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What is hysteria?

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, the term “ hysteria"Has been widely used to refer to a range of disorders in psychology, psychiatry, and psychoanalysis. This diagnosis has been known since ancient times, but with the development of medicine, its relevance began to diminish. Currently, hysteria is not considered an independent disease, and the term is almost never used in professional circles. The problem is that, in the past, this diagnosis has included too wide a range of different mental disorders. Now in psychiatry and psychology, they are more clearly delineated into independent diseases and syndromes.
Thus, the diagnosis of "hysteria" currently indicates a low professional qualifications of a specialist. In the vast majority of countries adhering to international standards, the diagnosis needs to be made more specifically.

Hysteria in psychology, psychoanalysis and psychiatry

The term "hysteria" has long been interpreted in different ways by various scientists in medicine. In antiquity, when mental illness was not isolated from others, the causes of hysteria were sought in the disruption of the work of internal organs. Much later, in the 17th - 18th centuries, more attention was paid to this disease.

In the modern history of medicine, hysteria has been interpreted as follows:

• Psychology. In psychology, hysteria was interpreted as a disorder of higher nervous activity, which manifests itself in the form of peculiar seizures. The causes of this disease were considered stress or hormonal disruptions, and there was no consensus regarding the treatment at all.
• Psychoanalysis. Hysteria as a separate category of mental disorders is found in the writings of Freud. There she is interpreted as one of the manifestations of the received mental trauma and difficult experiences. In psychoanalysis, the connection between hysteria and movement disorders and other disorders of the internal organs is indicated.
• Psychiatry. In modern psychiatry, hysteria is presented as a set of characteristic symptoms and manifestations, each of which has its own reasons. Treatment involves not only long-term work with a psychoanalyst, but also taking medications depending on the existing disorders.

Modern medicine does not consider hysteria as an independent disease. Its manifestations are referred to as symptoms of other mental disorders. In some cases, hysteria is understood as hysterical personality disorder, an officially recognized mental illness.

Is hysteria diagnosed, and does hysteria have a code in the ICD ( international classification of diseases)?

Currently, the diagnosis of hysteria is not made. The World Health Organization and other international associations do not recommend using it due to its too general interpretation. In the past, it included not only neuroses, disorders in the mental or emotional sphere, but even paralysis and a number of cases of blindness, deafness, and loss of speech. In fact, most of these disorders are symptoms and syndromes that can be caused by a wide variety of diseases. In this regard, hysteria was not included in the current ICD-10 and does not have its own code. It has been broken down into more specific and well-defined diseases.

Nowadays, instead of hysteria, doctors often make the following diagnoses:

• anxiety disorders of various types;
• a group of conversion disorders;
• some movement disorders;
• some sensory disorders;
• hysterical personality disorder ( considered a separate diagnosis from the field of psychoanalysis).

What kind of people are affected by hysteria?

It is rather difficult to say unequivocally which people are more susceptible to hysteria. Hysterics and neuroses, by and large, can happen to everyone, and it depends on a different combination of external and internal factors. However, according to the observations of psychologists and psychiatrists, there is still a certain category of people for whom the risk of such nervous disorders is higher than for others. These are people with increased mental and emotional lability. By and large, it is rather a character trait and a feature of temperament.

For people prone to hysteria, the following features are characteristic:

• fast and unpredictable mood changes;
• impressionability;
• abundant and vivid dreams;
• sometimes - a secluded lifestyle;
• defiant behavior or appearance.

There is also a fairly large number of external factors that can provoke a nervous breakdown. First of all, this is severe stress, problems in life, a number of diseases of the nervous system ( sometimes as a consequence of trauma) and etc.

Hysteria according to Charcot and Freud

At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, psychiatry rose to a new level due to the work of famous scientists. A significant contribution to the study of hysteria was made by Charcot and Freud, in whose writings this disease acquired a clearer formulation. In particular, these scientists have found that one of the causes of hysteria is various unmet needs and desires. Together with other causes and factors, they can manifest themselves in the form of periodic attacks with a change in behavior, character, and even with disturbances in the work of various organs. In fact, these are manifestations of the subconscious. People prone to hysteria often have prerequisites for this, which Charcot and Freud looked for in childhood traumas, the peculiarities of upbringing, key events that influenced the formation of personality during the period of growing up. The general concept has survived to this day. Modern research shows that the causes identified by these scientists do play a significant role in the development of hysteria. Modern psychiatrists have only made a clearer distinction between symptoms and syndromes by which hysteria can manifest itself.

Causes of hysteria

Hysterical disorders are a group of diseases that can have many different causes. Some of these reasons have not been identified or have not been definitively formulated so far. However, experts identify a number of factors that can affect the development of this disease.

The following factors can be considered the reasons for hysteria:

• A certain character and psychotype. It has been noticed that people with a certain psychotype are more likely to suffer from hysterical disorders. You can determine the psychotype at the consultation of a psychiatrist or psychologist, as well as using various tests and questionnaires.
• Hormonal background. Hormones regulate many processes in the body. Unstable hormonal levels and endocrinological problems can be considered one of the possible causes of hysteria. In particular, a connection has been proven between the level of female sex hormones and the risk of developing hysteria.
• External factors. Various events in the patient's life can provoke an attack of hysteria. Most often these are strong emotional experiences, prolonged stress, unresolved problems. A hysterical breakdown or seizure is a peculiar way to get away from these problems or to attract the attention of others.
• Causes of hysteria according to Freud. Freud sees hysteria as a manifestation of desires suppressed in childhood and disguised problems that have gone into the subconscious. This explains a number of psychosomatic disorders ( temporary blindness, deafness, dumbness, paralysis, etc.), which sometimes accompany hysterical attacks.

Currently, psychiatry is researching all these causes and their relationship. It is believed that hysterical disorders develop as a result of a combination of several factors.

Do diseases of the uterus, ovaries and other organs affect the tendency to hysteria?

Since ancient times, it has been noted that hysteria is more common in women, which is why many doctors considered it to be the cause of the disorder of the female genital area. In particular, the name of the disease comes from the Greek word for "uterus". However, today it has been proven that pathologies previously attributed to hysteria are found not only in women. Only in some forms of the disease in patients can the direct or indirect influence of female sex hormones be detected. This partly explains that hysterical disorders can occur during or after pregnancy. It is during this period that significant changes in hormonal levels occur.

In general, neither the pathology of the uterus, nor the ovaries, nor any other internal organs can be considered the cause of hysteria. Mental disorders, into which this disease is divided today, represent a variety of disorders in the work of the central nervous system. They can occur in patients who are otherwise completely healthy.

