It is customary to remember Ivan the Terrible as a cruel and unbridled ruler, who by his actions paved the way for the Time of Troubles. However, everything is not so simple. At the beginning of his reign, Ivan IV did a lot of good for the country and carried out a number of reforms that were very innovative for his time. What achievements on this path does he own?

Chosen Rada and reforms in the military, administrative and church spheres during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

Having barely ascended the Russian throne, Ivan IV initiated the creation of a special body, the main task of which was to develop reforms. This body was called Chosen Rada, and included the closest and most trusted supporters of the young king.

In 1949 the first Zemsky Sobor... In the course of it, the so-called orders were formed - the ministries of that time, in charge of various spheres of state life. The territory of Russia gradually expanded, industry, trade relations and military affairs developed, and separate departments were required to regulate all this. Territorial and departmental orders appeared, such as Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Zemsky and Posolsky and others.
In 1550, a new set of decrees of the Russian kingdom was issued - Code of Law... Having established a single clear measure of the land tax, at the same time, the new code of laws enslaved the peasants even more, protected other estates from falling into serfs, and strengthened the central power.
In 1550 there was military reform... A thousand noblemen were granted plots of land in the immediate vicinity of the capital. These nobles became the first archers - warriors armed with firearms. In addition, the service of the archers was semi-regular - unlike the militias, they were mainly engaged in military affairs.
In the 1550s, there was a significant reformed land and administrative system- Ivan IV canceled the feeding system, gave part of the duties of governors to elected representatives in the counties.

Unfortunately, the Chosen Rada did not last long. Already in 1565 it was replaced by

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Introduction

Chapter 1. State reforms of Ivan IV

1.1 State reforms "Chosen Rada"

1.2 Reforms of state and local government bodies during the reign of Ivan IV. Oprichnina, its causes and consequences

Chapter 2. Legal reforms of Ivan IV

2.1 Changes in Russian legislation during the reign of Ivan IV

2.2 Code of Law 1550 Stoglavy Cathedral

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

Considering the current economic and political state of Russia, its foreign and domestic policy, its role in the international arena, one cannot but refer to the history of the formation of power in Russia, its development and influence on the life of society, because, as you know, history develops in a spiral, and the origins of modern events must be sought in the past of the country.

Relevance of the topic consists in the experience of reforming the public administration system in a critical era on the example of the Code of Laws of 1550.For the present time, characterized by the search for an effective model of public administration in the post-Soviet period, the experience of past reforms can be useful, including the reforms of Ivan IV, which contributed to the strengthening of the state.

The most important from this point of view is the issue of reforms carried out during the reign of Ivan IV, which influenced the entire further course of Russian history. To reveal this topic, it is necessary: to consider the personality of Ivan the Terrible, to identify historical prerequisites, to study in detail the geopolitical situation in Russia in the 16th century and to assess the influence of these factors on the development of the country during this period. So it is equally important to reveal the essence of changes in the internal life of the state and show the validity of the reforms and their consequences. In our history, the reign of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible, which is half of the 16th century, is one of the most important eras. It is important both for the expansion of Russian territory and for major and significant events and changes in internal life.

Object of study: the political development of Russia in the second half of the 16th century in connection with the reorganization of the state system during the reign of Ivan IV, the system of public relations in the process of reforming the management activities of state authorities and the forms and methods of management activities used. And as a result, a study of the transformation of power and the approval of autocratic rule, the regulatory framework for the study presented in the Code of Laws of 1550 and some other documents containing provisions related to the reform of the management activities of public authorities, including the grounds, forms and procedure for the functioning of bodies executive power.

The subject of research is the activity of Ivan IV on reforming public administration in Russia, the norms of administrative law governing public relations in the field of reforming the management activities of executive bodies of state power, as well as the forms and methods of management activities used in reforming and the corresponding law enforcement practice.

The purpose of the work is the identification of the essence and nature of the reforms of public administration carried out by Ivan IV, in a comprehensive systemic analysis of the administrative and legal support of reforming the state apparatus and the forms and methods of reform used, as well as in the formulation of principles, patterns, criteria of reform in relation to the modern realities of the Russian Federation.

The following tasks follow from this goal:

Find out the history and significance of the Zemsky Sobors, the Boyar Duma, the activities of the Chosen Rada, characterize the activities of state authorities, describe the main features of the Oprichnina and its results;

Consider the objective foundations of reforming on the example of the Code of Laws of 1550, the principles of reforming management activities arising from them, disclose the organizational and legal support of the reform mechanism, determine the system, structure and powers of state bodies carrying out reforms, disclose their administrative and legal status;

Explore the historical features of the organizational and legal support of the reform of public administration in Russia and show the historical continuity of the positive and negative aspects of these processes;

The degree of knowledge is quite large. Many authors have studied this problem. The research of A.A. Zimin is of the greatest interest. "The Epoch of Ivan IV" revealed the essence of the transitional moment from feudalism to estate monarchy. If Russian historiography and the "Pokrovsky school" failed to scientifically explain the significance of Ivan the Terrible in Russian history, then Western European historians were completely powerless in this respect. At best, they repeated the conclusions presented in the writings of Solovyov and Platonov, where attempts were made to approach this issue differently: they regarded the activities of Ivan IV as the moment of a decisive battle of the "state principle" embodied by this formidable sovereign with specific antiquity.

Sources telling about the era of Ivan IV include the Code of Law of 1550, notes of the guardsman Heinrich Staden, published almost simultaneously with the Russian translation of the notes of Taube and Kruse; the legend of Albert Schlichting also belongs to foreign sources. Equally important are the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and the oprichnik Vasily Gryazny and the collection of acts from the times of the oprichnina. All these publications made it possible to re-illuminate the "dark" issues associated with the reforms of Ivan IV.

Methodological framework works are historical and cultural comparative approaches that made it possible to identify the essence of the reforms and achieve the goals set in the work. Research methodology: generalization of normative, empirical and theoretical sources required the use of a set of methods and methods of cognition inherent in modern science. Including the dialectical-materialist method of cognizing objective reality and the general scientific, particular scientific methods and general logical techniques based on it, such as abstraction, analysis, synthesis, analogy, generalization, and others.

When writing the work, as a general scientific method, a systematic approach was used, involving the study of administrative and legal aspects of reforming the management activities of executive bodies of state power, taking into account direct and feedback, allowing to consider the formal and legal content of emerging legal relations, to identify the features and patterns of stages and mechanisms of public administration in the considered area.

The paper formulates the concept of administrative and legal support for reforming the management activities of the executive bodies of state power, the forms and methods of management they use, identifies the objective grounds and logic of setting reform goals, proposes a conceptual framework for research, formulates a system of principles for organizational and legal support of reform in the field of public administration, identified shortcomings in this area. The paper attempts to substantiate ways to optimize the use of administrative and legal mechanisms used in the reform process, taking into account both positive and negative Russian and foreign experience.

oprichnina reform

Chapter 1.State reforms of Ivan IV

1. 1 Statesnew reforms of the "Chosen Rada"

The precondition for the creation of an unofficial government was the unrest of 1547, which was called the Moscow uprising. Ivan IV at this time was only 17 years old. The reason for the uprising was the aggravation of social contradictions in the 30-40s. At this time, the arbitrariness of the boyars in connection with the early childhood of Ivan IV was very clearly manifested. The tone was set by the princes Glinsky, since the mother of the crowned boy was Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya.

Discontent with the exorbitant taxes grew among the broad masses of the people. The impetus for the uprising was a fire in Moscow at the end of the second decade of June. This fire was huge in scale, it caused irreparable damage to the property of Muscovites. Embittered people took to the streets of the capital on June 21, 1547.

The enraged crowd tore apart all the princes Glinsky who came to hand. The outraged people began to look for the young Tsar, but he left Moscow, hiding in the village of Vorobyovo (Vorobyovy Gory, during the years of Soviet power were called Lenin Hills).

The sovereign went out to the people, he managed to persuade the people to calm down and disperse. Meanwhile, by order of Ivan IV, troops were pulled into Moscow, the purpose of which was to arrest the instigators of the uprising. As a result, many of them were executed.

That is why the Tsar gathered around him progressively thinking people. Thus, in 1549 the Chosen Rada began its work on reforming the state structure in the Muscovite kingdom.

The Chosen Rada was an expression of a compromise between different strata of the ruling class at the beginning of the reign of Ivan IV. It was a small circle of persons close to the king, the exact composition of which is not entirely clear. The very expression "Chosen Rada" was used by its former participant, Prince A.M. Kurbsky, in one of his letters to Ivan the Terrible. Shikman, A.P. Figures of national history. Biographical reference / A.P. Shikman. - M .: Ed. "Science", 1997. - S. 55-56.

The "Chosen Rada" included representatives of: servicemen, such as A.F. Adashev, a native of ignoble but large landowners, representatives of the clergy, such as Metropolitan Macarius and the tsar's confessor, archpriest of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral Sylvester, from the princely boyar nobility, what were the young prince Andrei Kurbsky and prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, a representative of the court administration I.M. Viskovaty, and others. The Rada was not an official state body, but, in fact, for 13 years it was the government and ruled the state on behalf of the Tsar, according to this decision it was equated with the Tsar's will.

