Patterns of memory functioning
Numerous studies of memory have led to the identification of laws and patterns in the functioning of memory. The German researcher G. Ebbinghaus, back in the last century, deduced a whole series of memorization patterns:
Life events that make a strong emotional impression on a person can be immediately remembered firmly and for a long time.
Events that are not interesting enough can be experienced dozens of times and not be remembered.
Close attention improves memory.
A person can very accurately reproduce events and not realize it and, conversely, make mistakes, but be sure that he is reproducing them correctly. There is no direct relationship between fidelity and confidence in accuracy.
Increasing the memorized series reduces the amount of memorized information. To memorize an increased row, more repetitions are needed to memorize. For example, a person reproduces 6 syllables after memorizing once. He is given a series of 12 syllables, in this case he can reproduce 6 only after 14-16 repetitions (26 syllables - 30 repetitions).
When memorizing a long series, the beginning and end are best reproduced (“edge effect”).
Repetitions of memorized material in a row are less productive for its memorization than the distribution of such repetitions over a certain period of time (several hours, days).
What a person is especially interested in is remembered without any difficulty.
Rare, strange, unusual impressions are remembered better than familiar, frequently occurring ones.
The founder of psychoanalysis 3. Freud described the mechanism of forgetting, which is based on the motive of reluctance to remember. An example of motivated forgetting, according to Freud, are cases when a person involuntarily loses, puts somewhere things related to what he wants to forget, and forgets about these things so that they do not remind him of psychologically unpleasant events. The tendency to forget unpleasant things is widespread in life.
Within the framework of Gestalt theory, such a pattern of memory has been identified as remembering unfinished actions. If people are given a series of tasks and allowed to complete some of them and leave others unfinished, it turns out that subjects are subsequently 2 times more likely to remember unfinished tasks than completed ones. This is explained by the fact that when receiving a task, the subject has a need to complete it. If the task is not completed, the need is not satisfied. Motivation affects memory by storing traces of unfinished actions. When recalling tasks, unfinished ones are named first, therefore, what meets current and not fully satisfied needs is remembered more firmly and reproduced faster.
When organizing learning material, memorizing necessary information it is necessary to take into account the existing patterns in the functioning of memory.
Development of memory in human ontogenesis
Like any mental function of a person, memory develops as the individual socializes. From early childhood, the process of memory development occurs in several directions:
firstly, mechanical memory is gradually replaced and supplemented by meaningful or logical memory;
secondly, at first, direct memorization over time turns into indirect, associated with the active and conscious use of various mnemotechnical techniques and means for memorizing and reproducing material;
Thirdly, involuntary memorization and reproduction, which dominates in childhood, in an adult person turns into voluntary processes (self-regulating, subordinate to will and self-control).
Special studies of memory development were carried out by A. N. Leontiev. He experimentally showed how one mnemonic process - direct memorization - with age fits into another, indirect one. This occurs due to the child’s assimilation of increasingly sophisticated stimuli-means of memorizing and reproducing material. The use of aids for memorization turns direct, immediate memorization into indirect.
A variety of objects can serve as stimulus-means: fingers, notches, memory knots, crosses on the hand. These items serve as a reminder. As the child develops, external stimulus objects are replaced by internal stimuli (images, feelings, associations, ideas, thoughts). In the process of forming internal means of memorization, speech plays a central role. There arises the ability to instruct yourself in such a way when memorizing, so that later, when the need arises, you can accurately remember. Memory becomes arbitrary and independent of external conditions.
The development of arbitrary logical memory requires for its emergence not only a large amount of information, but also mastery of a certain system of mental operations, with the help of which one can generalize the input material in a multi-stage manner and move on to the use of symbolic languages of higher levels.
In the process of transition from external to internal stimuli and increasing the variety of mental operations, higher voluntary logical memory develops (Fig. 7).
Ticket 23.
Memory training. Methods of memorization and techniques for improving memory.
To begin with, it is worth noting that we often train our memory and attention using various everyday situations in Everyday life. We remember what we want to buy in a store, try to remember the birthdays of relatives, friends and acquaintances, retell the contents of a recently read book or textbook - all this and much more is good memory training. However, the use of special exercises gives us the opportunity to concentrate on the specific goal of developing a certain ability of our memory.
When talking about memory training, it is important to understand that it is almost impossible to directly train a specific ability to memorize material. Memory always develops in close connection with our attention, perception, thinking, sense organs and other phenomena of human nature.
In order for memorization to be successful, the following provisions should be adhered to: 1) make a commitment to memorization; 2) show more activity and independence in the process of memorization (a person will remember the path better if he moves independently than when he is accompanied); 3) group the material according to meaning (drawing up a plan, table, diagram, graph, etc.); 4) the process of repetition when memorizing should be distributed over a certain time (a day, several hours), and not in a row. 5) new repetition improves memorization of previously learned; 6) arouse interest in what is being remembered; 7) the unusual nature of the material improves memorization.
Auditory Memory Training
Exercise 1: Reading aloud
Exercise 2. Poems
Exercise 3. Eavesdropping
Visual memory training
Exercise 1. Schulte tables
As you know, Schulte tables are useful for developing speed reading. They perfectly train peripheral vision, attention and observation, and if you time it, you will have an incentive to beat your personal record, which will add additional excitement to practicing with these tables.
Schulte tables are useful not only for skill development quick reading, but also for training visual memory. When searching for sequential numbers in a table, our vision instantly fixes several cells. As a result, the location of not only the desired cell is remembered, but also cells with other numbers.
Exercise 2. Photographic memory training (Aivazovsky method)
This method of training photographic memory is named after the famous Russian-Armenian marine painter Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky (Ayvazyan). Aivazovsky could mentally stop the movement of a wave for a moment, transferring it to the canvas so that it did not seem frozen. Solving this problem was very difficult; it required the artist to have a good development of visual memory. To achieve this effect, Aivazovsky watched the sea a lot, closed his eyes and reproduced what he saw from memory.
Exercise 3. Playing matches
The game of remembering matches is not only useful, but also a convenient way to train visual memory. Throw 5 matches on the table and within a few seconds remember their location. After this, turn away and try using the other 5 matches to make the same picture on another surface.
Exercises 4. Roman room
As already noted, the Roman room method is very useful for structuring memorized information. However, this famous technique can also be used to train visual memory. So, when memorizing information using the Roman room method, try not only to remember the sequence of objects and the data assigned to them, but also the details, shapes and colors of these objects. These attributes can also be assigned additional memorized images. As a result, you will remember more information, and at the same time train your visual memory.
Memorization methods are techniques that help remember certain new information.
Multiple repetition. For example, repeated repetition of a poem out loud.
A mnemonic device is a little saying or rhyme for the first letter of each word. For example, Every Hunter Wants to Know Where the Pheasant Sits.
An acronym is a new word made from the first letters of each word. For example, SKIF, MAG, OKO.