Diseases, syndromes and conditions similar to hysteria

There are many different officially recognized diagnoses in psychiatry these days, each with an evidence base. In other words, criteria are defined that make it possible to establish the presence of a specific disease or disorder. Hysteria is not such a diagnosis because of the ambiguity of this term. However, there are neuroses, hysterical disorders and other pathological conditions that have been isolated from "hysteria" as a disease recognized in the past.

Neurosis

An extensive group of mental illnesses with various manifestations is called neuroses or neurotic disorders. Not all neuroses can be attributed to the concept of "hysteria" used in the past, but many of them have similar mechanisms of development, symptoms and manifestations. Patients with signs of hysteria should be examined by a psychotherapist who can clarify the diagnosis ( one of the neurotic disorders or other mental disorders).

Neurasthenia

Neurasthenia is a fairly common mental disorder, some of which can resemble hysteria. The main problem in this disease is the loss of concentration and the inability to withstand prolonged mental stress. A patient with neurasthenia cannot work for a long time or do any one thing. He becomes irritable, absent-minded, and in the later stages of the disease, signs of depression appear and other diseases may appear ( frequent colds, problems with internal organs, etc.). Often psychiatrists have to distinguish between hysterical disorders and neurasthenia, since these are different diseases, and they require a different approach to treatment.

Hysterics

Tantrum or hysterical seizure is a relatively short-term violation of certain functions of the nervous system, which can be the result of various diseases. The manifestations of hysteria are very diverse - sudden mood swings ( crying, screaming, uncontrollable laughter, etc.), inappropriate behavior, sometimes - aggression. Hysterical seizures have never been considered independent diseases. Moreover, they are not always symptoms or manifestations of another pathology. An absolutely healthy person may experience hysteria as a reaction to external factors and influences. Serious psychiatric disorder can only be suspected with recurrent tantrums.

Despite the similarity of manifestations, hysteria is not synonymous with hysteria. Hysteria is best understood as a hysterical personality disorder, which can manifest itself, including hysterical fits.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a serious psychiatric illness that can take on many different forms and symptoms. Some manifestations make it related to other mental disorders. In particular, before the introduction of the term "schizophrenia" into medical practice, many patients with this diagnosis were considered prone to hysteria. Even today, only highly experienced and qualified psychiatrists can clearly distinguish between these mental illnesses.

Delirium ( delirium)

Delirium is a pathological condition in which there is a pronounced clouding of consciousness. Typical symptoms of this disorder are a variety of hallucinations, delusions, impaired perception of any information. Delirium is more often not an independent disease, but a consequence of another pathology ( infection, poisoning, drug intoxication, etc.). In principle, some types of hysterical disorders can be accompanied by delirium. The line between these pathologies is difficult to determine. However, delirium, unlike hysteria, has its own code in the international classification of diseases, which means that it is a full-fledged independent diagnosis.

Classification, forms and types of hysteria

There is no single classification of hysteria, simply because at the moment such a disease is not singled out into a separate category. Psychiatrists and psychologists of the 19th century had different classifications, but at the moment they are not relevant. The most practical is the division of the term "hysteria" into a number of diagnoses specified in the International Classification of Diseases ( ICD). It is argued here for the allocation of each type of hysteria with its features of manifestation. In addition, this classification allows for effective treatment.

Hysterical personality disorder

Currently, most qualified specialists mean hysterical personality disorder by hysteria. It is an independent mental disorder, the existence of which is recognized by modern psychiatry. It is interesting that hysteria is not always a manifestation of this pathology. The patient may not have any seizures or breakdowns at all. The disease manifests itself in characteristics and behavior, and only under certain conditions causes severe visible symptoms.

The most common manifestations of hysterical personality disorder are:

• the constant need for the attention of others;
• inappropriate behavior, behavior or reaction, the reason for which is the desire to be in the center of attention;
• artsy and catchy appearance ( including unusual hairstyles, tattoos, peculiar clothes, etc.);
• a tendency to complexes associated with sex;
• self-esteem problems;
• difficulties in implementation in work or social activities, etc.

All of these signs and manifestations are very common in many people, so hysterical personality disorder is difficult to diagnose. Rather, these are features of a certain psychotype, the carrier of which, in principle, is already sick. In case of stress or aggravation of internal problems and contradictions, the disease will manifest itself in the form of attacks with symptoms characteristic of hysteria ( hysteria, palpitations, disturbances in the functioning of the senses, etc.).

Hysteria in women ( female)

Initially, hysteria was considered a purely female disease. Nowadays, it has been proven that hysterical disorders can develop in men. However, statistics show that women suffer from them much more often. This is partly due to the influence of female hormones and periodic changes in hormonal levels during the menstrual cycle. Indeed, hormones can affect the central nervous system, causing certain changes in behavior and making a woman more vulnerable to external factors ( prolonged stress, difficult emotional experiences, etc.). At the same time, not all women are susceptible to such disorders. At the present time, perhaps, all the factors and mechanisms responsible for mental disorders, which are understood as hysteria, have not yet been identified.

For female hysteria, the following symptoms and manifestations during an attack are also characteristic:

• sharp drops in blood pressure;
• redness or paleness of the skin ( mostly faces);
• active gestures and arousal;
• increased heart rate ( sometimes with rhythm disturbances);
• increased lacrimation and salivation.

The autonomic nervous system, which is actively involved during an attack, is responsible for most of these symptoms. A distinctive feature of these symptoms in hysteria is that the symptoms disappear quickly and without a trace. With damage to the nervous system ( which can give the same symptoms) these manifestations do not disappear so suddenly.

Hysteria in men ( male)

Hysterical personality disorder is not limited to women. In men, it has similar manifestations, although according to statistics, the symptoms in this case will not be so noticeable. A patient with this disease will also seek the attention of others. This will be the focus of his demeanor, clothing, reaction to various events. Compared to female hysteria, symptomatic seizures ( nervous breakdowns) are less common. In general, the causes of the disease are the same, and the treatment tactics will be similar, regardless of the patient's gender.

Hysteria in children ( children)

Hysteria is also found in children of different ages ( from about 4 - 5 years old), and in these cases, its manifestations will differ from those in adults. Hysterical personality disorder in children can be the result of dysfunctional family relationships, lack of attention, severe stress and anxiety. The child will also try to attract the attention of parents and others, and if ignored, quickly move on to hysterics with pronounced symptoms.

During a hysterical seizure in children more often than in adults, the following symptoms and manifestations occur:

• the seizures themselves are more frequent;
• the child may show anger or aggression towards others atypical for children;
• the seizure is almost always accompanied by intense crying;
• increased breathing and heartbeat quite often leads to loss of consciousness, which ends the attack;
• preschool children often have seizures;
• young children during a seizure make random movements with their legs and arms, do not stand on their feet, wriggle;
• a child's speech skills disappear faster than an adult's ( aphasia);
• after the attack, the child does not remember well what happened.