The new government was faced with the question of ways to transform the state apparatus. The first steps towards reforms were expressed in the convocation on February 27, 1549, of, in fact, the first Zemsky Sobor - the highest estate-representative institution in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the end of the 17th centuries. In literary monuments of the 17th century. such a Council is often called the "Council of All the Earth". The appearance of Zemsky Sobors was the result of the unification of the Russian lands into a single state, the growth of the political significance of the nobility and the upper classes of the posad.

In its structure, the Zemsky Sobor in Russia is close to the estate representation of Western Europe, but unlike them, it had only a deliberative meaning, and not a legislative one (with rare exceptional exceptions). The decisions of the Zemsky Sobor only took the force of law when the Boyar Duma, headed by the Tsar, took part in its work.

The Zemsky Sobor emerged as a nationwide analogue of city councils that existed in large county cities earlier. The first Zemsky Sobor included members of the Consecrated Council (Higher clergy), Boyar Duma (appanage princes, boyars), the sovereign's court, elected from the provincial nobility and wealthy citizens. Sessions of the Council were held according to ranks, decisions were recorded as unanimous. The cathedral consisted, as it were, of two chambers: the first - boyars, okolnichy, butlers, treasurers; The second - the governors, princes, Boyar children, great nobles. The meeting lasted two days. There were three speeches of the Tsar, the speeches of the boyars, and finally, a meeting of the Boyar Duma took place.

This first Zemsky Sobor was called the "Cathedral of Reconciliation" and marked the transformation of the Russian state into a representative estate monarchy through the creation of a central estate representative institution, in which the nobles played a significantly increased role. At the same time, the feudal aristocracy had to give up a number of its privileges in favor of the bulk of the service people. The Council decided to draw up a new Code of Laws.

Due to the fact that in February 1549 it was decided to "give court" if a person made a petition against boyars, treasurers or butlers, a petition hut was created. It received petitions addressed to the Emperor, and here decisions were made on them. The petty hut was a kind of appellate agency and control body overseeing other government agencies.

Simultaneously with the "Council of Reconciliation", a meeting of the Church Council is taking place, during which a church celebration of 16 saints was established and their lives were considered. In the face of the growth of the Reformation movement, the Church, by canonizing its prominent figures, sought to strengthen its declining authority.

1549 was the year of an active attack on the special privileges of the spiritual feudal lords. On June 4, 1549, a letter was sent to Dmitrov, according to which a number of monasteries were deprived of the right to duty-free trade in Dmitrov and other cities. But the large monasteries retained their privileges.

Subsequently, representatives of the black-sowed peasantry and the trade and handicraft townspeople took part in the Councils.

The convocation of the Council was carried out by a letter of appeal, which indicated the issues on the agenda, the number of electives. If the number was not determined, it was decided by the population itself. Elections of representatives to the Zemsky Sobor (the number of members was not determined and ranged from 200 to 500 people) were held in the county towns and in the lip camps in the form of meetings of certain ranks. The electives were convened by sending letters to the cities, which, with their counties, constituted constituencies. Only those who paid taxes to the treasury, as well as people who served, could participate in the elections held by estates. At the end of the elections, the minutes of the meeting were drawn up, which was certified by all those who participated in the elections. This protocol was sent to the Ambassadorial or Discharge order. The electors took with them the necessary supply of food or money, which they were supplied with by the electors. The elected officials were not paid. Meetings of the Councils could take years, so it was extremely important for the elective to stock up on everything they needed.

Each Zemsky Sobor opened with a service in the Kremlin Dormition Cathedral, sometimes there were religious processions, after which a solemn meeting of the Sobor took place in full force. The king made a speech and set tasks. After that, deliberative sessions of the electives began among themselves. Each estate sat separately. Voting on major issues took place in special chambers. Often, at the end of the Zemsky Assembly, a joint session of the entire Council was held. Usually decisions were taken unanimously. At the closing of the Cathedral, the Tsar gave a gala dinner for the elective.

The competence of the Zemsky Sobor was rather broad. The role of Zemsky Sobors in the codification of law is well known (Code of Laws of 1550, Sobornoye Ulozhenie 1649). The councils were also in charge of issues of war and peace, internal and tax administration, church dispensation in the years of schism. There was also a formal right of legislative initiative, but until 1598 all Councils were deliberative (after the death of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, that is, after the suppression of the reigning line of Rurikovich, “electoral” Councils began to be convened. On February 14, 1598, the Zemsky Sobor elected Tsar Boris Godunov, in 1613 - Mikhail Romanov, in 1682 (at the last Council) he was approved by Tsar Peter I together with his elder brother John V).

After the February Councils, government activities in 1549 developed in various areas. The projects of I.S. Peresvetov Zimin, A.A. Peresvetov and his contemporaries / A.A. Zimin - M .: Ed. "Science", 1958. - S. 344-359. , the defender of a strong autocratic power. The centralization of the court and finance, the codification of laws, the creation of a permanent army, provided with salaries - these are some of the proposals of this "warrior" - a publicist who expressed the thoughts and aspirations of the advanced part of the nobility affected by the reformation-humanist movement. According to the author of the project, it was necessary to check the land holdings (estates, estates) and feeding, in order to find out the size of the holdings and the performance of military duties by servicemen. It was necessary to redistribute the available land fund in order to provide landless and landless feudal lords. But this project violated the primordial patrimonial rights of the feudal aristocracy, so the project was not implemented.

So already in 1550, a military reform began. Streltsy troops began to form. This was the guard, whose task was to protect the Tsar. At first, there were only 3 thousand of them, over time, the archers became much more. And the end of such military units was put by Peter I in 1698. Thus, they existed for almost 150 years.

Order was brought about in military service, two categories of service people were distinguished: The first category - boyars and nobles, that is, all people of noble birth had to serve in the army or in any other public service (Only born boys were immediately enrolled in military service, he became fit for it from the age of 15). All served, otherwise, regardless of age, men were considered "undergrowth" (Such a nickname was extremely shameful).

The military of those years did not live in barracks, they were allocated land plots and private houses. Entire military settlements were formed. In them, the servicemen lived an ordinary measured life: they sowed, plowed, harvested, got married, raised children. In the event of war, the entire male population fell under arms.

Foreigners also served in the Russian army. They were mercenaries, the number of which never exceeded a couple of thousand people.

The entire vertical of power was subjected to serious reform. Tight control was established over local government. It was not the population that began to support it, but the state, after which the introduction of a single state duty followed, which only the state could collect. A flat tax per unit area was established for landowners.

In 1550 a new Code of Law was adopted. He, in fact, was the development of the Code of Laws of Ivan III of 1497 Cherepnin, L.V. Monuments of Russian law. Issue III / Ed. L.V. Cherepnin - M .: "State Publishing House of Legal Literature", 1955. - S. 339-374. ... The Code of Law proceeded from the old system of government and local courts, but at the same time limited the power of governors and volostels, reducing their powers in court and increasing control over them by the Tsar's administration. The Code of Law abolished the trade privileges of the feudal lords and transferred the right to collect tamga (the main trade duty) to the Tsar's administration, which was in the interests of the elite of merchants and artisans. The tax benefits of monasteries were canceled, which weakened the material base of the Church and strengthened the central government. The Code of Law confirmed St. George's Day and increased the size of the "elderly", which meant further enslavement of the peasants.

On the initiative of Ivan IV, a Church Council took place in January-May 1551. His decisions are summarized in 100 chapters, therefore, he went down in history under the name "Stoglavy". At the Council, the Tsar urged those present to approve the new Code of Laws and other reforms. The Stoglavy Sobor unified divine services and all church rituals, recognized 50 "locally revered" saints as all-Russian and formalized a single pantheon of saints for the entire state, and also set the task of improving the customs of the clergy.

The elected Rada paid great attention to personnel policy. The so-called "Yard Notebook" was created. The sovereigns were recorded in it, who could be appointed to various high positions: diplomatic, military, administrative. That is, a person fell into the "cage" and could move from one high post to another, bringing benefits to the state everywhere. Subsequently, this style of work with personnel was copied by the communists and created a party nomenclature.

The central state apparatus has been significantly improved. Many new orders appeared (ministries and departments, translating into modern language), since the functions of local government were transferred to officials of the central apparatus. In addition to state orders, regional orders arose that oversaw certain territories and were responsible for them.

The growth of popular movements in the city and the countryside forced the resumption of the Lip Reform. September 27, 1549 The Labour Order was issued to the peasants of the Kirilov Monastery. This order testified to the growth of the influence of the nobility. Now lip affairs were transferred to the jurisdiction of the elected lip chiefs from among the Children of the Boyars.