Composition is memorization that is based on some rule or principle. For example, in alphabetical order, by size, by color, by purpose, etc.
Or, for example, for the convenience of remembering the daily tasks, it makes sense to have private tasks, where you can collect and package them into the main Tasks of the day. It’s difficult to remember 30 things in one head, but if you arrange them correctly, everything becomes easier. Memory normally holds about seven objects, so it is optimal if the daily schedule contains up to 7 main tasks, and each task can consist of several (up to 7) tasks. You even have a reserve...
Associative method of memorization - visual association, consonant association or other psychological clues.
Abbreviation - USSR, MosKomPechat
Use of sounds, colors, etc. For example, a fire siren, yellow handles for the operator, etc.
Ticket 24
Concept and functions of attention. The connection between attention and other mental processes, consciousness and behavior.
General idea of attention. Types and properties of attention.
Definition and basic properties of attention. Classification of types of attention
Basic definitions of attention. V. Wundt: attention is the subjective side of the phenomena of consciousness, apperception is their objective result. Attention is a process of apperception accompanied by a feeling of internal effort. E. Titchener: attention - sensory clarity. James: attention is biased, carried out through mental activity, the possession in a clear and precise form of one of several simultaneously possible series of thoughts (selection). Attention is a necessary universal mental process; it exists everywhere, but its content and specificity are very difficult to identify. To do this, it must be considered at the level of activity as a whole. 2 main characteristics of attention: 1) the need for selection of material, 2) the formation of past experience (to preserve it, you need to keep it in consciousness for some time, the subject’s activity is necessary). Attention as an effort of consciousness that has a limited resource. Attention is the presence of a special activity of the subject, equipped with special means and associated with the effort of the subject. V. always implies activity, B - active selection; this is the formation and manifestation of a receptive attitude towards one object while ignoring others.; this is a state of clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness; this is the willingness to notice something. in the behavior of another and react to it; this is the direction and concentration of mental activity. focus (direction - selection and maintenance of a given activity; concentration - distraction from other activities and deepening in a given activity); this is special. control activities (ideal, reduced, automation); a phenomenal and product manifestation of the work of the Vedas. organizational level activity ÞÞ in is always choice, selection and selectivity, as well as concentration and the fight against distractions.
Saints. Attention as a state (a fixed position in a certain state or a certain state) and as a process (a total of sequential stages that lead to a certain state) named after. diff. St. Attention as states 4 saints:
2. degree (intensity)
Volume 3 (number of simple impressions or ideas, clearly understood in this moment)
4. concentration (concentration) here is the volume and degree of ext. in reverse dependencies. Listen. as a process: 1. fluctuations - non-producible. changes in attention 2. distraction - unpronounced. change in direction, 3. shifts - cont. change volume, 4. switch. - deliberate change of direction, 5 stability - def. vibration frequency and shifts, 6. distribution - possible. direction V. at the same time for several objects. 7. mobility - rapid change. direction, degree, volume.
Kinds:
1) James identified 3 types: 1. by object of consciousness (sensory and mental);
2 affective (immediate - if the object is interesting in itself and derivative - in connection with another object.);
3. passive. (we pay attention to him rather due to his nature than the power of influence on his innate desire and, due to this, acquired attractiveness) and active. \ voluntary (always apperceptively, we make efforts to direct).
Unprov. at: home wake-up. power is not in the subject, but in the object and the person. listen nezav. from awareness goals and their frequency. passive . Types: a. forced (innate), forced objects with defined characteristics (intensity, rhythmic repetition, unexpected); b. involuntary (depending on individual experience and fuss in the process of adjusting, and objects fall into attention during the period when needs are actualized); V. habitual (head of purpose and education).
Free: excellent. its sign is consciousness. intention to turn to something. listen A. volitional (conflict with the chosen object and unproduced tendencies; arising feeling of tension); b. expectant (if a person is warned and waits); V. spontaneous (volitional transformation into new form).
2) another classification.: 1.. selective (analyzed in terms of action of several objects. By modality - visual....). Selective different from focusing (we adapt to someone’s answer, what should be done with this stimulus), by the fact that we focus. at the exit to the room. sign. 2. distributed (simultaneous series of actions); 3. continuous (long and monotonous tasks)
3) Otherclass. 1) by subject, 2) by function, as the process of solving a problem; 3) by genesis.
(1) the substantive content of the activity requiring attention. W. James: types of attention in connection with cognition: a) perceptual attention - observation (perception); b) intellectual attention - insight (thinking). Any activity is involuntarily accompanied by a stream of consciousness, which allows you to control the execution of actions - executive attention. (2) A. Smirnov: any activity is accompanied by a mnemonic orientation. Task: a) goal and effort to achieve it - involuntary and voluntary processes; b) means – direct and indirect processes; c) role in the process of information processing (cognitive information) - P. Ya. Galperin: function of attention - control. Attention is a movement of mental control, automated control. (3) N. F. Dobrynin: functional criteria for levels of development: 1) presence of a goal - involuntary and voluntary attention; 2) availability of funds – direct and indirect. Levels: 1) passive (natural - following the object); 2) VPF (activity); 3) post-voluntary (personal activity).
.ATTENTION. TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF ATTENTION.
Attention- the direction and concentration of consciousness on any object, providing its clearest reflection.
In the nervous system under the influence of external or internal system a focus of excitation arises, which for a certain time dominates other areas and dominates. This principle of dominance underlies the physiological mechanisms of attention.
1. Based on human activity in organizing attention, there are 3 types:
· free– controlled by a conscious goal, it is closely related to the will of a person, the main function is the active regulation of the course of mental processes;
· Involuntary– the simplest and most genetically original, it arises and is maintained regardless of the goals facing a person;
· Post-voluntary- this is focusing on an object, due to its value for the individual.
2. By object location:
· External
· Internal
Properties of attention:
1. attention span– measured by the number of objects that can be captured by attention in a very limited period of time (4-6 objects);
2. distribution of attention– is expressed in the fact that a person can keep several objects in the spotlight at the same time;
3. switching– intentional transfer of attention from one object to another;
4. sustainability– duration of attracting attention to the same object (15-20 minutes);
5. abstraction.
Personality traits related to attention:
· inattention;
· attentiveness;
· absent-mindedness (imaginary and real);
· observation.
.Theories of attention.
Basic theories of attention.
V. can be defined as the readiness on the part of the body to perceive the stimuli surrounding it . Historically, the concept of V. occupied a central place in the field of psychology. In the XIX century - beginning. XX centuries Representatives of functionalist and structuralist schools of psychology considered V. the central problem, although they emphasized different aspects of it.
Functionalists With They brought to the center the selective nature of V. as an active function of the body, mainly. on his motivational state. Thus, recognizing that V. sometimes may. passive and reflexive, they focused on its arbitrary aspects and on the fact that it is V. that determines the content of the experience received by the body.