All these symptoms can resemble very serious organic damage to various organs and systems. However, the examination results do not reveal objective signs of the disease. The fact is that the symptoms are of a psychosomatic nature, that is, they are explained by self-hypnosis and an overload of the central nervous system.

For the treatment of childhood hysterical disorder, it is especially important to have the correct parenting and attitude. In addition to individual work with a psychotherapist, family visits to a psychologist are recommended. Good results are obtained by choosing the right hobby ( sport sections), where the child can realize himself. Such communication influences character formation. In severe cases, a psychiatrist may prescribe a course of sedatives for a while.

Conversion hysteria

Conversion hysteria is one of the concepts in psychoanalysis that is currently not recognized as an independent diagnosis. It describes the mechanism of development of a number of neuroses and mental disorders, including hysteria ( hysterical personality disorder). Also, the concept of "conversion hysteria" explains the appearance of a number of symptoms characteristic of mental illness.

This term implies the suppression of strong experiences and shocks and their so-called "displacement" from the field of consciousness. Such suppression is fraught with the development of an internal conflict that keeps the patient in a state of constant tension, anxiety or unaccountable fear. As a result of prolonged stress, the patient begins to develop the so-called psychosomatic symptoms - in fact, manifestations of conversion hysteria. Their difference from the usual symptoms of diseases is that during the examination it is not possible to find organic damage. For example, paralysis of the arm may develop, although the nerves, brain and spinal cord, as well as muscles and bones are in good order.

Most often, conversion hysteria is manifested by the following psychosomatic symptoms:

• paralysis and loss of skin sensitivity;
• loss of pain sensitivity;
• blindness;
• deafness;
• dumbness;
• pain syndrome for no apparent reason;
• seizures, etc.

In most cases, these symptoms appear for a relatively short time ( most often - during an attack of hysteria). However, with serious mental illness, they can persist for a longer time. To confirm conversion hysteria, it is important to rule out other causes of symptoms ( many of them may resemble, for example, a stroke or brain injury). In the absence of objective signs of other diseases, the patient is referred for consultation to a psychiatrist.

Mass and collective hysteria

Mass hysteria or mass psychosis is a very common term, but it is not directly related to medicine. In this case, we mean a phenomenon from the field of sociology, in which the actions of an individual are dictated by suggestion ( including self-hypnosis) under the influence of the crowd. A number of people during mass hysteria may develop symptoms characteristic of a hysterical fit, and their nature will be, as in hysterical personality disorder, psychosomatic. It should be noted that people who are perfectly healthy from the point of view of psychiatry are also susceptible to mass hysteria, and such episodes, as a rule, do not require individual treatment.

Fear hysteria

Fear hysteria is one of the concepts of psychoanalysis according to Freud, which is currently not used in psychiatry as a separate diagnosis. Previously, various phobias were identified with him. In other words, a feeling of fear ( in front of something specific or just as a subjective sensation) has been a leading symptom in some types of disorders. Now some phobias are considered independent mental disorders, and some are only symptoms, manifestations or consequences of certain pathologies.

How does hysteria manifest?

In the past, a wide range of diseases were attributed to the diagnosis of "hysteria", as a result of which symptoms could be very different - from sleep disturbances and sudden mood swings to serious malfunctions of the internal organs. Nowadays, experts have more clearly distinguished pathologies, and one of the criteria for this was violations in the work of individual organs or systems. The closest thing to true hysteria as seen in the past is now some dissociative disorder. Their manifestations can be very diverse.

Modern psychologists and psychiatrists consider the conditions in which symptoms appear as one of the important criteria for making a diagnosis. As a rule, this happens in the presence of other people ( one or more). Alone with himself, the patient does not show visible disturbances. However, in severe cases, after an attack of hysteria, the patient may experience disturbances in the work of some organs and systems ( hearing impairment, vision, changes in heart rate, etc.). These symptoms do not always go away immediately.

Symptoms and signs of hysteria

Do conditioned and unconditioned reflexes change during hysteria?

Hysterical disorders often manifest as a kind of emotional breakdowns, which can be accompanied by various symptoms. In this case, the patient usually loses some of the conscious functions that are controlled by the central nervous system. During neurological examination, conditioned and unconditioned reflexes should be checked in such a patient. Conditioned reflexes are acquired throughout life. Their consolidation took place partly on a conscious level. During a fit of hysteria, they may disappear. These disorders are akin to temporary paralysis, loss of sensation, hearing, or vision that sometimes occurs during an attack. At the same time, unconditioned reflexes are controlled by the spinal cord and are in no way associated with conscious activity. Thus, they will persist even during an attack ( knee reflex, Achilles reflex, etc.). If these reflexes disappear, one should look for organic diseases and damage to the nervous system ( besides hysterical disorder).

Do hysteria have seizures?

According to some classifications, there is a so-called "hysterical" or "neurotic" personality type. However, this does not mean that people with such a character or psychotype necessarily suffer from hysteria. They are simply more susceptible than others to the danger of nervous breakdowns, which were previously attributed to hysteria. Most often, the disease manifests itself precisely in the form of a kind of "seizures" or seizures, between which a person can be absolutely normal. The cause of an attack of hysteria is usually prolonged stress, severe mental trauma or anxiety. Symptoms and manifestations of the disease during an attack can be very diverse - from inappropriate behavior and clouding of consciousness to obvious impairment of hearing, vision, and even paralysis. In the vast majority of cases, after an attack, all these symptoms disappear on their own or on the background of short-term treatment.

Are there hallucinations in hysteria?

Visual or auditory hallucinations are not common in patients with hysteria. However, during an attack, some patients have sensory disturbances ( impaired perception of information from the senses). This explains the temporary blindness or deafness without visible damage to the senses themselves. In principle, a patient with hysteria may complain of a taste in the mouth ( for no apparent reason) or other unusual sensations. All of this can be seen as a hallucination. It is triggered by repressed feelings and represents some sensory experience from the past. Vivid visual or auditory hallucinations, when the patient sees and hears something that does not exist, are practically not encountered in hysteria. Their appearance indicates the need to look for other mental disorders ( schizophrenia, etc.).

Are there psychological tests and a scale for hysteria?

Many psychiatrists and psychologists have worked to create special tests and questionnaires that would help identify patients prone to hysteria and other mental disorders. Currently, there are quite a few such tests. The most effective ones are used in special medical institutions. The tests available on the Internet do not always give reliable results. The difference is that the psychologist or psychiatrist conducting the test draws certain conclusions by observing the patient. In addition, to pass such tests, the necessary conditions are required ( calm atmosphere, absence of stress factors, etc.). Thus, the information from the questionnaire gives only part of the data on which the specialist relies to obtain a reliable result.