The organs of central administration in the Moscow state were orders. Moscow orders developed from those originally individual and temporary government orders that the Moscow Grand Duke gave to his boyars and free servants, "ordering" them to be in charge of any branch of the palace economy and management. Initially, an order is a private assignment, not an organ. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. these "single assignments" turned into complex and permanent places of presence, called "huts" or "orders". Together with the order to manage the case, they received certain powers and competence. Orders have become bodies of the Supreme Power. They existed thanks to the power of the King and were inseparable from it.

The reason for the appearance of orders is centralization. These were institutions of the Moscow order with a strict vertical structure. A feature of the orders was their publicity. When the Prince's inheritance was annexed to Moscow, the territory of his inheritance turned into a "palace", where the butler, the governor of the Grand Duke of Moscow, was sent. The appanage prince went to serve in Moscow, where he lived with his family. Around such a governor (butler), a circle of closest assistants formed, who would later draw up an order, his hut. The nature of the cases in which such a hut was in charge was public: court and finance.

The history of the creation of the order system begins at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, when its foundations are just beginning to take shape. Under Ivan III and Vasily III, some territorial orders are already in force: "Cheti" or "Quarters"; and some branch orders: "Kazenny", "Discharge". The time of Ivan the Terrible was the dawn of the order system of the Moscow state. This was facilitated by the internal government reforms carried out by the Tsar.

The order contained judicial and administrative functions. They were Courts for persons in the branches of government under their jurisdiction. Sagittarius sued in the Streletsky order, foreigners in the Inozemny order, etc. The orders, being administrative bodies, considered cases entrusted to their supervision independently. If it was impossible to resolve the case, it was submitted to the Boyar Duma for consideration.

In terms of their composition, the orders were the following system:

The order was headed by a judge, usually a member of the Duma. Sometimes there were several judges, but no more than three if the cases were numerous. The judges were followed by clerks, clerks, service personnel, mainly watchmen.

Also, in many orders, clerks were at the head, who were appointed not from the boyars, but from literate and unnatural service people. This was done specifically in order to oppose the state apparatus of the boyar power and its influence, that is, the orders served the Tsar, and not the well-born nobility, which had its own interests, often at odds with the state.

Structurally, the orders were divided into "Trunks" and "Povytya". Each order or court hut had two watchmen. They opened the door to those who gave money, and who had nothing to give, before they closed it. In all orders, all cases were recorded in books. Also, there were clerks - clerks' assistants, their number ranged from 20 to 50, depending on the order. The clerk was rewriting the letters in perfect order, the clerk signed these letters. A rather complicated procedure of gluing the letter was carried out; it was written on the gluing in such a way that no one could forge the letter. In other words, the letter was protected from counterfeiting.

From time to time, the orders were revised by order of the Emperor. Over time, special books were kept for registering decisions made at the hands of clerks. The supreme power often took steps to force orders to monitor the execution of their decrees.

A serious problem with the orders was the delimitation of their competence. Several orders could be in charge of the same business. As a result, there were quite a few conflicts in the Moscow Kingdom.

Orders were classified into groups: 1) Financial and state-owned - this is primarily the order of the Great Palace (first mentioned - 1547). Its main function was not finance, but the Court. This order was also in charge of Stamp Duty and a number of other taxes. And the Treasury order or the order of the Big Treasury (first mentioned - 1578). In the department of this order was the Mint. The state order was in charge of state gold and other reserves.

Order of the Big Parish, Accounts Order, Local, Gold and Silver Business, Khlebny, Kholopiy, New Quarter and other orders, almost every order was in charge of its own item of income, so they could all become part of the financial and state administration.

2) Judicial-administrative orders: Rogue, Moscow, Vladimir, Zemsky orders. The Rogue Order (first mentioned - 1539) was subject to laborers and prisons. The order also included purely police functions. The Moscow and Vladimir orders are exclusively estate institutions. In the Moscow order, the elite, the "Moscow ranks of the people" were sued, in the Vladimirsky order - all the rest. The petition order (first mentioned - 1571) was also a court order. He was a necessary authority before the Supreme Court of Appeal, which was the Boyar Duma. Often the Tsar himself made out petitions from it. The petition order was also the Supreme Administrative Court of Russia, i.e. - this is the highest branch court, before him, the litigant had to go through the Court in the lower instances.

3) Police orders: The police are the concern of the state for the improvement of the life of its subjects. Yamskoy order (first mentioned - 1516), order of Zhitna, Aptekarsky and a number of others.

4) Orders for military affairs: The discharge order (first mentioned - 1535) - an analogue of the General Staff, Streletsky order, Reitarsky, Inozemny were in charge of the regiments of the new order. Pushkarsky and Oruzheiny (first mentioned - 1511) were in charge of the purchase and production of weapons and equipment. The armored order (first mentioned - 1573) was responsible for the manufacture of horse harness, armor, bows and arrows. Cossack order.

5) Orders of foreign affairs: Ambassadorial order (first mentioned - 1567) - it was in charge of foreigners. This order ransomed the prisoners, carried out the general management of Moscow's ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople. He was also in charge of some cities: Kasimov, Romanov, Velikaya Perm district. The printed order was responsible for keeping the state seal, which was applied to state acts sent abroad. Polonyanochny order was subordinate to the ambassadorial order, in charge of all prisoners of war, as well as the collection of money for their ransom (existed from 1663 to 1678). Panskiy order.

6) Regional orders: These are the chets and quarters that appeared as a result of centralization. With this reform, estates began to split, first into counties, then volosts, camps, down to individual communities and villages. The heirs no longer receive the inheritance, but parts of the former territories of the inheritance. From the remnants of these estates, special territorial tax units are made up - chets and thirds. The couples are named by the names of the clerks, later (with the abolition of the governorships) territorial couples appear: Kostroma, Ustyug, Novgorod and others. Along with the couples, there were palaces: Kazan Palace, Meshchersky, etc. Their difference from the couples is that they were incorporated by force of arms or by common consent, such as the Little Russian Order.

7) Orders of state-church administration: Patriarchal rank, Order of Church affairs, Patriarchal Court, Monastic order - in charge of the trial of the church authorities.

8) A group of orders, separated into a separate group - orders created on the occasion of the solution of any one problem: the funeral order, which was in charge of sending memorial services for the dead Kings. There was also the Order of German feed, the Order of the Sovereign of Secret Affairs (first mentioned in 1658) - was personally subordinate to the Tsar, was engaged in surveillance of the highest officials of the state, and was also in charge of numerous church affairs. In the Order of Secret Affairs, clerks served "in the sovereign's name", who had the right to sign decrees for the Tsar. But this did not mean that they could make laws, just, in this way, they formalized the private will of the Tsar, putting it into writing. In many ways, the Order of Secret Affairs can be considered the organ of the era of absolutism. The monastic order (first mentioned - 1649) - was in charge of the administration of church lands, was the first step towards the gradual secularization of church lands.

Also, the classification divided orders into permanent (Ambassador, Bolshaya Kazny, Discharge) and temporary (Milking and Secret Affairs, abolished after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, Datochny).

In foreign policy, the Chosen Rada was oriented primarily towards the east. The Astrakhan and Kazan khanates were annexed to the Moscow kingdom. In the west, the Baltic states fell into the zone of state interests. On January 17, 1558, the Livonian War began. Some members of the unofficial government opposed her. But the war, nevertheless, dragged on for 25 long years, which caused a severe economic crisis (1570-1580), which was named "Poruhi".

In 1560 the unofficial government was disbanded. The reason was the disagreement between its members and Ivan the Terrible. They accumulated for a long time, and their origin lies in the exorbitant lust for power and ambitions of the Moscow Tsar.

Ivan IV began to be burdened by the presence next to him of people with independent and independent views. While the Tsar's power was weak, he tolerated the reformers and obeyed them in everything. But thanks to competent transformations, the central apparatus was greatly strengthened, Ivan the Terrible ascended over the boyars and became a real autocrat. The Chosen Rada began to interfere with him.

The reforms of the Chosen Rada did their job - she was no longer needed. The tsar began to look for an excuse to alienate former friends and loyal assistants, and since the relationship of Sylvester and Adashev with the closest relatives of the first and beloved tsar's wife, Anastasia Zakharova-Yuryeva, were tense when she died, Ivan IV accused the former favorites of neglecting her attitude.

Foreign policy differences, exacerbated by the Livonian War, intensified this confrontation between the Tsar and the Chosen Rada. But the most serious were the internal political conflicts. The Chosen Rada carried out very deep reforms, calculated for decades, but the Tsar needed immediate results. And since the state apparatus was still underdeveloped, it did not know how to work quickly and efficiently.

Therefore, the Tsar considered that at this stage of development, all the shortcomings and shortcomings of the central government could be "corrected" only by terror. Ivan the Terrible went this way, and the reforms of the Chosen Rada began to seem to him backward and ineffective.