Structuralists , against, considered V. as a state of consciousness, which consists of increased concentration and results in clarity of impressions. Thus, they made a choice in favor of studying the conditions that led to cmax, the salience of the object of consciousness or the clarity of perception.
Gestalt psychologists, associationists, behaviorists and psychoanalysts were tend to ignore V. altogether when constructing their theories, at best assigning him an insignificant role. Unfortunately, during all these years of irreconcilable struggle between theorets. directions in psychology for research. V. has done relatively little.
Many modern theories of attention assume that the observer is always surrounded by many cues. The capabilities of our nervous system are too limited to sense all these millions of external stimuli, but even if we detected all of them, the brain would not be able to process them, since our information processing capacity is also limited. Our senses, like other means of communication, work quite well if the amount of information processed is within their capabilities; When overloaded, a failure occurs. The British scientist Broadbent was the first to develop a holistic theory of attention in foreign psychology. This theory, calledmodel with filtration , was associated with the so-called single-channel theory and was based on the idea that information processing is limited by channel capacity, as stated in the original theory of information processing by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.
D. Broadbent wrote in his acclaimed book “Perception and Communication” that perception is the result of work information processing systems with limited bandwidth. Essential to Broadbent's theory was the idea that the world contains the possibility of receiving a much larger number of sensations than can be captured by human perceptual and cognitive abilities. Therefore, in order to cope with the flow of incoming information, people selectively direct attention only to some signs and “detach” from the rest.
T. Ribot proposed the so-called"motor theory of attention" », according to which movements play the main role in attention processes. It is thanks to their selective and targeted activation that concentration and strengthening of attention on an object occur, as well as maintaining attention on this object for a certain time. A similar idea about the physiological mechanism of attention was expressed by A. A. Ukhtomsky. He believed that the physiological basis of attention is a dominant focus of excitation, which intensifies under the influence of extraneous stimuli and causes inhibition of neighboring areas.
Modern Russian psychologists became the first to study the orienting reflex, or an indicative reaction, which consists of a cluster of physiological changes occurring in the body in response to changes in its environment. It is believed that these changes are physiological correlates of attention. These correlates include changes in brain electrical activity and skin electrical activity, pupil dilation, skeletal muscle tension, increased cerebral blood flow, and changes in posture. The orienting reflex leads to increased stimulation reception and improved learning. The work begun by Russian psychologists was continued in the USA. In particular, studies have been conducted on individual differences in the strength of the orienting reaction and the accompanying circumstances of such differences.
As a result of the workneurophysiologists and neuroanatomists , such as Hernandez-Peon et al., was found in the brain stem diffuse structure, called the reticular formation, edges, apparently mediates the processes of excitation, V. and selection of stimuli. Research reticular formation, also called. the reticular activating system, as well as its connections with other important regulatory systems of the brain, provided the basis for physiology. explanations of the influence of motivation, sleep, sensory input, learning, as well as endogenous and exogenous chemicals. substances for the process B.
Voluntary and involuntary attention.
ATTENTION INVOLVED- the simplest and genetically original. It has a passive character, because it is imposed on the subject by events external to the goals of his activity. It arises and is maintained regardless of conscious intentions, due to the characteristics of the object - novelty, strength of influence, correspondence to current needs, etc. The physiological manifestation of this type of attention is an indicative reaction.
ATTENTION ARBITRARY- is directed and supported by a consciously set goal, and therefore is inextricably linked with speech. Voluntary attention is spoken of if the activity is performed in line with conscious intentions and requires volitional efforts on the part of the subject. It is distinguished by its active nature, complex structure, mediated by socially developed ways of organizing behavior and communication; origin is related to work activity. In conditions of difficult activity, it involves volitional regulation and the use of special techniques for concentrating, maintaining, distributing and switching attention.
Ticket 25.
Positive and negative effects of attention. Criteria for attention.
The phenomenon of inattention. Poetic, professorial and student absent-mindedness. Hyperattention. Absorption. Flow experience. Negative effects of attention
The phenomena of inattention include: absent-mindedness, errors of attention and phenomena of selective (directed) inattention. Errors of inattention - an incorrectly performed or missed action, an inability to notice an important event or object - may be the result of absent-mindedness or selective inattention. The phenomena of selective inattention, stable over time, like absent-mindedness, are distinguished by the fact that errors of attention are stably limited to one of the spheres of reality or a person’s own behavior and are not observed in relation to other objects and events.
Poetic, professorial absent-mindedness. If you ask a physicist, he will remember Isaac Newton, who “boiled” a clock for tomorrow instead of an egg. The chemist will think of the famous scientist, Ivan Kablukov, who always signed himself as Kabluk Ivanov.
An example of poetic absent-mindedness is the writer Andrei Bely. There is a well-known story when, upon arriving at one of the St. Petersburg editorial offices, he forgot to take off his galoshes. It would seem like a trifle, but Bely could not resist and composed almost an ode to poetic absent-mindedness, where he shamed a certain N.V. Valentinov, who drew attention to this.
Let us highlight the characteristics of behavior and attention characteristic of these absent-mindedness. First of all, this is a lack of reaction or an inadequate reaction to external influence due to excessive concentration on one’s own thoughts or on the task at hand. Habitual actions or even entire chains of actions are preserved, however, Feedback There is no information about the progress of their implementation and possible changes in the environment.
Student absent-mindedness. You don’t have to look far for an example of this absent-mindedness. Look into any classroom. There is always a restless student who fidgets and pulls his pigtails. The attention of such a student is characterized by increased “interference immunity”: it is excessively mobile, scattered, and susceptible to distraction. As soon as the slightest stimulus appears, attention is immediately directed to it. Or a jackdaw flying by, a noise outside the window, a teacher’s untied shoelace. This attention has two sides. First: high distractibility. Secondly weak concentration. It's almost the main problem modern educational psychology.
Absorption (absorption) is a phenomenon of extreme attention that Ribot identified. such attention is passive and reactive: a person does not control it, but only reacts to what is happening around him. What is happening may turn out to be so fascinating that all he can do is open his mouth and “absorb” everything he sees and hears. Attention to the type of absorption may lead to complete cessation of activity.
Flow experience. The phenomenon of extreme attention can also include a state of extreme involvement in an activity, when a person is attentive to something that he previously had to work on without effort. For example, a schoolboy is completely immersed in the game, but once upon a time he had to spend a lot of time studying its rules and keys. And once such an “immersion” has occurred, parents have to work hard to “reach out” to their child.
A similar phenomenon is American. psychologist Csikszentmihalyi designated it as flow experience, into which we dive headlong and allow us to be carried in the right direction. It is observed when a person has nothing outside to distract him and can completely immerse himself in his favorite activity.