One of the most effective tests is the Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. It identifies the patient's personality type and his tendency to certain mental disorders. Among other things, within the framework of this questionnaire there is a separate scale for hysteria. It should be noted that a high score on this scale does not mean that the patient is suffering from hysteria. It's just that his psychotype is prone to this disorder, but whether it manifests itself or not throughout life is the result of a combination of many internal and external factors.

Diagnosis and treatment of hysteria

Most experts agree that psychotherapy, psychoanalysis and other types of psychological assistance have a good healing effect. A qualified psychotherapist can help the patient deal with internal problems and suggest adequate methods for solving them. There are cases when such methods were used to treat severe hearing impairment, vision and even paralysis. In this case, the use of any medicinal products is not a prerequisite. At the diagnostic stage, doctors only need to exclude other serious diseases that could cause these symptoms. In principle, this is the main diagnostic measure. The final diagnosis is made by a psychiatrist after observation ( sometimes quite long) behind the patient and carrying out special psychological tests.

Hysterical personality disorder is statistically very treatable. Most patients who see a specialist for professional help do not suffer from seizures, and they gradually become full-fledged members of society. Problems can arise with more serious mental illnesses and disorders. In severe cases, patients are hospitalized for a while to reduce the frequency of attacks. Various drugs can be used to treat such patients.

For the successful treatment of hysteria, the following components are important:

• regular consultations with a psychologist or psychotherapist;
• psychiatric consultation to rule out other mental disorders and prescribe medications ( of necessity);
• assistance during bouts of hysteria;
• support from family and loved ones;
• if possible, elimination of stress factors from the patient's life.

Treating hysterical personality disorder is time consuming and can take years. The main goal is to reduce the frequency of seizures. Over time, under the influence of therapeutic measures, the patient's character may change somewhat, which will be considered a recovery. It should be noted, however, that complete recovery is rarely achieved.

What to do during a fit of hysteria?

An attack of hysteria or hysterical seizure is the climax, a kind of exacerbation of the disease. This condition is accompanied by the appearance of unusual symptoms ( behavioral disorder, inappropriate response, the appearance of symptoms from the senses and other body systems) and requires urgent assistance. It should be understood that, ultimately, the patient, during an attack of hysteria, seeks attention from others and tries to escape from his own internal conflicts in this way.

• calmness and composure on the part of others ( don't panic);
• if possible - an adequate and calm reaction to any words or actions of the patient;
• creating a safe environment - dangerous objects are removed from the reach, since the patient during a seizure can harm himself or others;
• if the seizure occurs in a public place, it is better to isolate the patient ( if possible with one or more close people);
• minimal attention and emotional empathy for the seizure patient ( its ultimate goal is to attract attention);
• to reduce hysteria, you can give the patient a sniff of ammonia;
• a child with hysteria should be tried to put to bed, as often the attack ends in sleep;
• when unusual symptoms appear ( deafness, dumbness, etc.) you should not immediately start the examination and call specialists, since the patient must first calm down;
• if necessary, doctors can use

Hysteria is understood as a class of neuroses known since the time of Hippocrates and attributed in ancient times to diseases of the uterus (hysteron). At the end of the 19th century, Janet and Charcot drew medical attention to hysteria. Under the influence of Charcot, Freud, together with Breuer, began to investigate the mental mechanisms of hysteria.

In the course of his research, he discovered unconscious fantasy, conflict, repression, identification and transference, which marked the emergence of psychoanalysis. Hysterical symptoms were explained by Freud as the result of repressed sexual memories and fantasies turned into bodily symptoms.

Freud divided psychoneuroses into two categories - hysterical neurosis and obsessive-compulsive neurosis. He distinguished them from the neurosis of fear, believing that the physiological basis of the latter is unsuccessful sexual practice, while he considered psychoneuroses to be mental in nature and associated with early childhood conflicts.

Freud also distinguished two types of hysteria - conversion hysteria and fear hysteria. In both cases, the main feature is protection from internal conflict through repression. In conversion hysteria, the patient tries to cope with the mental conflict by converting it into bodily symptoms or through dissociation; in fear hysteria, the ego does not overcome fear in spite of obsessive and, above all, phobic mechanisms.

Currently, fear hysteria is usually referred to as phobic neurosis or mixed psychoneurosis.

Conversion hysteria is characterized by:

1. bodily symptoms that are variable in nature and associated with mental functions and meanings, and not with anatomical and physiological disorders;

2. external emotional indifference (la belle indifference - "beautiful indifference") to the attributed severity of symptoms;

3. episodic mental conditions (independent or combined with the symptoms listed above), known as hysterical seizures. The latter include the dissociation of certain mental functions that do not violate the sphere of consciousness or exclude the possibility of normal awareness, which leads to disorders such as multiple personality disorder, somnambulism, general amnesia, etc.

Quite often hysterical fits are expressed in complex fantasy stories that can be analyzed in the same way as elements of dreams; both phenomena are products of distortions arising from the mechanisms in which the primary mental process is involved.

Bodily symptoms of conversion hysteria may include motor, sensory, or visceral phenomena: anesthesia, pain, paralysis, tremor, deafness, blindness, vomiting, hiccups, and the like. They correspond to false ideas about the disease, and not to anatomophysiological reality. At the same time - and in spite of the affective reaction, the inadequate apparent severity of the symptom - hysterical patients are convinced that the symptoms correspond to a real bodily illness.

The appearance of hysterical symptoms is associated with the awakening of conflicts related to periods of psychosexual development. The main danger for a hysteric is the desire for an object of incestuous love. In addition, as Freud showed, for certain types of hysteria, pregenital, in particular oral, conflicts are of considerable importance.

The main forms of psychological defense are repression, regression and identification, leading to dissociated bodily and affective symptoms, which act as a distorted substitute and compromise in relation to the original childhood sexual satisfaction.

Thus, symptoms represent the expression in "body language" of specific unconscious fantasies that have arisen as a compromise in conflicts between anxiety-provoking instinctual desires and defenses against these desires. Syndromes are individual, and psychotherapy shows that they are historically conditioned by specific repressed past experiences.

The choice of symptom (including the affected organ or area of ​​the body) is predominantly based on the content of the unconscious fantasy, the erotogenicity of the area, early identifications, and the organ's ability to symbolize the forces involved. These symptoms are an excellent example of the "return of the repressed" - both instinctive desire and defense against it are reactivated in them. The suffering or deprivation associated with the symptom expresses the masochistic punishment for the partial gratification of forbidden fantasies.