In 1560 Sylvester was exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery. Adashev and his brother Daniel went to Livonia under the Tsar's decree, where they were soon arrested. Adashev died in prison, and his brother was executed. Since Prince Kurbsky, who led the Russian troops in Livonia, was on friendly terms with Adashev, he understood that disgrace and execution awaited him too. And in 1564 he fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then struck up an angry and accusatory correspondence with Ivan the Terrible Novikov, V.I. All the masterpieces of world literature in a summary. Plots and characters. Russian folklore. Russian literature XI? XVII centuries. / Ed. and comp. IN AND. Novikov - M .: "Olymp": ACT, 1998. - S. 425-450. ...

Thus, the fall of the Chosen Rada was the beginning of one of the most terrible periods of Russian history - Oprichnina.

If we sum up the second period of reforms of the "Chosen Rada", then we will have to note that in 1550-1560 the government is more pursuing a line to implement the requirements of a wide range of feudal lords than in the previous period. The failure of attempts to solve the land question, by eliminating the monastic land tenure, put on the turn the question of an attack on the land wealth of the feudal aristocracy. Noble and posad-black-haired local government bodies were created. The old territorial-palace apparatus of power with the Boyar Duma at its head was forced to yield its positions to the Deacon Order Administration. The Service Code and other military reforms strictly regulated the service duties of all, without exception, the service class. The aristocratic nobility found themselves in a dangerous position, surrounded by the nobility.

1. 2 Reforms of state and local government bodies during the reign of IvanIV... Oprichnina, hercauses and consequences

The most important feature of the political history of the Russian state is numerous reforms aimed at the further development and strengthening of the Russian centralized state.

A common feature of the reforms is their antiboyar orientation. The Rada limited and streamlined localism - a procedure for appointment to higher positions that was beneficial for the boyars, in which not personal merits and abilities were taken into account, but the nobility of the clan and the length of time it had served the Moscow princes. Official documents were drawn up: "State genealogy" - painting for noble families and "Sovereign category" - records of appointments to the service, they were a kind of reference books for parochial disputes. For the duration of the hostilities, localism was abolished altogether.

In the mid-1550s, the Rada carried out the Lip Reform, during which the governorship was abolished and replaced by an elected administration - Zemsky self-government. Instead of "breeders" in the districts where local land ownership was developed, the nobles chose from their midst "lip chiefs", in the districts with peasant land tenure - "zemstvo chiefs" from among the wealthy peasants. They were in charge of the court, the administration of the taxable population and the collection of taxes from it. To help the elders, "kissers" were elected (they kissed the cross before taking office).

Proclaiming these reforms, the government of Ivan IV portrayed them as measures, the purpose of which was to eliminate the consequences of boyar rule and to strengthen the economic and political positions of those social groups whose interests it expressed and on which it relied - the nobles, landowners and the top of the posad.

“This plan,” says V.O. Klyuchevsky, “began with the urgent liquidation of lawsuits between the zemstvo and the nurses, continued to revise the Code of Law with the obligatory widespread introduction of nurses, elected elders and kissers to the court, and ended with charter letters that canceled the feeding.” O. Russian history. Complete course of lectures in 2 books. Book 2 / V.O. Klyuchevsky - M .: "OLMA-PRESS", 2002. - S. 101-121. Since the primitive feeding system could not meet the requirements of the time, the growth of the state and the complication of social order, it was decided to replace it with other forms of government. Before the abolition of feeding in a given place, the feeders were placed under the control of the public electives, and then they were completely replaced by self-government bodies.

The starting point in the implementation of reforms was the speech of Ivan IV on February 27, 1549 at a meeting of the Boyar Duma together with the "Consecrated Council" (that is, the highest representatives of the church) Smirnov, I.I. Essays on the political history of the Russian state in the 30-50s of the XVI century / I.I. Smirnov - M.-L .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1958 .-- P. 166-180. ... This speech was of a programmatic nature and was a declaration outlining the main principles of government policy. A sharply negative assessment of the boyar rule was given. The main issue considered in the declaration is the issue of Boyar children and their interests, all three points of which are dedicated to them:

Assessment of the position of the Children of the Boyars in the past, during the boyar rule;

The requirement of the inadmissibility of the continuation of "forces", "grievances" and "sales" in relation to the Boyar Children;

The wording of sanctions in the event that unacceptable behavior of the boyars takes place.

On the same day, February 27, 1549, another performance of Ivan IV took place. By its meaning, it represented a kind of repetition of the government declaration. But only not before the boyars, against whom the edge of the policy proclaimed in the declaration was directed, but before the Children of the boyars and nobles Smirnov, I.I. Essays on the political history of the Russian state in the 30-50s of the XVI century / I.I. Smirnov - M.-L .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1958. - S. 101-121. , whose interests were expressed and defended by the government's declaration.

Boyars are viewed as the main source of violence, "offense" and "sales" inflicted on the Boyar Children in the past, during the years of boyar rule, and as a potential source of the same actions in the present and future. Therefore, Ivan IV's appeal to “all the boyars” was in the nature of an ultimatum demand under the threat of disgrace and “execution” for those boyars who would try to continue or resume such actions.

The natural outcome of the political events on February 27 was the law on February 28, 1549, which represents the beginning of the implementation of the policy proclaimed in the declarations of Ivan IV. The law on February 28 was adopted without the participation of "all the boyars": having obtained from them the acceptance of the requirements formulated in the tsarist declaration, the government of Ivan IV did not consider it necessary to submit the text of the new law to "all boyars" for consideration, and it was adopted at a meeting of the "Near Duma" with participation of Metropolitan Macarius.

An examination of the materials related to the February declaration of Ivan IV shows that by this time the government's policy had already been defined as a policy of protecting the interests of the landowners (Children of the Boyars) and the struggle to eliminate the consequences of the boyar's tyranny during the boyar rule. AE Presnyakov wrote: "The tsar's appearance as a defender of the interests of the" Children of the Boyars ", the future nobility, is undoubtedly the beginning of a policy that reached full development in the era of the oprichnina." Schmidt, S.O. The Formation of the Russian Autocracy: A Study of the Socio-Political History of the Time of Ivan the Terrible / S.O. Schmidt - M .: Publishing house "Mysl", 1973. - P. 331.

The government of Ivan IV, opposing the boyars and in defense of the Children of the boyars - landowners, tried to present itself as the defender of "all the peasants of their kingdom." The obvious goal is to cover up the class nature of the policy of Ivan IV as an organ of power of the ruling class of feudal lords, by making statements about the protection of all "peasants". Especially vividly, the tendency to depict the policy of the government of Ivan IV as having a "nationwide" character appears in the speech of Ivan IV at the Stoglav Council in 1551. The Tsar submitted the following questions for consideration to the Consecrated Council and "all boyars" ("Tsarist questions" Waldenberg, V. Old Russian teachings about the limits of the royal power: Essays on Russian political literature from St. Vladimir to the end of the 17th century / V.E. Waldenberg - M .: Publishing house "Territory of the future", 2006. - pp. 224-244.):

1) On the fight against parochialism;

2) On the revision of estates, estates and feeding;

3) About monastic, princely and boyar settlements;

4) About the elimination of writhing;

5) On the liquidation of the myts;

6) About duties for transportation across the river and for travel on the bridge;

7) About outposts along the lines;

8) On the establishment of patrimonial books and on the regulation of service from estates;

9) On streamlining the distribution of estates;

10) On the procedure for providing for the widows of Boyar children;

11) On the order of supervision over Nogai ambassadors and guests;

12) About the general census of lands;

As a result, the peculiarity of the central organs in the first half of the 16th century. there was widespread distribution of temporary orders for private needs. They were distinguished from ordinary orders by their more regulated structure and activities. The decrees on their creation determined not only the functions and the chapter of the order, but also its staff and budget. The temporary orders had clearly defined functions, extraterritorial nature, they worked quite quickly and efficiently (detective orders of various competencies, the order "In Siberian Affairs", the Notebook - for compiling the Book of Degrees). One of the most important was the Complaints Order, in which complaints addressed to the Tsar were accepted and investigated. At the head of this supreme body of state control was Adashev.

Strengthening the power of the Tsar, the need for an extreme mobilization of the forces of the nation, as well as the implementation of the norms of the Code of 1549, which were voiced at the Council of the wishes of the estates, required transformations in the order system. They took place in the 50-70s, but a particularly serious restructuring of management was undertaken in the 80s. Its goal was to simplify and centralize orders. Among these transformations, it should be noted an attempt to combine all financial issues in the enlarged order of the Big Treasury and the concentration of all patrimonial and local affairs in the Local Order, the Ambassadorial Order - it was headed by the clerk Viskovaty, in the Discharge order - he was in charge of the noble militia and appointed the governor, with their removal from competence of territorial orders.

The consequence of the reforms was the transition in financial management from the territorial to the systemic principle, in contrast to the military administration, where a huge territory required strengthening the principle of polycentrism. It was widely practiced, although it was not a new phenomenon, the grouping of orders with their subordination to individuals close to the king. In connection with the transformations, the number of orders stabilized at the level of 37 - 38 (but the reduction did not affect the palace institutions). At the same time, orders are turning, in contrast to the first half of the 16th century, into large institutions with a large staff and a complex structure.