Flow Experience
IN last years scientists were attracted by an extremely striking phenomenon associated with the phenomenon of all-encompassing total attention - experience of "flow". The experience of “flow” (M. Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) is associated with the implementation of activities that give the subject pleasure in itself, regardless of direct dependence on its final result. Activities of this kind include play, meditation, inspiration, love experiences, etc. Many people who are asked why they spend time and money on practically useless activities, sometimes even associated with the risk of life (for example, climbers, divers, racers), answer that they do this precisely in order to achieve a state of complete immersion in the activity or, in other words, maximum intense attention.
Probably, like any normal person, I have had the experience of flow. This state has been associated with falling in love more than once! If I love, then strongly, if I feel, then to the fullest. I’m probably a maximalist in life, which is probably why I completely immerse myself in any process. In this process, my attention is focused as much as possible on one object. In my opinion, the experience of flow can also include your favorite activity, which completely draws you into its depths, and you forget about time. This is of great interest to you. In my case, these are poems and paintings. Of course, I myself am not a great artist or poet! But, watching and feeling the creativity of other people, I also emotionally and strongly experience these emotions, get involved in the very essence and create something new, my own!!!
Negative effects of attention.
First of all this deautomation– destruction of previously automated activities by paying attention to individual components. Bernstein cited the parable of the centipede as an example. To which the evil toad turned and asked which leg she starts moving from. Thinking about this, the centipede could not take a single step.
Another negative effect - semantic satiation effect. (James) if you look carefully at the same word and repeat it, then it will soon lose its meaning for us. This is the same in relation to our feelings: trying to pay attention to an emotion, it immediately disappears.
The following effect of inattention: Failure of parallel activities. Attention cannot be enough for everything, and if something requires more of it, then there is less left for the rest. For example, if some question distracts a girl from knitting, which she is busy with, then knitting is definitely not mastered enough by her.
Gippenreiter. Criteria (signs) of attention.
I. Classical psychology of consciousness: clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness that are in the field of attention (phenomenal, subjective criterion). There are also optional subjective criteria of attention: the experience of effort, the emotion of interest.
II. Productive criterion (objective). The quality of the cognitive (thinking, perception) or executive product increases in the presence of attention.
III. Mnemonic criterion. It is classified as productive, but its peculiarity is that there is always memory when there is attention (a by-product of any attentive action).
IV. External reactions. Facial expressions, posture, turning the head, fixing the eyes, etc. Psychophysiological correlates: EEG, GSR, pupillary reflex, etc.
V. Selectivity criterion. Only the necessary information is selected. When performing 2 or more actions, some are performed automatically.
Ticket 26 Studies of attention in classical psychology of consciousness (W. Wundt, E. Titchener, W. James). The problem of attention in Gestalt psychology (K. Koffka, V. Koehler, P. Adams).
Focus on Wundt's theoretical and empirical studies. The central problem of Wilhelm Wundt's research was the distinction between the phenomena of attention and consciousness. To do this, he used the metaphor of the visual field. The most clearly perceived content is located in the focus of the visual field, less clearly - distributed on its periphery.
According to Wundt, attention is one of the characteristics or properties of consciousness. Wundt's merit is the measurement of the volume of consciousness. To measure the volume of consciousness, he used a melodic series, including a different number of bars. He asked subjects to listen to a series. The measures could be of varying degrees of complexity: two-beat, three-beat, etc. The series were presented sequentially. The subjects had to determine whether they were the same or not. Moreover, the subjects gave correct answers even for eight two-part series. However, not all melodies were perceived by them clearly and distinctly. The tact perceived at the moment stood out with greater clarity, the next one was less distinct, and so on until the sensation completely disappeared.
Wundt suggested that only the beat perceived at a given moment is in the focus of consciousness, and all others are held due to associative connections with the focus. Presenting subjects with matrices with a random set of letters or isolated sounds that they could not combine into measures, he determined that the attention span was equal to 6 complex elements. To describe the content of consciousness and attention, Wundt used the terms proposed by G. Leibniz: “perception” and “apperception.” He called perception the entry of content into consciousness, apperception - focusing attention on a specific object, i.e. its entry into the focus of consciousness. According to Wundt, our ability to become aware is not constant and depends on the nature of the material we perceive. If we perceive a set of random elements, the volume of consciousness and attention coincide. The boundary of consciousness becomes the boundary of attention (attention = consciousness). If we have in front of us a stimulus that consists of many interconnected elements, then the apperceptible (that which is in focus) and the perceived (that which goes beyond the limits of attention) merge into a single whole. In this case, consciousness “expands” (consciousness > attention), and apperception performs a connecting function between the elements of consciousness.
. Attention in Titchener studies. Edward Titchener basically shared Wundt's views, using the same phenomenological criterion - the criterion of clarity - to isolate attention as a phenomenon of consciousness. Defining the essence of attention comes down to identifying it with the property of sensation to be clear. E. Titchener introduces the concept of “level of consciousness” and “wave of attention.” The stream of consciousness occurs at two levels: the upper represents clear processes. the lower one is the “level of vagueness” of consciousness. E. Titchener is credited with posing the problem of the genesis of attention. He was the first in the history of attention psychology to pose this problem and try to solve it. They identified three stages of attention development and three corresponding genetic forms of attention.
1) Primary attention is the earliest stage of attention development.
2) Secondary attention is active, voluntary attention accompanied by volitional effort. 3) Derivative primary attention - attention in which the stimulus gains an undeniable victory over its competitors. This is a period of mature and independent activity. E. Titchener emphasizes that the three stages of attention development he described and its corresponding genetic forms reveal differences in complexity, but not in the nature of the experience itself, which represents one type of mental process. Thus, E. Titchener, like W. Wundt, identifies the criterion of clarity of consciousness as a phenomenological criterion of attention; the clarity of sensation to which he reduces the essence of attention depends on the “predisposition” of the subject’s NS, an explanation for which he does not give.
Attention as selectivity of consciousness (W. James). William James. The central idea is the idea of selectivity (selectivity) of consciousness associated with the limited volume of consciousness. Describing the phenomenon of “distraction of attention,” he uses the definition of “dim background of consciousness” and clear consciousness - concentrated attention. At the same time, to the criterion of clarity in the description of the phenomenon of attention, he adds the criterion of selectivity (selectivity) of consciousness. William James made a significant contribution to the development of ideas about the forms of attention. They proposed several classifications of types of attention.
A. By object of attention: 1) sensory attention, the object of which is sensation; 2) intellectual attention - its object is the reproduced representation. B. According to the indirectness of the attention process: 1) direct attention - its object in itself is emotionally attractive, directly interesting; 2) indirect attention - its object in itself is uninteresting, but is associated associatively with an emotionally attractive object - this is apperceptive attention. B. By the presence of volitional effort: 1) passive, reflex, involuntary, not accompanied by volitional effort; 2) active, voluntary, accompanied by volitional effort. W. James's idea of the variety of forms of attention was a major turning point in clarifying the question of the main types (forms) of the existence of attention.
The problem of attention in Gestalt psychology and associative psychology.