Internal conflicts can also influence the formation of a hysterical character. People with such a character structure are theatrically demonstrative, flirtatious, labile in mood, prone to acting out unconscious fantasies, but at the same time they are afraid of sexuality and are restrained in actions.

Psychoanalysis is the preferred treatment for hysteria; the prognosis of the success of the treatment is from good to the most favorable. For the treatment of hysteria, sign up for a consultation with a psychoanalyst.

Hysteria, symptoms of hysteria

Hysteria is characterized by a variety and variability of symptoms. Since the patient's suggestibility is increased, one symptom can quickly be replaced by another reaction, which in this situation is very "handy" for the patient. There can be very violent emotional reactions caused by a minor phrase from a doctor or other person. And the penchant for inventions and fantasies gives a very bright color to these reactions. →

Treatment of hysteria

The main methods of treatment for hysteria is psychotherapy in all its varieties. From the first days of the disease, one should in every possible way strengthen the somatic state, ensure peace, rest, restorative treatment. If the patient is agitated, anxious, he is prescribed preparations of valerian, bromine, tranquilizers or small doses of antipsychotics →

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Conversion in hysterical neurosis - this is the transformation of a repressed mental conflict into somatic symptoms. Conversion symptoms, symbolically reflecting conflict, target the benefit of the disease.

To terminology. The concepts of "conversion reactions", "conversion syndrome", "conversion neuroses", "conversion hysteria" and "hysterical reactions" are largely identical. At the same time, a hysterical reaction does not mean only somatic disorders. "Hysterical" is the definition of specific mental disorders. Hysterical reactions are found mainly in hysterical personalities, but they are not rigidly associated with any one mental structure. Due to the derogatory assessment with which the term "hysterical" is used in everyday life, this concept is usually not used in psychiatry.

Symptoms

Conversion reactions are manifested by motor, sensory and sensory symptoms, as well as seizure conditions, for example, paralysis of one or more limbs, often both legs with the inability to stand and walk (astasia-abasia), or complete immobility, which corresponds to the imaginary death reflex found in some animals and gives the impression of a lack of consciousness. The opposite are psychomotor states of excitement, sharp motor excitement with raging and screaming.

Frequent symptoms of conversion are pain in various parts of the body, but especially headaches and abdominal pains. It goes without saying that any organic disease is excluded with them. Vomiting can also be a manifestation of a conversion reaction.
It is impossible to outline all the variety of conversion syndromes. Almost any picture of the disease can be mimicked in the form of a conversion reaction. However, the actual somatic disorder and functional impairment can be colored and supported by similar hysterical mechanisms.

Causes

Conversion reactions were the first model on which Freud based the emergence of neuroses. If unfulfilled desires and unresolved conflicts are repressed into the unconscious, their energy is conserved. Later, it manifests itself in a variety of forms, with conversion reactions in the form of signs of somatic disorders. The expressive and symbolic nature of conversion reactions lies on the surface: paralysis of the leg indicates that a person can no longer walk; visual disturbances indicate that the patient does not want to know anything about what is happening in front of his eyes; in violation of swallowing - he is not able to "swallow troubles"; in the presence of vomiting, “everything is disgusting to the patient”. Body Talk is very clear and dramatic here. “The body becomes the ball for the game” (Blankenburg).
Conversion reactions are unfulfilled fantasies and pretensions. At the same time, one should not forget about their sexual content, as is observed with a hysterical arc (now rare) - a functional seizure with hyperlordosis and an elevation of the pelvis in women.
Many conversion syndromes must be understood as appeals. They symbolically express certain tendencies - it’s like a reproach: yes, I am paralyzed, nothing more can be demanded from me; so it happened to me; now at last you will take care of me. Conversion syndromes are aimed at releasing external and internal responsibilities, it is a call to the outside world to attract attention. They serve the purpose of benefiting from illness in two ways: through the formation of the hysterical symptom, a certain satisfaction is obtained from repressed urges (primary benefit from illness), and furthermore, through greater attention, recognition and appreciation, narcissistic satisfaction is achieved (secondary benefit from illness).
Conversion reactions are more common in women than in men. They are more often manifested in hysterical, as well as in asthenic, narcissistic personalities and in others with a delay in personal development. Conversion reactions in intensity and form depend on social conditions, the surrounding world that causes anxiety, and on the assessment they receive from others. An essential role is played by "infectiousness" and a tendency to identify and imitate. In recent decades, there has been a change in their forms - from external gestures to psychophysical, deeper disorders of functions; "Hysterical forms of representations" softened towards the so-called psychosomatic "intimate forms".

Diagnosis

Demonstrative behavior, expressiveness of the content of experiences and the purposefulness of symptoms are decisive for the diagnosis. Due to this, conversion symptoms differ from organically determined disorders of the same functions. Further observation of the patients reveals the facts of the underlying conflict.

Flow

Symptom formation during conversion reactions is mostly diverse. The course of these reactions shows that they can change both spontaneously and as a result of changes in living conditions. Less often, conversion symptoms persist for a long time. More often, with conversion reactions, there is a tendency to relapses of an identical or similar type. With age, symptoms change towards psychoneurotic or psychosomatic syndromes. While the prognosis of symptoms is relatively favorable, the underlying pathological state of the personality remains stable for a long time and is difficult to treat.

Educational activity "href =" / text / category / obrazovatelmznaya_deyatelmznostmz / "rel =" bookmark "> educational activity of younger students.

Therefore, it is necessary not only to abandon the assignment of marks to students 1, 2, grades, but also to rebuild all assessment activities. The mark as a digital formulation of the assessment is introduced by the teacher only when the students know the main characteristics of the different marks. Promoting awareness and acceptance of these characteristics (criteria) should become an essential content of the teacher's activities. Before the introduction of marks, it is not recommended to use any other marks of assessment - asterisks, flowers, colored stripes, etc. When using them, the mark function takes over this subject mark and the child's attitude towards it is identical to the relation to digital assessment. In addition, the mark evaluates the result of a certain stage of training. While children are just beginning to learn the basics of reading, writing, counting, until some definite learning outcomes are achieved, the mark more evaluates the learning process, the student's attitude to the implementation of a specific educational task, fixes unsettled skills and little-realized knowledge. Therefore, it is inappropriate to evaluate this stage of learning by marking. The teacher's assessment activity here must be centered around a detailed verbal-descriptive analysis of the student's learning process and the formation of his self-esteem.

Verbal assessment (value judgment) allows you to reveal to the student the dynamics of the results of his educational activities, to analyze his capabilities and diligence. A feature of the verbal assessment is its meaningfulness, analysis of work, clear recording of successful results and disclosure of the reasons for failure. A value judgment at the first stages of training replaces, and then accompanies any mark as a conclusion on the merits of the work, revealing both its positive and negative aspects, as well as ways to eliminate shortcomings and errors.