The cumbersome serf system with its centralization and bureaucracy could hardly cope with the functions assigned to it, giving rise to red tape, abuse, and bribery.

Later, in 1565, when the tsar renounced the throne, the tragically famous policy of the Oprichnina began. The term "Oprichnina", according to a long tradition, was called a special lot of widows, dead warriors-nobles, after most of the land ownership passed back to the prince. Ivan the Terrible called the oprichnina the lot he had allocated for himself, which had a special army and administrative apparatus.

The political calculation of this step was that the consent to return to the throne was furnished by Ivan the Terrible with certain conditions:

1) The right to execute traitors at their own discretion;

2) Introduction of the Oprichnina to ensure the Tsar's everyday life and security;

3) Payment for the initial device by the rest of the country (zemstvo) 100 thousand rubles - by the standards of that time, a huge amount.

In his inheritance (Oprichnina), the Tsar took many counties in the west, south-west and in the center of Russia, the rich northern regions, part of the territory of Moscow. The oprichnina corps - a thousand specially selected nobles - received estates in the oprichnina districts, while all the Zemstvo people were evicted from them. In Oprichnina, its own Duma, its own Court, and internal orders were created. Ivan IV concentrated in his hands control over diplomacy and the most important affairs, he was removed from the current management, and all the hardships of the Livonian War lay on the land. The oprichnina corps had only two duties: the protection of the Tsar and the extermination of the traitors.

The fight against possible treason was carried out through massive repression: executions, resettlement, confiscation of land and property. Terror soon seized the whole country, from boyars to peasants. The oprichnina terror assumed a terrifying scale, the leaders of the oprichnina changed (when A. Basmanov was executed, Malyuta Skuratov took his place), but the reprisals against the "traitors" did not stop. The oprichnina lasted for 7 years - until 1572. The abolition of the oprichnina was associated with the complete economic decline of the country - the ruin of entire regions, with the defeat of the Russian army in the Livonian War, with the Crimean Khan's campaign against Russia.

The history of the Oprichnina is still not entirely clear, there are several theories trying to explain the meaning and reasons for the policy of state terror of Ivan IV. A number of historians see Oprichnina as a super-hard way to centralize power. In their opinion, Ivan the Terrible's refusal to reform was dictated by a desire to accelerate the pace of centralization. Another theory connects the reasons for the Oprichnina with the Tsar's desire to possess all the fullness of state power. While Ivan IV was too young, he tolerated smart and powerful advisers (the Chosen Rada) next to him, and when he received the necessary political experience, he removed them and began to rule alone. A number of historians see in the oprichnina a way of fighting the main opponents of centralization (Novgorod separatism, the Church, etc.). There is a point of view that the cause of the Oprichnina is the Tsar's mental disorder, his morbid suspicion and cruelty. One of the victims of the Tsar's wrath was his eldest son, the heir to the throne, Ivan, whom he mortally wounded. And although the factual knowledge about the events of the Oprichnina today has expanded greatly, a consistent explanation of this event in Russian history is hardly possible.

The destruction of the landed aristocracy in Russia led to the further strengthening of state despotism. The oprichnina liquidated owners independent of the government, who could become the basis for the formation of a civil society in Russia. There was a nationalization of society: everyone depended on the state and personally on the Tsar.

The oprichnina led to the final establishment of a despotic regime in Russia. Even the feudal elite did not have any protection against the arbitrariness of Ivan the Terrible, the Russian noblemen (whose rights were significantly limited before the oprichnina) became “slaves of the autocracy Likhachev, D.S. Messages from Ivan the Terrible / Preparation of the text by D.S. Likhachev, J.S. Lurie. Translation and comments by Ya.S. Lurie. Ed. V.P. Adrianova-Peretz - M. - L .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1951. - Series "Literary monuments" - pp. 534-597. ".

Chapter 2 . Ivan's legal reformsIV

2. 1 Changes in Russian legislation during the reign of IvanIV

Great shifts are taking place in the development of law. The largest legislative collections are being created, the current legislation is actively developing.

An important source of law during this period is the Code of Law of 1550 (in history it was also called the "Tsar's Code of Law"). It was a version of the Code of Laws of 1497. It reflected changes in Russian legislation in the period from 1497 to 1550.

The sources, which mainly contained the norms of church law, as well as some norms of civil, family, criminal law, included the so-called Stoglav of 1551 - a collection of resolutions of the Stoglav Cathedral of Likhachev, D.S. Messages from Ivan the Terrible / Preparation of the text by D.S. Likhachev, J.S. Lurie. Translation and comments by Ya.S. Lurie. Ed. V.P. Adrianova-Peretz - M.-L .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1951. - Series "Literary Monuments" - pp. 51-85. ...

During this period, such a source of law as the statutory books of orders of Sadikov, P.A. Essays on the History of the Oprichnina / P.A. Sadikov - M.-L .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1950. - S. 459-461. The institution of land tenure is characterized by the convergence of the legal regime of estates and estates. The estate, as a form of land tenure, acquires the features of land ownership, since the right to dispose of it expands.

The system of crimes and the system of punishments is expanding significantly. Terrorist forms of the process are increasingly coming to the fore. As the state developed, the punishment measures became more and more diverse, at the same time they became more and more severe. The pronounced purpose of punishment was intimidation. Provided for the widespread use of the death penalty. The simple types of the death penalty were considered: chopping off the head, hanging, drowning. A significant place in the punishment system was occupied by the qualified death penalty. One of the most severe punishments was burying alive in the ground. It was applied to the wife who committed the premeditated murder of her husband. The skilled types of the death penalty also included: burning, pouring molten tin or lead down the throat, quartering, and wheeling. Self-injurious painful punishments were widely used - cutting off the nose, ear, hands, beating with a whip and sticks. Criminal legislation already knew such punishments as prison and exile. The fine, which had previously been used often, took an insignificant place among the punishment measures.

Procedural law: In the legislation of that time, there was still no clear distinction between civil procedure and criminal procedure law. However, two forms of process were distinguished - adversarial (Court) and investigative (search), and the latter is becoming increasingly important.

In cases of religious crimes, as well as many property crimes against the person, the process was investigated. A preliminary investigation was carried out in these cases, which, however, did not receive a clear expression in the legal norms at that time. Investigation of most criminal cases began at the discretion of state bodies on denunciations (especially in political cases), complaints from victims (robbery, theft, etc.). On the most important crimes against the state, the investigation began directly at the direction of the Tsar.

The preliminary investigation was reduced mainly to the production of urgent actions (detention of a suspect, arrest, etc.). During the search, general search and torture were widely used.

In January 1555, the Boyar Duma adopted a legislative act on robbery (such legislative acts were then called "Sentences of the Boyar Duma") Skrynnikov, R.G. Ivan the Terrible / R.G. Skrynnikov - M .: AST, 1983 .-- S. 194-195, 240 - 241.. It emphasized that the main evidence for robbery should be obtained through torture and a general search. A general search was understood as a survey of devious people (not witnesses) about the identity of the suspect or the accused, they gave an assessment of the personality (good or bad person, criminal or not). This was of particular importance when the suspect was recognized as a "known dashing person", that is, the most dangerous criminal who systematically committed crimes. A rule was established under which the data of a general search had specific legal consequences. If the majority of the respondents recognized the person as a "famous dashing person", then additional evidence was not required. Life imprisonment was applied to him. If under the same conditions the qualified majority (two-thirds) expressed this opinion, then the death penalty was applied.

...

3. Foreign policy.

4. Troubles.

1. Reforms of Ivan IV and Oprichnin.

Socio-economic development.

In the XVI century. the territory of Russia has increased significantly (Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan and Siberian). The population of the country is 9 million people. The main part is concentrated in the North-West (Novgorod) and in the center (Moscow). The population density was 1-5 people per 1 sq. km. In Europe - 10-30 inhabitants per 1 sq. km.

After Ivan IV, the territory of the country increased 10 times compared to the time of Ivan III - the grandfather of Gorzny - the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia - the multinational composition of the country's population.

Patrimony is the dominant form of land tenure. The largest were the estates of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan and monasteries.

From the second half of the 16th century, local land tenure expanded.

The local system arose in the form of the distribution of lands by the Grand Duke (Tsar) for the use of the nobles (see Nobility) in the Russian state of the 15-17 centuries. subject to the performance of their civil service, mainly military. P. s. developed during the formation of the Russian centralized state. The first mass distribution of land in the form estates was produced in Novgorod and other lands annexed to the Russian state under the Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilievich. Then lands in the southern regions began to be distributed (see Wild Field) . Its economic significance lay in the economic development of new lands, especially in the south of the country. The socio-political role of P. s. consisted in the fact that it served the purposes of material support of the nobility - the main social force of the state in the struggle against feudal fragmentation. The legal basis of P. s. were enshrined in the Sudebnik 1497. P. s. reached its heyday by the middle of the 16th century, when the 1556 Code of Service regulated the military service of landowners and estates (see. Estate) .

By the end of the 16th century, there were approximately 220 cities in Russia. Moscow - 100 thousand people (in Paris 200, London, Rome - 100). The rest are much smaller. Crafts development in cities.

