The problems of the modern raw material strategy of oil exporters are by no means limited to investment policy, but persist in other related areas, the most important of which continues to include supply optimal volumes exports and, accordingly, foreign exchange earnings, as well as pricing. All these questions are of particular interest, since their analysis allows us to approach the solution of more common problems- the essence of OPEC, the mechanism of interaction between its participants - which continue to be the subject of a long and fairly lively discussion among researchers, especially during the decade that has passed since the first aggravation of the energy crisis in the world capitalist economy. The energy and raw materials sector of Libya and Algeria, as well as this group of industries in other OPEC member countries, is characterized by an extremely high export quota. Digital values this indicator in relation to the main sub-

In order to curb the development of the noted processes in order to preserve the role of oil, natural gas and their products as long as possible as a major source of export income, a number of OPEC members, including Algeria and Libya, are developing and are already beginning to implement programs for saving the most scarce types of hydrocarbon raw materials and switching to alternative energy resources. Libya is building a nuclear power plant with the assistance of the USSR, Algeria intends to develop solar energy. It is still difficult to judge how successful these events will be. For example, the ADR intends to slow down the decline in the export quota in general production primary energy from 8.5% for 1970-1979. (when it decreased from the initial level of 93.5 to 85%) to 5.2% during 1979-1990, in order to reserve 79.8% of annual production for supplies abroad by the end of the forecast period and expand the physical volume of the latter more than 78 million tons annually in terms of oil equivalent (calculated by ). Further growth in the export of natural gas should be of decisive importance for the implementation of these plans. It would make it possible to compensate for the absolute and relative decrease in the foreign trade potential of the oil industry, which by the early 90s is unlikely to significantly exceed half of the limited capacity for the production of liquid hydrocarbons (see Appendix, Table 4).

Export quota Libya ANDR 59.9 21.4 53.4 34.2 59.0 34.2

By the end of the 1970s, disagreements between these three groups of countries over the distribution of total production, the size of export quotas, pricing policies and revenues increased. The weakening position of OPEC in the global oil market contributed to the strengthening of these disagreements. OPEC has lost its power

After a shock price drop in 1986, OPEC countries tried to regain control of the market by introducing export quotas and reducing oil production. Prices rose again, especially in 1989. However, this OPEC success turned out to be temporary. In the 70s, OPEC accounted for half of world oil production, and in 1985 it accounted for less than 31%. With such a low share of the world market, export quotas no longer affect its condition. OPEC's ability to support high level world oil prices have been exhausted. The reduction in production by OPEC countries led to the fact that the resulting gap was immediately filled by other countries. IEA countries, moreover, could maneuver their commercial and (less often) strategic oil reserves. The main concern of all OPEC countries in these conditions was to maintain their share of sales on the world market, and to ensure that this share was not taken over by other countries.

IN last decades long-term trends in international trade in goods have been determined. First of all, these are unprecedentedly high growth rates, unparalleled in the entire history of the world market. For 1913-1938 the physical volume (i.e. at constant prices) of exports increased by 20%, and in 1950-1998. increased more than 7 times. In the 50-90s of the XX century. world trade turnover expanded 1.5-2.0 times faster than real GDP. As a result, a growing portion of production is mediated by international exchange. The economic openness of countries is increasing, i.e. the economy's export quota increases - the share of countries' products going to the foreign market, and the import quota - the share of domestic consumption of goods covered by imports. In 1938, the average world export quota was 9.9%, in 1958 - 10.9, in 1997 - 22.1%.

The largest debtors include states with high economic potential. Therefore, the size of external debt does not indicate much. To assess solvency, it is necessary to have an idea of ​​the economic situation in the country, which ultimately determines solvency. The achieved level of economic development, measured by GDP in absolute terms and per capita, is of decisive importance. But since debt service payments are usually made in foreign currency, countries with a developed export sector of the economy are in a better position. The degree of a country's participation in the international division of labor is determined by the export quota (the ratio of exports to GDP). Solvency depends on the growth rate of GDP and exports. If they exceed the rate of increase in external debt, then the country's solvency will strengthen even with the rapid growth of debt.