Self-esteem plays a special role in assessing the learning activity of novice students. Self-assessment, as one of the components of activity, is also associated not with self-grading, but with the assessment procedure. In self-assessment, the student himself gives a meaningful and detailed description of his results according to the given criteria, analyzes his advantages and disadvantages, and also looks for ways to eliminate the latter. The importance of self-esteem lies not only in the fact that it allows the child to see the strengths and weaknesses of his work, but also in the fact that, based on the understanding of these results, he gets the opportunity to build his own program for further activities.

It is impossible to introduce a self-assessment procedure into the pedagogical process by a simple order. Its application requires painstaking, thorough, long-term professional work on the part of the teacher. The child's self-esteem needs to be taught in a specially organized assessment activity. The teacher needs to organize this activity from the first day of study in the system on the basis of clear criteria, involving each student. At the same time, for each type of activity, for each stage of the lesson, it is necessary to select your own, the most appropriate methods of assessment.

Organization of assessment in conditions

without grade training

The assessment of the child's activities is carried out by the teacher from the first days of training. The main requirement of its organization at first is the reliance on success. The teacher begins the assessment activity by assessing the readiness of children for the lesson, their observance of the rules of school life, the manifestation of the skills of cultural communication and behavior. The teacher must emphasize how well children are ready for the lesson while highlighting what it means "well prepared for the lesson."

Children's attention is fixed on those moments when are carried out rules of conduct and observed culture of communication. Highlighting successes is very important as it helps the emotional well-being of children and allows for a better understanding of the demands of school life. The teacher needs to be careful to see and emphasize successes every child for every day.

Already in the second week of training, the scope of the teacher's assessment activity is expanding. It includes successes in the educational work of young students. Evaluation is already subject to correctness, accuracy, diligence in the performance of work, the conformity of the results of labor to the model. Expanding the assessment activity, the teacher must each time introduce clear assessment criteria: what does it mean accurately, correctly ... And only at the third stage of the assessment activity, after mastering the criteria for correctness and criteria for meeting the requirements of the children, the teacher can introduce the fixation of the child's difficulties (and here you more work to be done). At the same time, the priority remains to rely on success and highlight the positive. Fixing difficulties involves, first of all, outlining the prospects for the child, showing what exactly and how to do it. Recording difficulties, the teacher instills in the child the belief that everything will definitely work out for him and gives him so much help to succeed. In our opinion, the main content of assessment in conditions of mark-free learning is highlighting successes and outlining the prospects for the child's learning. As the main parameters of the appraisal activity, the instructional-methodological letter of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation "Monitoring and evaluation of the results of education in elementary school" No. 000 / 14-15 of 19.11.98. highlighted:

1) the quality of the assimilation of knowledge, abilities and skills, their compliance with the requirements of the state standard of primary education;

2) the degree of formation of the educational activity of a younger student (communicative, reading, labor, artistic);

3) the degree of development of the basic qualities of mental activity (the ability to observe, analyze, compare, classify, generalize, express thoughts coherently, creatively solve an educational problem, etc.);

4) the level of development of cognitive activity, interests and attitudes towards educational activities; the degree of diligence and diligence.

Only the first parameter of this list can be assessed over time by the mark for the learning outcome, the rest - by verbal judgments (characteristics of the student). At the very beginning of training, the mark is not used at all.

The teacher, when assessing, highlights successes and outlines prospects for the child not only in the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also in his mental development, cognitive activity, the formation of his educational activities, general educational skills, his diligence and diligence.

The success of the assessment is determined by its systematic nature. It is important that every activity of the child is assessed, at every stage. Traditionally, the teacher evaluates the results of the child's activities (answered the question, solved the problem, highlighted the spelling, etc.). The systematic nature of the assessment assumes not only the assessment of the result, but also the assessment of the acceptance of the instruction (did you understand correctly what to do), the assessment of planning (did you correctly identify the sequence of actions), the assessment of the progress of the implementation (does it move there during the execution).

It is the systematicity in assessment that provides an understanding of the criteria and creates the basis for the self-assessment of children of their work. Consistency also implies the organization of assessment at all stages of the lesson. Evaluation is optimal at each stage: goal setting (how the goal was accepted and what to pay attention to), repetition (what is well learned, what else to work on and how), learning new (what is learned, where it is difficult and why), consolidation (what is obtained and where help is needed), summing up (which is good, and where there are difficulties).

Thus, the organization of assessment in conditions of mark-free learning is based on the following requirements:

1) assessment should begin on the first day of training;

2) when assessing, it is necessary to rely on the success of the child;

3) the assessment should be carried out sequentially from the assessment of the organizational side of the activity to the assessment of its content;

4) the assessment must necessarily outline the prospects for the child;

5) the assessment should be carried out on the basis of clear, child-friendly criteria;

6) assessment activity should apply not only to subject ZUN, but also educational activities, general educational skills, cognitive activity of the child, his diligence and diligence;

7) the assessment should be carried out in the system.

The most important condition for organizing an effective assessment of the achievements of children in the conditions of mark-free learning is an effective choice of forms and methods of assessment.

Forms and methods of assessment

Compliance of the teacher's assessment activities with the requirements is largely determined by the arsenal of means and methods of assessment available to him. The lack of methods complicates systemic assessment and most often underlies the desire of the teacher to quickly switch to the use of a mark, which allows you not to think about the variety of value judgments.

However, today there is a whole set of well-proven forms and methods of assessment, allowing you to meet all the requirements for assessment. Let's dwell on them in more detail.

The simplest assessment option is value judgments built on the basis of point grade criteria. So, evaluating the student's work, the teacher fixes the level of fulfillment of the requirements:

I did it perfectly, I didn't make more than one mistake, I presented it logically, fully, I drew additional material;

He did it well, fully and logically opened the question, did it on his own, knows the order of execution, shows interest. However, I did not notice the error, I did not have time to fix them, next time I need to look for an even more convenient solution, etc.;

Fulfilled the most important requirements, knows the basis, understands the essence, but did not take everything into account, rearranged the logical links, etc .;

Fulfilled all these requirements, it remains to work on this…. Let's see this together….

These judgments show the degree of compliance and are easy to use. However, they have a significant drawback - they can be perceived by children as a point score and converted into points. This reduces their teaching and stimulating function. In addition, such value judgments are applicable to assessing the result of an activity, but when assessing its process, other value judgments can be used, built on highlighting those steps that the child has obtained and indicated the next steps that the child needs to take.