Attention is part of the perceptual process; some force within the integral field (K. Koffka, 1922). And our perception is determined by the laws of organization of the sensory field: the laws of proximity, cohesion of space, pregnancy, good continuation, etc. In this description there is no room left for attention at all - everything happens without its participation, as well as without the participation of the subject of perception. However, this understanding of attention and its place in the process of perception is not the only one in Gestalt psychology. E. Rubin questioned the very fact of the existence of attention (1925). And in 1958, V. Koehler and P. Adams published a work in which they analyzed the results of their experimental research, which led them to the conclusion that attention strengthens, intensifies the process of perception, making it selective. Representatives of English empirical psychology - associationists - did not include attention at all in the system of psychology; for them there was neither a person nor an object, but only ideas and their associations; therefore there was no attention for them.
Attention as the “power of the Ego” in Gestalt psychology.
Gestalt psychology considers objectivity as the main characteristic of psychological processes, which is clearly represented in the phenomenon of isolating a figure or object from the background. The concept of structure (gestalt), reflecting the objective integrity of an object and having an advantage over its elements, constitutes the main core of the concept. The formation of a gestalt is subject to its own laws, such as the grouping of parts in the direction of maximum simplicity, proximity, balance, the tendency of any mental phenomenon to take on a more definite, distinct, complete form, etc.
Gestalt psychologists imagined attention as one force factor influencing the psychological processes of the subject. “Attention is a force emanating from the Ego and directed towards an object (the case of voluntary attention), or a force emanating from the object in the direction of the Ego (the case of involuntary attention),” wrote K. Koffka. Such attention to the process of attention presupposes its consideration as one of the factors included in the process of structuring the phenomenal field.
The human psyche was understood by Gestalt psychologists as an integral phenomenal field (the totality of what is experienced by the subject at a given moment), which has certain properties and structure. The main components of the phenomenal field are figure and ground.
The influence of attention on the threshold for dividing figures was shown experimentally in an experiment by V. Koehler and P. Adams. The subjects were shown a white shield with dots on it. In the case when the distance between the points vertically and horizontally was equal, the shield was perceived as evenly filled with dots. From trial to trial, the horizontal distance remained constant, and the vertical distance gradually decreased. One group was presented only with a shield (attention condition), while the other group was shown cut-out paper figures against the backdrop of a shield, which they had to describe (no attention condition).
After completing the task, subjects were asked whether they saw dots or columns. It turned out that with attention, in order for a scattering of points to begin to be perceived as vertical columns, the vertical distance between the points should become 1.7 times less than the horizontal distance between the points. In the absence of attention, this distance should become three times smaller. In other words, under conditions of attentive perception, the threshold for dismembering the figure becomes significantly lower (the distance between the points at the moment when they are already perceived as “columns should be greater”) than in the case when the shield acts as a background.
Thus, in that part of the field to which attention is directed, the principles of its organization described by Gestalt psychologists (in this case, the principle of proximity) operate with weaker stimulation.
The mystery of human memory is one of the main scientific problems of the 21st century, and it will have to be resolved through the joint efforts of chemists, physicists, biologists, physiologists, mathematicians and representatives of other scientific disciplines. And although we are still far from fully understanding what happens to us when we “remember,” “forget,” and “remember again,” important discoveries in recent years point the right way.
One of the main problems of neurophysiology is the inability to conduct experiments on humans. However, even in primitive animals the basic mechanisms of memory are similar to ours.
Pavel Balaban
Today, even the answer to the basic question—what memory is like in time and space—may consist largely of hypotheses and assumptions. If we talk about space, it is still not very clear how memory is organized and where exactly it is located in the brain. Scientific data suggests that its elements are present everywhere, in every area of our “ gray matter" Moreover, seemingly the same information can be recorded in memory in different places.
For example, it has been found that spatial memory (when we remember a certain environment we saw for the first time - a room, a street, a landscape) is associated with an area of the brain called the hippocampus. When we try to retrieve this setting from our memory, say, ten years later, this memory will already be retrieved from a completely different area. Yes, memory can travel inside the brain, and this thesis is best illustrated by an experiment once conducted with chickens. In the life of newly hatched chicks, imprinting plays a big role - instant learning (and placing it in memory is learning). For example, a chick sees a large moving object and immediately “imprints” it in the brain: this is a mother chicken, you need to follow her. But if after five days the part of the chicken’s brain responsible for imprinting is removed, it turns out that... the memorized skill has not gone away. It has moved to another area, and this proves that there is one store for the immediate results of learning, and another for its long-term storage.
We remember with pleasure
But what is even more surprising is that there is no such clear sequence of moving memory from operative to permanent memory, as happens in a computer, in the brain. Working memory, which records immediate sensations, simultaneously triggers other memory mechanisms - medium-term and long-term. But the brain is an energy-intensive system and therefore tries to optimize the use of its resources, including memory. Therefore, nature has created a multi-stage system. Working memory is quickly formed and destroyed just as quickly - there is a special mechanism for this. But truly important events are recorded for long-term storage, and their importance is emphasized by emotion and attitude to information. At the physiological level, emotion is the activation of the most powerful biochemical modulating systems. These systems release hormone-transmitters that change the biochemistry of memory in the right direction. Among them, for example, are various pleasure hormones, the names of which are reminiscent not so much of neurophysiology as of criminal chronicles: these are morphines, opioids, cannabinoids - that is, narcotic substances produced by our body. In particular, endocannabinoids are generated directly at synapses - the contacts of nerve cells. They influence the effectiveness of these contacts and thus “encourage” the recording of this or that information in memory. Other hormone-transmitter substances can, on the contrary, suppress the process of moving data from working memory to long-term memory.
The mechanisms of emotional, that is, biochemical reinforcement of memory are now being actively studied. The only problem is that laboratory research of this kind can only be carried out on animals, but how much can a laboratory rat tell us about its emotions?
If we have stored something in memory, then sometimes the time comes to recall this information, that is, to retrieve it from memory. But is the right word “extract”? Apparently, not very much. It seems that memory mechanisms do not retrieve information, but regenerate it. There is no information in these mechanisms, just as there is no voice or music in the hardware of a radio receiver. But everything is clear with the receiver - it processes and converts the electromagnetic signal received by the antenna. What kind of “signal” is processed when retrieving memory, where and how this data is stored is still very difficult to say. However, it is already known that when remembering, memory is rewritten, modified, or at least this happens with some types of memory.
Not electricity, but chemistry
In the search for an answer to the question of how memory can be modified or even erased, important discoveries have been made in recent years, and the emergence of whole line works devoted to the “memory molecule”.
