achieving the maximum result and was different for different forms of neuroses. The author has developed a special electric thermometer designed for long-term recording of relative temperature changes within 25°. The technique made it possible to study the characteristics of suggestibility in patients with various forms of neuroses and psychopathy, to obtain the dynamic characteristics of the suggestive act, to consider the conditions for carrying out suggestion, which make it possible to enhance the suggestive effect, etc.