The teacher can make such judgments based on the memo:

1) identify what the child should do;

2) find and emphasize what he did;

3) praise him for it;

4) find what did not work, determine what you can rely on to make it work;

5) formulate what else needs to be done to get what the child already knows about this (find confirmation of this); what needs to be learned, what (who) will help him.

Such value judgments make it possible to reveal to the student the dynamics of the results of his educational activity, to analyze his capabilities and diligence. Valuable judgments clearly record, first of all, successful results (“Your work can serve as a model,” “What beautiful letters you wrote,” “How quickly did you solve the problem,” “You tried very hard today,” etc.). At the same time, the result obtained by the student is compared with his own past results, and thus the dynamics of his intellectual development is revealed (“What a difficult example did you solve yourself today?” “How well did you understand the rule, yesterday it caused you difficulties. that you did a very good job. "). The teacher notes and encourages the slightest advancement of the student forward, constantly analyzes the reasons that contribute or hinder this. Therefore, pointing out the shortcomings in the work, the teacher with a value judgment necessarily determines what can be relied on so that in the future everything will work out (“You tried to read expressively, but did not take into account all the rules. Remember the rules of correct, expressive reading, open the memo. Try to read more times, you will definitely succeed. "" You started to solve the problem well, read it correctly, highlighted the data and what you were looking for. Now draw a schematic drawing for the problem, briefly illustrate the condition of the problem and you will find your mistake. "" You tried to write neatly. a letter (word, sentence) is written according to all the rules of a beautiful letter. Try to write everything else beautifully. "). When pointing out shortcomings at certain stages of work, it is obligatory immediately, even minor positive points are noted ("You made me happy that you did not make a single mistake, you just have to make an effort and follow the rules of a beautiful letter").

Verbal assessment is a brief description of the process and results of schoolchildren's educational work. This form of value judgment allows you to reveal to the student the dynamics of the results of his educational activities, to analyze his capabilities and diligence. A feature of the verbal assessment is its meaningfulness, analysis of the student's work, clear recording (above all!) Of successful results and disclosure of the reasons for failure, and these reasons should not relate to the student's personal characteristics ("lazy", "did not try"). Value judgments are the main means of assessment in grade-free learning, but even with the introduction of a grade, they do not lose their meaning.

A value judgment accompanies any mark as a conclusion on the merits of the work, revealing both positive and negative aspects of it, as well as ways to eliminate shortcomings and errors.

A special role in the assessment activity of the teacher is given to encouragement. , considering the possibilities of encouragement, noted that the success of children depends on how much the teacher relies on the emotions of the children. He believed that the development of the child largely depends on the ability to influence the feelings, the sensory sphere when using rewards (Sukhomlinsky V. A. "I give my heart to children", Kiev, 1972. - pp. 142-143). The main incentive mechanism is evaluative. This mechanism allows children to correlate the results of their work with the task at hand. The most important result of the use of incentives should be the formation of the need for the activity itself as the highest form of encouragement. Thus, the encouragement is the fact of recognition and assessment of the child's achievements, if necessary - the correction of knowledge, a statement of real success, stimulating further action.

The use of rewards should go from simpler to more complex. The systematization of the types of incentives used allows us to single out the following means of their expression:

1) mimic and pantomimic (applause, teacher's smile, affectionate approving glance, shaking hands, stroking the head, etc.);

2) verbal (“Clever girl”, “You worked the best today”, “I was pleased to read your work”, “I was happy when I checked the notebook”, etc.);

3) materialized (incentive prize, badge "Gramoteykin", "The best mathematician", etc.);

4) activity (you act today as a teacher, you are given the right to complete the most difficult task; an exhibition of the best notebooks; you get the right to write in a magic notebook; today you will do the work with a magic pen).

Moreover, not only successes in the educational activities of children are encouraged, but also the efforts of the child (the title of "The Most Diligent", the competition "The Most Accurate Notebook", etc.), the relationship of children in the classroom (the prize "The Most Friendly Family", the title ").

As a result of the successful use of incentives, cognitive activity increases, efficiency increases, the desire for creative activity increases, the general psychological climate in the classroom improves, the guys are not afraid of mistakes, they help each other.

The use of incentives obliges you to fulfill the following requirements:

1) the encouragement must be objective;

2) incentives must be applied in the system;

3) the most effective use of two or more types of incentives;

4) take into account the individual capabilities and level of development of children, their preparedness;

5) go from entertaining rewards based on emotions to the most complex, most effective forms of rewards - activities.

Emotional feedback of the teacher or other students to the child's work is of great importance in evaluative activity. At the same time, any, even insignificant progress of the student is noted ("Bravo! This is the best job!" ). Emotional feedback also evaluates shortcomings in work, but it does not indicate weak personal qualities or abilities in certain areas of knowledge ("Your work upset me", "Is it really your job?", "I don't recognize your work", "Do you like yours work? ", etc.).

Methods of visual self-esteem.

Self-esteem is a person's assessment of himself, his qualities and place among other people (which is one of the most important regulators of human behavior). [Dictionary of the Russian language. Volume VI, p. 21; Moscow, "Russian language", 1988]

Here, for example, is one of the methods of self-assessment. A ruler, which reminds a child of a measuring device, can become a convenient assessment tool. With the help of rulers, you can measure anything. For example, in a child's notebook, a cross placed at the very top of the ruler will indicate that not a single letter is missing in the dictation, in the middle that half of the letters are missing, and at the very bottom if not a single letter is written. At the same time, on another ruler, a cross at the bottom may mean that all the words in the dictation are written separately, in the middle - that half of the words are written separately, etc. Such an assessment:

Allows any child to see their success (there is always a criterion by which a child can be assessed as "successful");

Keeps the educational function of marking: a cross on the ruler reflects real progress in the studied subject content;

Helps avoid comparing children with each other (since each of them has a ruler only in their own notebook).

The "magic rulers" described are a harmless and meaningful form of marking.

Here's how to evaluate your Russian language homework:

handwriting root "b" graduation graduation skip

noun verbs letters

This means that the work was not written in a neat handwriting, but the child was very attentive (not a single omission of letters) and coped with all the previous mistakes, except for mistakes in the "soft sign". It is clear that this is not just a mark, but a guide to action: tomorrow we need to save all today's achievements, repeat everything about the soft sign and try to improve the handwriting at least a little. Evaluation with rulers is organized as follows. First, the teacher sets the assessment criteria - the names of the rulers. They should be clear, unambiguous and understandable for children. Each criterion is necessarily discussed with the children so that everyone understands how to evaluate according to this criterion. The teacher and the children agree, for example, that a mark (cross) is placed on the ruler at the top if it is written accurately: without blots and corrections, all letters comply with the rules of calligraphy, do not go beyond the working line, the slope is observed. A cross is placed at the bottom if the letters "dance" on the line, there are a lot of blots and corrections, the elements of the letters are not written according to the pattern, the letters are of different sizes, the distance between the elements does not meet the requirements. After each criterion has been discussed, the children evaluate their work independently.