In fact, they have been trying to isolate such a molecule, or at least some kind of material carrier of thought and memory, for two hundred years, but without much success. In the end, neuroscientists came to the conclusion that there is nothing specific to memory in the brain: there are 100 billion neurons, there are 10 quadrillion connections between them, and somewhere out there, in this cosmic-scale network, memory, thoughts, and behavior are uniformly encoded. Attempts have been made to block certain chemical substances in the brain, and this led to a change in memory, but also to a change in the entire functioning of the body. It was only in 2006 that the first works appeared on a biochemical system that seems to be very specific to memory. Its blockade did not cause any changes in behavior or learning ability - only the loss of some memory. For example, memory about the situation if the blocker was introduced into the hippocampus. Or about emotional shock if the blocker was injected into the amygdala. The biochemical system discovered is a protein, an enzyme called protein kinase M-zeta, which controls other proteins.
One of the main problems of neurophysiology is the inability to conduct experiments on humans. However, even in primitive animals the basic mechanisms of memory are similar to ours.
The molecule works at the site of synaptic contact - contact between neurons in the brain. There's one thing you need to do here important digression and explain the specifics of these very contacts. The brain is often likened to a computer, and therefore many people think that the connections between neurons, which create all that we call thinking and memory, are purely electrical in nature. But that's not true. The language of synapses is chemistry, here some released molecules, like a key and a lock, interact with other molecules (receptors), and only then begin electrical processes. The efficiency and high throughput of the synapse depends on how many specific receptors are delivered along the nerve cell to the point of contact.
Protein with special properties
Protein kinase M-zeta controls the delivery of receptors across the synapse and thus increases its efficiency. When these molecules are activated simultaneously at tens of thousands of synapses, signals are rerouted, and the overall properties of a certain network of neurons change. All this tells us little about how changes in memory are encoded in this rerouting, but one thing is certain: if protein kinase M-zeta is blocked, the memory will be erased, because those chemical bonds that provide it will not work. The newly discovered memory “molecule” has a number of interesting features.
Firstly, it is capable of self-reproduction. If, as a result of learning (that is, receiving new information), a certain additive is formed in the synapse in the form of a certain amount of protein kinase M-zeta, then this amount can remain there for a very long time, despite the fact that this protein molecule decomposes in three to four days. Somehow, the molecule mobilizes the cell's resources and ensures the synthesis and delivery of new molecules to the site of synaptic contact to replace the ones that have dropped out.
Secondly, to most interesting features Protein kinase M-zeta is blocked. When researchers needed to obtain a substance for experiments on blocking the memory “molecule,” they simply “read” the section of its gene that encodes its own peptide blocker and synthesized it. However, this blocker is never produced by the cell itself, and for what purpose evolution left its code in the genome is unclear.
Third important feature molecule is that both itself and its blocker have an almost identical appearance for all living beings with nervous system. This indicates that, in the form of protein kinase M-zeta, we are dealing with the most ancient adaptation mechanism, on which human memory is also built.
Of course, protein kinase M-zeta is not a “memory molecule” in the sense that past scientists hoped to find it. It is not a material carrier of remembered information, but obviously acts as a key regulator of the effectiveness of connections within the brain and initiates the emergence of new configurations as a result of learning.
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Now experiments with the protein kinase blocker M-zeta have, in a sense, the character of “shooting at squares.” The substance is injected into certain areas of the brain of experimental animals using a very thin needle and thus turns off the memory immediately in large functional blocks. The limits of penetration of the blocker are not always clear, as is its concentration in the area chosen as the target. As a result, not all experiments in this area bring clear results.
A true understanding of the processes occurring in memory can be obtained by working at the level of individual synapses, but this requires targeted delivery of the blocker to the contact between neurons. Today this is impossible, but since science faces such a task, sooner or later the tools to solve it will appear. Particular hopes are placed on optogenetics. It has been established that a cell in which the ability to synthesize a light-sensitive protein has been built in using genetic engineering methods can be controlled using laser beam. And if such manipulations have not yet been carried out at the level of living organisms, something similar is already being done on the basis of grown cell cultures, and the results are very impressive.
Memory– mental cognitive process, which consists in remembering, storing and reproducing information.
Memory functions:
1. Recognition - an object or phenomenon perceived at the moment was perceived in the past.
2. Reproduction is a memory process, as a result of which previously fixed information is updated (revived) in the psyche.
3. Memorization is a memory process aimed at consolidating new information in the psyche by associating it with previously acquired knowledge.
4. Retention is a memory process characterized by retaining received information in memory for a relatively long period of time.
Memory properties:
1. Remember (new information)
2. Remember (information)
3. Recall
4. Play
5. Find out (previously saved information)
6. Save (information)
Types of memory
1. Involuntary memory(information is remembered by itself without
special memorization, and in the course of performing activities, in the course of working on information). Strongly developed in childhood, weakens in adults.
2. Arbitrary memory(information is remembered purposefully with
using special techniques).
3. Short-term memory, which ensures memorization of information presented once for a short time (5-7 minutes), after which the information can be completely forgotten or go into long-term memory
4. Long-term memory ensures long-term storage of information: there are two types: DP with conscious access and DP closed (access during hypnosis, etc.)
5.RAM manifests itself during the performance of any activity, when information from both the CP and DP is stored.
6.Intermediate memory- it is stored, accumulated for several hours, and during night sleep it is released by the body to cleanse intermediate memory and categorize information accumulated over the past day, transferring it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory decrease, and errors appear in speech and actions.
7.Imaginative memory can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory. Most people have the best developed visual and auditory species memory.
8.Mechanical memory allows a person to remember content that he cannot or does not want to comprehend. By resorting to repeated repetition, he seems to imprint the memorized material into the brain structures.
MEMORY PROCESSES. MEMORY DEVELOPMENT. CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL MEMORIZATION.
Basic memory processes- remembering, storing, reproducing, recognizing, remembering and forgetting.
Memorization - this is a memory process through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensations, perceptions, thoughts or experiences are introduced into the system of associative connections.
Memorization can be conscious (purposeful) or unconscious (imprinting and involuntary memorization). Memorization is helped by: 1) a fresh mind (and for this it is important to get enough sleep), 2) the emotional coloring of the event (if desired, any neutral event can be made emotionally vivid), 3) a positive emotional background (learn to rejoice!), desire, desire to remember. At least, when you don’t want to remember, usually nothing is remembered. The best thing to remember is the beginning and the end.
Storage - the process of accumulating material in the memory structure, including its processing and assimilation. Saving experience makes it possible for a person to learn, develop his perceptual (internal assessments, perception of the world) processes, thinking and speech.
Reproduction and recognition - the process of updating elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A simple form of reproduction is recognition - recognizing a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience, establishing similarities between the object and its image in memory. Reproduction can be voluntary or involuntary. With involuntary, the image pops up in the head without a person’s effort.
Forgetting - loss of the ability to reproduce, and sometimes even recognize, what was previously remembered. Most often we forget what is insignificant. Forgetting can be partial (reproduction is incomplete or with an error) and complete (impossibility of reproduction and recognition). There are temporary and long-term forgetting.
Memory needed develop and train. For this use:
Various methods fortifications;
Improvements;
Special training.