1. Reforms of Ivan IV and Oprichnin.

Ivan IV the Terrible (August 25, 1530, the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow - March 18, 1584, Moscow), Prince of Moscow and All Russia (since 1533), the first Russian tsar (since 1547), son of Grand Duke Vasily III and Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya. In January 1549 Ivan was married to the kingdom.

Two periods in the reign of Ivan 4 can be distinguished:

1st period 1549 - 1560 - reforms of the "Chosen Rada".

2nd period 1565 - 1572 - oprichnina.

1st period 1549 - 1560 - reforms of the "Chosen Rada".(nobleman A.F. Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, priest Sylvester, clerk I. Viskovaty).

Lawmaking was carried out by the tsar together with the Boyar Duma, the Zemsky and Church Councils. Several areas of reform can be identified.

Central government reform

1 Zemsky Sobor

The first was in 1549, in Moscow.

Some historians believe that the ZS = the estate-representative body, similar to the ZE parliament. BUT:

The main part of the deputies was not elected, but was appointed by the tsar from among the leaders of the Boyar Duma, the Church Cathedral and the city nobility.

Elected deputies from the provinces represented state authorities and were called up as civil servants.

The proportionality of representation from different lands and social groups was not observed. Dominated by representatives of the Tsar's court, the city "boyar children", the rich merchants of the capital were often involved, there were practically no delegates from other estates.

Competence:

Zemsky sobors were not legislative or even legislative bodies, they could only approve the decision proposed by the tsar.

Their function was to provide guarantees (commission records) for the execution of the tsarist laws, especially since representatives of the country's executive power gathered for the council.

Russian Zemsky Sobors appeared not as a result of the political struggle of estates, but on the initiative of the tsar.

Councils were convened at moments of interregnum, wars, reforms to give an all-estates sanction to the decisions of the supreme power.

The most important:

At the Zemsky Sobor in 1550 the Code of Law was adopted which is the MAIN

Confirmed the main provisions of the Code of Law of 1497, preserving the freedom for the peasants to move from one owner to another when paying money for living on the land of the feudal lord (elderly).

2 Stoglav- adopted by the church council, this is a set of religious laws:

Regulated the activities and rules of conduct for the clergy.

A canonized list of all-Russian saints was created.

Uniform rules of worship have been approved.

This contributed to the unification of the rituals of the Russian Orthodox Church.

3 Orders.

In the specific period, the princes entrusted (ordered) their free servants certain economic functions: managing the stables, palace reserves, peasant plowing, and collecting taxes. With the formation of a centralized state, it was necessary to create central government institutions with local branches to carry out the most important state functions. This is how orders.

Orders dealt with:

Branch Office (Ambassador, Local, Razryadny, Robber, Treasury).

Territorial (Kazan, Ryazan, Tverskoy).

Estates (Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Zemsky)

They were headed by boyars and okolnichy from the Boyar Duma, or Duma clerks.

Funding sources - taxes from individual lands, where orders also had judicial powers.

Improving the efficiency of country governance

The orders formed a layer of professional managers who specialized in the civil service.

Zemskaya reform.

Zemstvo governing bodies changed the feeding.

Feeding is a way of keeping officials at the expense of the local population in Russia until the middle of the 16th century. The prince sent governors and other service people to cities and volosts. The population was obliged to support them ("feed") during the entire period of service. The C. system reaches its greatest development in the 14th and 15th centuries.

Peculiarities:

Numerous abuses of service people who tried to earn money for the future when they were appointed to a position.

There was not enough food for everyone, about 130 cities could be distributed to the Sovereign Court - the service corporation of the boyars and the top of the nobility - and the numerous petty nobility of the provinces.

Often, as feeding, the right to collect only one tax of any kind or court on several crimes was granted.

The local population could, after the departure of the breeder, file a civil suit against him in a Moscow court, recover the unjustly acquired property and even challenge him to a judicial duel, which was provided for by law.

The constant absences of the breeders in the army, their estates and estates led to a temporary transfer of powers to military slaves, which further disorganized management.

The growth in the number of servicemen and long-term military campaigns, requiring the presence of the best military leaders and administrators in the army and in the capital, disorganized the system.

Since the mid-50s. XVI century feeding began to be replaced by the zemstvo administration, which consisted of elected local representatives.

And the former nurserymen received compensation in the form of fed salaries issued in Moscow from funds collected in the counties.

Main features:

Service people were given the opportunity to concentrate on administrative and military service.

Elected zemstvo heads and elders had financial and judicial powers: the allocation and collection of taxes, control over the fulfillment of duties in kind, mobilization into the army, the court (with the exception of the most serious crimes).

To help them, the elected representatives of the city townspeople and black-haired peasants - the kissers, who swore the oath of kissing the cross, stood out.

Zemstvo bodies did not deal with local self-government, but carried out state duties.

The death penalty and confiscation of property were imposed for a negligent attitude towards the zemstvo service.

Zemstvo electors, together with their electors, were collectively responsible for the success of the cause.

In the southern lands, where the local system did not finally take shape, the zemstvo administration was not introduced.

Tax system.

An active foreign policy, an increase in the number of the service class, demanded a change in the tax system.

Features of the reform:

There was an increase in traditional taxes and the introduction of new ones.

Individual landowners were deprived of tax benefits (tarkhanov).

The main taxpayers were peasants, artisans and merchants, who paid taxes in kind and in cash for military, administrative, and religious activities of the noble classes.

A unit of taxation was introduced throughout the country - "Plow", considered in rural areas by the amount of land, and in cities by the number of households. On patrimonial, landlord, monastic lands, a larger amount of land was included in the "plow", which shifted the tax burden onto the state peasants.

One of the main direct taxes, Yamsk money, has grown.

The tax on the streltsy army began to be collected.

The increase in the tax burden on direct producers did not provoke protests for two reasons. 1) In the middle of the XVI century. there was an economic upsurge, which made it possible to carry out expanded reproduction and receive good incomes. 2) Zemstvo reform prevented abuse in the collection of taxes, the allocation of duties took place with the participation of the community.

Monasteries lost their tax benefits and had to pay on an equal basis with other economic entities.

The right of monasteries to acquire private land was limited, and the transactions of the regency period 1533-1547. revised.

The state put under control any real estate transactions.

Military reform.

Characteristic:

Created the first infantry regiments with firearms - Streltsy army with pishchals.

The archers were recruited by volunteers who owed lifelong military service.

As a reward, they were given collective land plots, a monetary salary, the right to engage in handicrafts and trade in cities.

The archers, along with the gunners, formed a special military class - service people by device (set).

The bulk of the army was made up of servicemen people by fatherland (inheritance), who made up the equestrian noble militia. Now each landowner was obliged to expose from 150 quarters of land one equipped warrior - usually a combat servant.

The patrimonials were obliged to serve on an equal basis with the nobles.

The process of formation of a single service class of warriors-landowners began.

During the military campaigns, local accounts were limited, causing damage to the Russian army.

In general, the reforms of the Chosen Rada created a new mechanism for managing a centralized state. Orders, Zemsky Sobors, Streltsy Army, the norms of the Code of Laws and Stoglava existed for a whole century, proving their viability. However, the second half of the reign of Ivan IV canceled out the positive results of the reforms of the Chosen Rada, causing incessant debate among historians. Indeed, the attempt to find the logic of events runs into insurmountable contradictions.

2nd period 1565 - 1572 - oprichnina.

The reasons for the oprichnina.

The turn in domestic politics began in 1564.

1. Failures in the Livonian War - the tsar's thought about the betrayal of the boyars. The first oprichnina execution was the execution of the governor - the conqueror of the Kazan Khanate A.B. Humpback-Shuisky.

2. The death of the first wife of Ivan the Terrible, Anastasia Romanova, as a result, his environment changes dramatically, some of the leaders of the Chosen Rada fell into disgrace, A.M. Kurbsky fled to Lithuania. In the character of Ivan IV, such qualities as suspiciousness, suspicion, cruelty came to the fore, at times turning into self-abasement and exalted remorse.

On the way of the tsar to the sole power were two strong social institutions that served as the support of the state - the boyar-noble corporation and the church.

Boyar-noble corporation - The Boyar Duma and the Sovereign Court were protected by tradition parochialism.

LOCALITY- the system of feudal hierarchy in the Russian state in the 15-17 centuries.

Peculiarities:

The name "M." originated from the custom of being considered "places" in the service and at the sovereign's table. The one of the feudal lords who considered his origin more ancient, noble and noble, or his personal merits were significant, took a place closer to the king and, accordingly, claimed a higher position in the army or in the civil administration.

The complexity of relations within the princely, boyar and noble families and between them and the inaccuracy of genealogical information led to frequent disputes and strife over M., which were discussed by the tsar and the Boyar Duma.

From the middle of the 16th century. M. penetrates into the environment of the nobility, and in the 17th century. even on the Wednesday of guests and city officials.