After self-assessment, it is the teacher's turn to assess.

Having collected notebooks, the teacher puts his plus signs on the rulers. The coincidence of children's and teacher's assessments (regardless of whether the child rated his work low or high) meant: “Well done! You know how to evaluate yourself. " In the case of an overestimated, let alone underestimated, a student's self-esteem of his work, the teacher once again reveals the assessment criteria to the child and asks him to be kinder or stricter next time: “Look, your letters were swinging in different directions, and today they are almost straightened out. Can you put a cross higher today than yesterday? Please praise your fingers: they have become more dexterous. Make sure that the letters are on the line today. "

In addition to working with individual self-assessments, the teacher carries out work on objectifying their subjective experiences in the classroom for children. He draws a large class-wide ruler, on which he makes all the children's judgments about whether they liked their work (or whether it was difficult, whether they want to practice more). The next day, such a "thermometer" of the emotional state of the class is discussed with the children. The teacher notes the difference of opinions as a sign of trust, sincerity, shows what children's assessments help him plan the next lesson.

Let us briefly formulate the most important principles of applying the methods of teaching children self-assessment.

1. If an adult's assessment precedes a child's assessment, then the child either does not critically accept it, or rejects it affectively. It is advisable to start teaching intelligent assessment with the child's self-assessing judgment.

2. The assessment should not be generalized. The child is immediately asked to evaluate various aspects of his efforts, to differentiate the assessment.

3. The child's self-assessment should be related to the adult's assessment only where there are objective assessment criteria that are equally obligatory for both the teacher and the student (examples of writing letters, addition rules, etc.).

4. Where qualities are assessed that do not have unambiguous samples - standards, each person has the right to his own opinion and the business of an adult - to acquaint children with the opinions of each other, respecting each, not challenging anyone and not imposing either his own opinion or the opinion of the majority.

The next form of assessment can be called a rating assessment. This form of assessment is more complicated. For elementary school, it seems sufficient to rank teams, pairs of partners or individual students according to the degree of their success in completing assignments. As one of the methods used by the rating assessment

As a method of which assessment, a "chain" can be used, the essence of which is that children are asked to line up in a row: the student whose work meets all the requirements (in which all the criteria are met) starts the row, followed by a student whose work is different from the sample according to one criterion, etc., and the row ends with the one whose work is completely different from the given criteria. The teacher usually uses this technique at the end of the lesson. In some cases, such a "chain" is made by one of the children, and after he has made it, he must find his place in it (naturally, all children in turn must take this role). In other cases, the construction takes place without anyone's instructions. It is performed by the children themselves collectively. Reception "chain" is made in the form of a quick warm-up, the grounds for building (assessment criteria) are constantly changing, and the adult minimally interferes with this "assessment and self-esteem", making sure that none of the children is all the time in one and the same position of the leader or trailing. It is necessary to set various criteria so that even the child who did not succeed, for example, to count correctly, according to the criterion "corrected the most mistakes" could be ahead of the chain.

This method of assessment in the course of the lessons was supplemented, and mainly by the children themselves. It was suggested that in cases where several children coped with something equally well (we emphasize, it is good), they hold hands and raise them up, and if everyone does well, a circle is formed (this also extended to those cases, when the "chain" was a child). An adult in this situation plays the role of a coordinator, an accomplice. For example, when carrying out control in a natural history lesson in grade 3, the teacher uses the method of quickly checking the quality of students' knowledge (). The teacher distributes cards of programmed control, where there are "windows" for answers to 5 questions (3 answer options). The student must put "+" in the "box that coincides with the correct answer."

The completed card may look like this:

After finishing work, the teacher collects all the cards, puts them together. Then, in front of the students, he puts a card with the correct answer on top and, with the help of an ordinary hole punch, pierces all the works at once in the places where the "+" signs should be. The teacher distributes work to students and asks to evaluate the performance of this work and take a place in the chain in accordance with the correctness of the assignment. This form of assessment can also be used when conducting group work in mathematics, Russian, and reading lessons. In this case, at the end of the work, the teacher asks a strong student (team captain) or, conversely, a weak student to build a group in accordance with the activity of everyone when discussing the problem in the group: first the most active student, then the less active. The most correct assessment is carried out according to this form in grades 2 and 3; in the first grade, the teacher's help is needed.

The relationship between teacher assessment and student self-esteem - The teacher's assessment activity is usually carried out in the form of a mark in a journal and in verbal form. There is a significant difference between them. The grade that the teacher puts in the journal is official, based on specially developed criteria. Verbal assessments are not controlled by strict indicators, but they should be humane, should contribute to the development of students.

The student's self-assessment is mainly focused on the marks presented in the magazine. However, verbal assessments can play a dominant role in the formation of student self-esteem if the teacher knows how to use them correctly. This is due to the fact that these assessments are more labile, emotionally colored, and more intelligible for students.

The overwhelming majority of teachers believe that middle school students always agree with their assessments, so teachers do not analyze their value judgments and do not try to look for the reasons for pedagogical failures in this direction.

Meanwhile, by providing the student with the opportunity to defend his opinion and tactfully directing the child's reasoning, the teacher thereby helps him to form his own evaluative activity, develop the ability to analyze the teacher's value judgments and thereby form self-esteem.

This way of working as a teacher is very effective not only for educating students (corrects their behavior, prevents the development of arrogance, high self-esteem, or, conversely, self-doubt, feelings of inferiority), but also for the development of his own professional qualities, such as respect for the child , patience, pedagogical tact, empathy.

The main reason for the difficulties in educational work with students is the inadequate assessment by students of their personal qualities. The accuracy of assessing quality depends not so much on the actual level of his development, but on the level of the adolescent's aspirations, his attitude towards himself as a whole. Assessing his qualities, a teenager proceeds not from an analysis of his actions, in which these qualities are manifested, but from an assessment of himself as a whole, from his attitude towards himself as a person. The child evaluates himself and others in a generalized way and, based on this integral assessment (or), notes the presence or absence of positive personality traits.

Overestimation or underestimation by adolescents of their qualities does not affect the accuracy of their assessment of these qualities in classmates. This means that the inadequacy of adolescents in assessing themselves is not a consequence of an insufficient understanding of the meaning of the qualities being assessed or the inability to analyze the actions of others. It is due to the claims of adolescents to be the best among their peers, they do not want to be.