The conditions for successful voluntary memorization are:
Awareness of the significance and meaning of the memorized material;
Identification of its structure, logical relationship of parts and elements, semantic and spatial grouping of material;
Identification of the plan in verbal-textual material, supporting words in the content of each part of it, presentation of the material in the form of a diagram, table, diagram, drawing, visual image;
Emotional and aesthetic richness of the material;
Possibility of using this material in the subject’s professional activities;
Setting the need to reproduce this material under certain conditions;
Material, which acts as a means of achieving significant goals, plays a significant role in solving life problems, and acts as an object of active mental activity.
When memorizing material, a rational distribution of it over time and active reproduction of the memorized material are essential.
The long shadow of the past. Memorial culture and historical politics Assman Aleida
Storage and functional memory
If living memories are irretrievably lost with the departure of their bearer, there is a chance for material traces of culture to have a “second life” in institutions outside the previous functional context60. What finds its place in museums, libraries and archives, is collected, stored and cataloged there, gets a chance for an extraordinary extension of its existence. However, the prerequisites and conditions for the emergence of cultural memory are still very incompletely described in this way. After all, cultural memory is created not only retroactively, through the collection and preservation of objects of the past, but also through the purposeful selection and formation of what should be transferred from our days to the future for an indefinite period. To better understand both of these aspects of cultural memory, it is necessary to distinguish in the dynamics of cultural memory between the “cumulative memory” and the “functional memory” of a society. This difference reflects the contradictory structure of memory, in which remembering and forgetting are combined, mutually penetrating each other. After all, much of what we forget is not lost forever, but turns out to be only temporarily inaccessible61. What's in individual memory plunges into the indistinguishability of oblivion, under certain circumstances it can resurface, just as the madeleine cake awakened lyrical hero Proust's memories of the deeply forgotten. Often we call oblivion just a latent memory to which we have lost the password; if it is found by chance, then a piece of a sensually perceptible past unexpectedly returns to us. We can talk about such a return when certain elements that have settled in the cumulative memory are updated in a new way in consciousness, and, on the contrary, it is these preserved elements that form the current thought. In the words of Walter Benjamin, traces of the past, in contact with present thought, generate a state of “readability.” More and more new types of “selective affinity” are emerging between the ongoing present and past eras. The same role that, according to Proust’s definition, “involuntary memory” (“mémoire involontaire”) plays for the individual, the archive or cumulative memory plays for cultural memory: a repository for latent memories whose hour has already passed or has not yet come. Corresponding to Proustian involuntary memory at the cultural level are material relics of past eras, already out of use and not integrated into the present, but still existing somewhere. After all, what at a certain point in time society discards, deprives of its attention and what it neglects is not yet completely lost and forgotten; material traces can be collected and preserved for another era, when they will be rediscovered and reinterpreted.
The difference between cumulative and functional memory can be clearly demonstrated by the example of an art museum, which exhibits a certain set of paintings in its permanent exhibition, fixing it in the minds and memory of visitors; however, the museum storehouses contain a much larger number of works of art from various genres and eras. Such a museum performs two clearly distinguishable functions: firstly, it is a function of value canonWith its orientation reflecting and shaping tastes, and secondly, this is a function of historical archive. Preservation and conservation of things is only one side of cultural memory; its other side consists of strict selection, active evaluation and individual development. Functional memory suffers from a constant lack of space. What gets there - from the canon of biblical texts to the canon of literary classics - undergoes the most severe selection. The “canonization” procedure, which, along with selection, also implies the fixation and auratization of texts or paintings, provides them with a place not only in the passive, but also in the active memory of society. After all, canonization also means accepting transhistorical obligations to continue readings and interpretations again and again. Therefore, despite the dynamics of accelerated innovation, what goes into functional memory remains in programs educational institutions, in the repertoire plans of theaters, in museum halls, in concert or publishing programs. What has taken its place in the functional memory of society lays claim to ever new productions, exhibitions, ever new readings, interpretations, and discussions. Such preservation of cultural artifacts and access to them leads to the fact that some of them do not become alien, completely silent, but are revitalized from generation to generation through contact with changing modernity.
Storage memory also stores only a small part cultural heritage. She, too, is always a product of oblivion; and here the mechanisms of selection, depreciation, destruction and loss are triggered. But it provides much more space and does not make such strict selection, so the storage memory of libraries and archives ends up being filled to the limit. Such fullness of the accumulator, as Montaigne and later Nietzsche noted, is the other side of its emptiness. Conservation and preservation are a necessary prerequisite for cultural memory; however, only individual perception, evaluation and assimilation of stored materials, as occurs through the media, cultural and educational institutions, make it cultural memory. Cumulative memory is an archive of culture, where a certain part of the material traces of the past is stored, which have lost their living and contextual connection with their eras. Visual or verbal documents become mute witnesses of the past because the narratives and memories associated with them are lost. These storage memory contents differ sharply from cultural artifacts stored in functional memory, since the latter are especially protected from the processes of oblivion and alienation. Of course, the institutionally ensured durability of artifacts does not exclude their return to cultural memory. This occurs due to the fact that the border between functional and storage memory is not hermetically impenetrable; this border can be overcome in both directions. Elements of functional memory, which is activated by will and consciousness, constantly go into the archive if interest in them wanes; and from the “passive” storage memory, the discoveries made in it are returned to the functional memory.
The structure of cultural memory is determined by the tense relationship between functional and cumulative memory, between remembering and forgetting, between the conscious and the unconscious, between the explicit and the latent. Such dynamics make cultural memory a much more complex formation, much more changeable and at the same time more heterogeneous, fragile and controversial than national memory, which is oriented towards unity and ambiguity. The purpose of both national and cultural memory is to transfer experience and knowledge from generation to generation, thereby forming long-term social memory. But both types of memory differ in the very forms of their reproduction. If political memory achieves stabilization due to the extreme density of content, high symbolic intensity, collective rituals and normative obligation, then cultural memory is characterized by the necessary diversity of embodiment in texts, visual images, and three-dimensional artifacts. Both types of memory are based on symbolic means, which provide either “durability” through technologies of preservation such as writing and imagery, or “repeatability” through performative technologies that enable renewal such as ritual, participation, and assimilation. Political memory gives preference collective forms assimilation, and for cultural memory, individual ways of accessing it play a central role.
The contents of cultural memory - localized in the form of libraries, collections, sculptures or architectural structures and temporalized in the form of festivals, customs and rituals - need constant interpretation, discussion and updating throughout history, since these contents are absorbed by subsequent generations and must correspond to current needs and challenges modernity. Political memory tends towards unification and instrumentalization, but cultural memory, due to its medial and material properties, resists such a narrowing. The contents of cultural memory cannot be subjected to radical unification. This is not possible with the device of accumulative memory itself, which absorbs precisely that which has lost its actual connections and thereby reveals a historical dimension within itself. The same can be said about functional memory, whose components are fundamentally open to a variety of different interpretations and must be rethought from a variety of different individual perspectives and experiences.