By virtue of M., people capable of, but not well-born enough could not take any significant place in the military and public service.

M. opened up opportunities for occupying senior positions for people from noble families who did not have personal dignity.

The development of absolutism in Russia, one of the principles of which was the creation of a bureaucratic apparatus subordinate to the central government and opposing the carriers of feudal fragmentation, led to the ousting of M.

The princes and boyars were interested in preserving M, who extended their former privileges to nobles and servants.

The interests of the country's defense, which required capable commanders at the head of the army, also forced the abolition of M., which was liquidated by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1682.

The tsar could not legally remove the representatives of the nobility from running the state, so he resorted to selective disgrace of individual boyars.

CHURCH.

Largest landowner.

She formed the political and moral outlook of the era.

In her concept, the Orthodox tsar was supposed to exercise power on conciliar principles, observing high moral standards.

The metropolitans considered it their duty to intercede for the disgraced boyars, to give a religious and moral assessment of the acts of secular power.

At the same time, there was an interdependence between the clergy and the boyars: large land donations for the commemoration of the soul, the creation of new monasteries in the estates, on the one hand, and the adoption of monasticism before death, living in monasteries in the event of disgrace, on the other.

The essence of the oprichnina policy.

From 1565 to 1572, the oprichnina policy was carried out under the slogan of "bringing out" the boyar treason.

After leaving the capital, the tsar sent an appeal to the people, in which he listed the "boyar betrayals" and announced the abandonment of the throne.

The threat of a popular uprising and anarchy forced the representatives of the Boyar Duma and the clergy to create an oprichnina device.

Its essence was to grant the tsar the right of unlimited reprisals against subjects accused of treason, up to execution and confiscation of property.

For the safety of the tsar, a special destiny was allocated - the oprichnina, where Ivan the Terrible could dispose of as a patrimonial, creating an appanage court, orders, a council. The taxes and duties of the population of the oprichnina territories went in favor of Ivan the Terrible as an appanage prince. On the territory of the inheritance, the nobles, chosen by Ivan the Terrible, received estates, as a rule, from ignoble families, who swore an oath to break with the Zemshchina. In order to give land to the guardsmen, it was necessary to evict the patrimonials and landowners from the counties who did not fall into the oprichnina.

The oprichnina did not occupy a single array of lands, the oprichnina lands were scattered throughout the country, recreating the old appanage orders.

The majority of the state that remained after the allocation of the inheritance was under the control of the Boyar Duma and orders.

Thus, the tsar dissociated himself from the institutions that hindered him with unlimited power.

After the specific demarcation, repressions began against the boyars and the church. The difficulty in identifying the main targets of the oprichnina is due to the inconsistency and chaotic nature of the repressions.

The destruction of the leaders of the Zemshchyna - the equestrian boyar (chancellor) I.P. Fedorov, appanage prince, cousin of Tsar Vladimir Staritsky, Metropolitan Philip Kolychev, the first Governor of the country M.I. Vorotynsky, clerks of Moscow orders.

The oprichnina troops plundered churches and monasteries, since it was impossible to confiscate the monastic lands in favor of the sovereign.

Novgorod, accused of Lithuanian sympathies, was severely defeated. Repressions against Novgorodians are explained by the Tsar's desire to deal with potential opposition and with the desire to replenish the treasury with confiscated property.

In the course of the oprichnina policy, the top of the punitive system itself was also destroyed.

Consequences of the oprichnina.

Historical assessments of the oprichnina are contradictory.

CM. Soloviev tried to find in the tsar's politics the support of the nobility, serving the state for estates as opposed to the boyars.

IN. Klyuchevsky emphasized the redistribution of power between the tsar and the boyars within the framework of the aristocratic monarchy.

There are quite numerous concepts that refuse to look for any logic in the oprichnina policy, explaining the actions of the tsar by his mental illness or his assertion of a temporary ideological anti-system, i.e. religious and political doctrine aimed at undermining the dominant ideology and system.

The assessments of the results of the oprichnina, due to their obvious negative nature, do not cause significant discussion:

The negative influence of the oprichnina on the economic and political life of the country seems to be dominant.

A deep agrarian crisis was recorded, expressed in the desolation of arable land, ruin and flight of peasants.

This was facilitated by taxes and in-kind duties for military needs, disproportionately assigned to the Zemshchina, as well as the pogroms of secular and monastic estates, estates of disgraced nobles in the oprichnina territories.

Mass transitions of peasants from one landowner to another further destabilized agriculture.

Peasant crossings were temporarily prohibited and reserved summers. This measure was the first step towards the establishment of serfdom.

After the abolition of the oprichnina, the formation of new political institutions of power did not take place. The Boyar Duma, orders, and the Sovereign Court were still functioning.

At the cost of the defeat of his own state and the destruction of the most talented representatives of the political elite, the tsar established sole power.

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1. Reforms of Ivan the Terrible: content and meaning

On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV took the title of tsar. In 1549, the reform party was formed, headed by the tsar's favorite Alexei Adashev and called the "Chosen Rada". From that time on, the era of the reign of Ivan the Terrible began, which was marked by unprecedented successes in the foreign policy and internal affairs of the Russian state.

Ivan the Fourth, together with the Chosen Rada, carried out a number of reforms that were aimed at centralizing the Russian state. The Moscow uprising (1547), which showed the tsar that the tsarist power was not autocratic, greatly influenced the nature of these reforms. The reform agenda will be briefly shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Reform program

	Name		Consequences
	Military reform	Abolition of parochialism in the army. The beginning of the premises in the Moscow district of the "Chosen Thousand" (1070 nobles). Creation "by device" of the streltsy army. Admission to military service of foreigners.	The reforms strengthened state administration, promoted centralization, overcoming the remnants of fragmentation, and strengthening the role of the serving nobility.
40s - 50s XVI century	Governance reform	First Zemsky Sobor (1549). Growth of sectoral and territorial orders. Cancellation of feedings.
	Lip reform	Election in the lips (uyezds) of labial wardens from the local noblemen who dealt with cases of "robbery" and city clerks.
Mid-16th century	Zemskaya reform	Zemstvo elders and "beloved heads" were elected from the local population in the black-moored and palace lands and cities.
	Adoption of a judicial code	Limiting the power of governors by reducing judicial functions and increasing control by the central administration. It is forbidden to turn boyar children into slaves. Increase in the "elderly" during the transition to St. George's Day. Introduction of a unified land tax measure.
	Church Reform (Stoglavy Cathedral)	Unification of the all-Russian pantheon of saints. Regulation of service and rituals. Organization of schools for the population. Restriction of church land tenure.

An important first step is considered to be the Zemsky Sobor in 1550 (another name is the Great Zemsky Duma), during which Tsar Ivan must understand to the boyars that from now on he is taking the reins into his own hands and the time of boyar autocracy has passed. The result of this meeting was an updated edition of the judicial code, for the most part repeating the Code of Laws of the forty-seventh year, but supplemented and corrected by various letters and decrees that were associated with the improvement of judicial procedures.

In 1551, at the Tsar's Cathedral, the Tsar's Questions were read, which were divided into one hundred chapters, from which historians often call this cathedral Stoglava. This meeting had the same state powers as the Sudebnik. The main theme of the church reform carried out by Grozny concerned monastic agriculture. In the same fifty-first year, the tsar issued a decree on the confiscation of all lands and lands that were transferred by the Boyar Duma to monasteries and bishops after the death of Basil III. This law completely prohibited the acquisition of new lands by churches without government permission. Initially, in tsarist issues, the task was to issue laws that were supposed to restore the order that existed under Ivan III and Vasily III. The reference to "father" and "grandfather" found in the legislation meant that the reforms were trying to give the appearance of measures directed against those abuses of power by the boyars, who "filled" the minor years of Ivan IV.

After the announcement of the abolition of parochialism, a number of considerations about the need to restore order in patrimonial and local law were spoken in the draft. According to the author of the project, it was necessary to check the land holdings (estates, estates) and feeding in order to find out the size of the holdings and the fulfillment of military duties by servicemen. It was necessary to redistribute the available service fund in order to provide landless and landless feudal lords. But this project violated the primordial patrimonial rights of the feudal aristocracy, so the project was not implemented. Financial reforms include a project to eliminate travel fees (myta) within countries. The customs barriers between the individual lands of the Russian state, reflecting the incompleteness of the process of eliminating economic fragmentation, hindered the further development of commodity-money relations.

Let's take a closer look at military reform.

After an unsuccessful campaign against Kazan in November 1549. the question arose about the implementation of military reform. One-man command was strengthened by establishing the seniority of the first (large) voivode of a large regiment in relation to the voivods of all other regiments. The strengthening of discipline in the noble army was facilitated by the prohibition of parochialism in the "service" with the governors. This also increased the role of the governor during the hostilities. In general, the July 1550 verdict, which limited parochial accounts on the basis of the established practice of relations between the governors in the regiments, was of great importance for the fighting efficiency of the noble army.