From the book Philosophical Dictionary of Mind, Matter, Morality [fragments] by Russell Bertrand68. Memory True memory, which we must now try to understand, consists in knowledge of past events, but not in all such knowledge. Much of the knowledge of past events, such as what we learn by reading history, is in the same position as
From the book System of Things by Baudrillard Jean From the book Six Systems of Indian Philosophy by Müller Max From the book Book of Jewish Aphorisms by Jean NodarFunctional gesturality of control In its practical experience we feel how the gestural mediation of man and things is thinning. IN household appliances, cars, “gadgets”, heating systems, lighting, information, transport, all that is required from a person is
From the book Consumer Society by Baudrillard JeanFunctional form: lighter All this is indicated by the stylized streamlined “functional” forms; their internal dynamics forms a simulacrum of the lost symbolic correlation; they try to reintroduce expediency into the world with the help of signs. This is
From the book On the Fourfold Root of the Law of Sufficient Reason author Schopenhauer Arthur“FUNCTIONAL” TRANSCENDENCE So, the degree of perfection of a particular machine is constantly presented as directly proportional to the degree of its automation. But to automate a machine, you have to give up many of its operational capabilities. To
From the book Simple Good Life author Kozlov Nikolay IvanovichMEMORY Indian philosophers have not given memory (smriti) the attention it deserves. If it is interpreted as a means of knowledge, then it is brought under the rubric of anubhava, which can be immediate or mediocre, and then it is called smriti. It is assumed that
From the book The Hidden Meaning of Life. Volume 3 author Livraga Jorge Angel154. MEMORY There is no memory of the past; and of what will be there will be no memory left for those who come after. The Bible - Ecclesiastes, 1:11 Blessed is he who remembers what is forgotten. Agnon - From an essay, 1952 If man did not have the ability to forget, he would never leave
From the book The Matrix of the Apocalypse. The last sunset of Europe by Baudrillard JeanFunctional beauty In this long process of sacralization of the body as an exponential value, a functional body, that is, one that is no longer “flesh”, as in the religious vision, nor labor force, as dictated by industrial logic, but taken into its
From the book Leader's Workshop author Meneghetti AntonioThe cult of sincerity and functional tolerance In order to be able to be produced and consumed as material goods, as labor power and in accordance with the same logic, the relation must be “liberated”, “emancipated”, that is, it must be liberated
From the book The Long Shadow of the Past. Memorial culture and historical politics by Assman Aleida§ 45. Memory A feature of the cognizing subject, due to which he obeys the will in the reproduction of ideas, the more often such ideas have already arisen in him, that is, his ability to exercise is memory. I can't agree with the usual understanding
From the author's bookMemory of the past and memory of the future My colleague psychologists, memory researchers, suggest that the reserves of our memory are practically inexhaustible. Our head is enough for us to remember everything and always: that random conversation on the street, and the swaying of every branch of that
From the author's book From the author's bookExcursion: functional calculation of the remainder The social is occupied with eliminating any increase in wealth. If additional wealth were to be put into the process of redistribution, it would inevitably destroy the social order and create an intolerable situation
From the author's book8.4. Utilitarian-functional identity of business Earning money means having the opportunity to realize oneself, to become the main actor(protagonist) of the story, gain independence. According to statistics, consumerism is more common among the poor,
From the author's book“I-memory” and “me-memory” (Günter Grass) “I remember...” - with these words Günter Grass began his speech on October 1, 2000 in Vilnius at the “Lithuanian-German dialogue on the future of memory”169. We returned to Baroque Vilnius to participate in the dialogue at the invitation of the Goethe Institute
Sensory memory is an instant imprint of received sensory information on the peripheral parts of the analyzers. Information gets here through the purposeful process of perceiving the physical characteristics of stimuli, and its volume is essentially equal to the volume of perception. Depending on the modality of the stimulus, the following main types of sensory memory are distinguished: conical - sensory copy visual information and echoic - a sensory copy of acoustic information. In conical memory, information is retained for up to 250 ms; in echoic - up to 1 s. Information in sensory memory is forgotten due to trace fading.
Short-term memory is a memory in which the storage of information is characterized by a limited time and limited volume. The material comes from either sensory or long-term memory: new information comes from sensory; from long-term - information that is remembered. A necessary condition This is achieved by directing a person’s attention to this information and its sensory organization (acoustic, visual or semantic).
The experiments of the American psychologist J. Miller demonstrated a limited amount of short-term memory: 7±2 units, i.e. from 5 to 9 units. However, by recoding information into new structural units, its volume can increase, although the number of these new structural units continues to be 7 ± 2. Thus, the capacity of short-term memory is determined not so much by the number of individual objects, but by the number of well-integrated groups of objects. This volume tends to increase from childhood to adulthood (if in childhood it is 4-5 units, then in an adult it is 7-8). It can also be different for different modalities in one person, depending on the dominance of one or another type of memory.
In short-term memory, information is stored for a very short time: up to 30 seconds, therefore, it is characteristic of that stage of memorization when traces of stimuli are just being formed. However, in general the material needs to be held for more than a few seconds and should therefore be repeated “to oneself”. Mechanical repetition ensures the repeated entry of information into short-term memory. An important condition in this case is that the volume of material that is repeated does not exceed the memory capacity (7±2 units). If the repetition is meaningful, the material is recoded into a semantic code and goes into long-term memory.
Forgetting information in short-term memory occurs as a result of three reasons: repression (when the volume is full, new information partially erases the old), interference (one information is mixed with another) or extinction (if the material is not repeated, the intensity of the image decreases every moment). The loss of information may be irreversible, i.e. it does not move into long-term memory, but simply disappears.
Short-term memory plays a significant role in human life. Thanks to it, a significant amount of information is processed, unnecessary information is eliminated, and as a result, long-term memory is not overloaded. Without it, the normal functioning of long-term memory is impossible, because it acts as a kind of filter on the way to it, letting through only the necessary, selected information.
At the turn of the 50-60s of the XX century. Researchers' attention has been drawn to operational transformations that can occur in short-term memory while a person performs cognitive tasks, for example, during thinking. This type of memory is called operational memory. Working memory is a type of memory that ensures that a person directly carries out current actions and operations. It allows you to save information for the time necessary to solve certain problems. While this working material is functioning, it constitutes the content of working memory, which combines information from short- and long-term memory. For example, when performing complex mathematical operations, we store some intermediate results in memory as long as we operate with them. In the process of moving towards the final result, these parts may be forgotten. RAM, like short-term memory, has a limited volume (7±2 units); The storage time of information is determined solely by the task facing a person and, as a rule, ranges from several seconds to several minutes. Information that is unnecessary or necessary for further work is quickly erased from it. Timely forgetting avoids errors associated with the use of outdated information and frees up space for storing new data. So, according to its characteristics RAM occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.
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