Along with attempts to strengthen the discipline of the noble cavalry in the middle of the 16th century, the foundation was laid for the emerging permanent (streltsy) army. Between September 1549 and August 1550, Ivan the Terrible established “elected” archers. By his order, 3,000 people were to live in Vorobyevskaya Sloboda under the leadership of boyar children. It was about the reorganization of the old detachments of squeakers. From now on, the army of the beepers began to be called the Streltsy army. To provide for the streltsy army, a new household tax was introduced - “food money”, which had not been collected everywhere before. The archers became the nucleus of a standing army. They had significant advantages over the noble cavalry, which was gradually giving way to him.

The Code of Laws of 1550 Undoubtedly, the largest undertaking by the government of Ivan the Terrible was the drafting in June 1550 of a new legislative code, which replaced the outdated code of law 1497. Of the 99 articles of the new code of law, 37 were completely new, and the rest of the text of the previous code was subject to coordinate revision. The social legislation, included in the code of law of 1550, deals with two major issues - land tenure and the dependent population (peasants and slaves). One of the articles deals with patrimonial land tenure in general. Since the nobility more and more began to be provided with estates, and not fiefdoms, it is quite clear that the main content of the article mainly concerned the land tenure of the feudal nobility. The article proclaims that the persons who sold the estate or their relatives who signed the deed of purchase are deprived of the right to redeem the alienated land property. The law is on the side of the land buyer. The law promoted the alienation of the patrimonial-boyar land property.

The second law, related to the problem of land tenure, proclaimed the elimination of the Tarkhans. The article dealt a blow to the main groups of privileged landowners - the Tarkhanniks, and was directed against the tax privileges of spiritual feudal lords.

The second group of articles of the Code of Laws is made up of laws on peasants and serfs. “In an environment of growing class struggle, the Adashev government did not dare to go for further enslavement of the peasants, although the demands of the nobles were reduced to this. The attitude towards slaves became even tougher.

The Sudebnik paid special attention to issues of central and local government. This legislative monument already outlines the main directions along which the restructuring of the state apparatus in the 50s will take place. All transformations start with local government. Code of Law 1550 vividly reflected this feature: its transformations concern mainly the governor's administration. While maintaining the old feeding system as a whole, it only makes adjustments to it, limiting the power of governors and volosts.

Land reforms.

After Stoglava, the task was set to resolve the land issue and introduce new direct taxes. All this could not have been done without a land census. In the course of the land census in the main regions of the Russian state, a single salary land unit was introduced - the “big plow”. The social degree of the landowner determined the severity of the taxation. The class meaning of the reforms is already evident in the fact that “the black-sowed peasants found themselves in the most difficult situation, because with the same amount of land for different landowners, they had to pay the most taxes. " The reform was most favorable for the secular feudal lords and somewhat infringed upon the spiritual landowners, which corresponded to the general reform line of the 50s. XVI century. The land census was accompanied by numerous distributions of land to estates and an unsubscribe from individual monasteries. The reduction of land and trade privileges of patrimonial monasteries took place in the context of customs policy. Gradually, the customs department is freed from the control of the governors, more and more often the collection of indirect taxes is outsourced to individual officials from the central office. The gradual introduction of a ransom system for collecting indirect taxes contributed to the development of commodity-money relations in the country, eliminating the petty trusteeship of the governor's administration.

Zemskaya reform. The last of the reforms, which began in the early 1950s and which was destined to acquire particular importance, was the introduction of zemstvo institutions and the transition to the abolition of feeding. "Zemsky reform can be considered the fourth blow to the fed system, inflicted in the course of the reforms." The prosperous circles of the townspeople and the volost peasantry were interested in the implementation of the zemstvo reform. The intensification of the class struggle, in the form of robberies, and the inability of the governor's apparatus to successfully carry out the suppression of the masses - these are the main reasons that made the implementation of the reform of local government urgent. The lip and zemstvo reforms, as they were implemented, led to the creation of estate-representative institutions in the localities, which met the interests of the nobility, the upper classes of the settlement and the prosperous peasantry. The feudal aristocracy sacrificed some of its privileges, but the meaning of the reform was directed primarily against the toiling masses in the countryside and the city.

The restless situation in the government and in the country as a whole in the period 1553-1554. could not delay the implementation of the planned reforms for a long time.

In 1553, Ivan the Terrible introduced printing in Russia, which became a new craft, and also strengthened the armed forces by creating a streltsy army. In addition, Ivan the Terrible considered the final crushing of the Tatar power to be the main point of his foreign policy (in 52-56 Kazan and Astrakhan were taken, putting an end to the Tatar domination in the Volga region).

On January 18, 1555, a series of lip reform laws were issued. A number of sentences strengthened the penalties, ordered to tighten control over labial wardens and their activities. One of the most important tasks was the protection of feudal property from theft.

In the same years 1555-56. along with the labial reform, the implementation of the zemstvo reform took place, which led to the elimination of the feeding system. The circle of elected officials of the zemstvo administration expanded. Along with the zemstvo headman and clerk, it was ordered to elect kiselniks. In an effort to achieve an interest in the proper administration of judicial duties and the collection of rents, the government ordered the release of the arable land of the zemstvo elders from taxes and duties. On the other hand, the abuses of the elders were punishable by death. The Zemskaya reform, conceived as a nationwide reform, was fully implemented only in the black-wooded territories of the Russian North. In the main territories of the Russian state, the zemstvo reform remained unfulfilled.

As a result of the elimination of the feeding system and the creation of estate-representative institutions on the ground, the Russian government was able to achieve the solution of the most important tasks in strengthening the centralized apparatus of power. A step was taken towards the creation of special bodies of local government to replace "numerous feeding staff, for whom the performance of the posts of governors and volosts was an episode of their military service activities." As a result of the reform, the bulk of the nobility was freed from the "fed" functions, which increased the fighting efficiency and increased the personnel of the Russian army; the nobility strengthened their positions - they received regular remuneration for the proper performance of military service.

Proceeding from the reforms of the central apparatus of power, the outlines of order management began to emerge clearly. In the documents, "hut" is already becoming a common name for a central government institution. In the course of time, the departments of the central administration began to be called "orders". The term "order" gradually replaced the name "hut" from everyday life.

In 1560 Grozny dispersed the Rada, after which the era of the oprichnina and numerous executions followed.

Thus, we can talk about two directions of the reform activities of Ivan IV the Terrible - the reform of the elected Council and the oprichnina.

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Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible (1530-1584) The first Russian tsar who ruled from 1547, a prominent statesman, the son of Grand Duke Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya. He was married eight times, but was unhappy in the offspring: all his children died small ...

He was an extraordinary ruler of Russia. Few rule out the opinion of him as a tyrant king. Such traits of his character were laid in childhood: Ivan lost his father and mother early and was under the supervision of boyars who fought for power. The reforms of Ivan IV became an integral part of the country's history and marked the beginning of a new period in history.

When the tsar was young, the state was ruled by his mother, wife of Vasily 3 - Elena Glinskaya. After her death, the young tsar remained under the patronage of the boyars, who sought to win over Ivan and seize power. At the age of 17, Ivan 4 becomes an adult: he marries Anastasia Romanova. At the same time, Ivan takes the royal title in the Assumption Cathedral, located in the Moscow Kremlin.

The reforms of Ivan 4 can be divided into two periods, namely:

1. Reforms of the Chosen One are glad.

2. Oprichnina.

At the end of the 1540s, a circle of his close friends and mentors was formed around the young tsar, which began to be called. It consisted of A. Adashev, A. Kurbsky, Sylvester and Macarius. In the first period, the reforms of Ivan 4, briefly about them will be written below, are consistent and aimed at strengthening the central government and military power of the country. The Chosen Council held:

Such a magnificent start to the reign was cut short in 1553, when disagreements began between the king and his chosen circle. As a result - the disintegration of the Chosen One is glad. In 10 years, the best friend of Ivan the Terrible, Andrei Kurbsky, will flee to the side of the Poles. This act will finally undermine all the hopes of the king, and he will announce the beginning of the Oprichnina. Oprichnina is the terror of the times of Ivan the Terrible, which he proclaimed on a special royal inheritance (land).

Suzdal land, Mozhaisk and Vyazma, as well as other nearby cities, were subjected to oprichnina. The reforms of Ivan 4 ceased to take effect, and no further reform attempts were made.

The oprichnina continued to intimidate the residents for 7 years, after which it was canceled. Ivan 4 ordered the execution of all those who participated in his terror.

It is worth noting that at this time a bloody campaign against Novgorod was made.

The reforms of Ivan 4 in the first period of his reign contributed to the strengthening of the central power and the power of the tsar, they strengthened the military power of the entire country, they "presented" to Russia a general set of laws and a representative body of power - the Zemsky Sobor.

Thus, all the changes of Ivan 4 contributed to the creation of the estate-representative monarchy.

State reforms of Ivan IV. Ivan IV-the Terrible - the first Russian tsar. Reforms during the reign of Ivan IV A. Vinogradov. Square in front of the zemstvo hut

Chosen Rada and reforms in the military, administrative and church spheres during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

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