Fee for participation in competitions, auctions, for issuing licenses and export quotas

The fourth feature of the conjuncture is that, despite its exceptional inconsistency, it represents a unity of opposites that develop in the process of reproduction of social capital. The universal connection between the elements of the market situation is visible from the analysis of international commodity markets. For example, at the end of January 1998, the complication of the political conflict in Iraq and the threat of US military action led to an increase in oil prices. This, in turn, increased the demand for oil from other countries Asian region, but after the Saudi Arabian Oil Minister announced his reluctance to reduce export quotas, oil prices fell.

EXPORT QUOTA - a set volume of production and export supplies of certain goods. Typically, quotas are set by international trade agreements and bilateral agreements.

Introduced on July 1, 1992 new order export of strategically important raw materials - oil, gas, petroleum products, other energy resources, metals. Previously, due to the incompetence of exporters, these goods were sold abroad much cheaper than world market prices. Now the export of such raw materials will be carried out only by enterprises registered with the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation and having special permission. The allocated export quotas will be sold at auctions.

In the early 1980s, the American auto industry, with the support of its workers, successfully lobbied for a quota on Japanese car imports. The Japanese government, in turn, distributed this quota among car manufacturers. The limited supply of Japanese cars in the American market allowed Japanese manufacturers to increase their prices and therefore their profits. American import quotas effectively provided Japanese automakers with a cartel-type arrangement that increased their profits. When American import quotas were eliminated in the mid-1980s, the Japanese government replaced them with its own system of export quotas for Japanese automakers. (Key question 7.)

To determine the degree of internationalization of economic activity, a special indicator is used - the export production quota. It records the share of products produced for export

As for our country, its export quota (when recalculated on the basis of the official ruble exchange rate) increased from 4% in 1991 to 20% in 1996. But this happened mainly due to an almost twofold reduction in GDP. It is also important to note that the volume of Russian raw material exports (oil, gas, timber, metals, diamonds) depends entirely on the state of the world market, and the possibilities for its expansion are practically exhausted.

The world export quota has increased noticeably (20% in 1997). This figure averages 27% for developed countries and 12% for developing countries.

First of all, these are indicators of participation in world trade. Thus, the export quota is often calculated, i.e. the ratio of exports to the country's GDP. This indicator cannot be interpreted as the share of exports in the entire volume of GDP, because exports are taken into account at the prices of exported goods and services, and GDP - only at value added. Nevertheless, the size of the export quota indicates the importance of exports for the national economy. Often the export quota is calculated only on exported goods

Although the level of internationalization of national economies is growing, this process is not straightforward. Thus, the level of export quota that existed in the United States in the first two decades of the 20th century was restored only in the 70-80s. The ratio between the export of capital and domestic capital investment in the leading countries of Western Europe that existed during this period has not yet been achieved and is unlikely to be surpassed (for example, on the eve of the First World War, Great Britain exported more capital than it invested at home). In addition, the process of internationalization proceeds at different speeds in different regions. It is probably most intense now in the most dynamic regions of the world - East and Southeast Asia.

The export quota in countries with approximately the same level of economic development differs markedly in Japan - 10%, Germany - 25 and Nah - 55%. How can these differences be explained?

The progressive development of MRI leads to an increase in the role of the external sphere in modern economy. This is manifested primarily in the rapid expansion of the traditional form of foreign economic activity - trade, which is reflected in a fairly rapid growth of the export quota. It rose from 10.9% in 1970 to 14% of the world's GDP in 1990.

Thus, according to the latest data, the volume of exports of goods and services of the EMU countries amounted to 17.1% of their total GDP, while the export quota in Japan and the USA was 11.6 and 11.0%, respectively. Eurozone countries' imports account for about 15% of their GDP, while the US import quota was 13% and Japan's 10%.

The export quota covers a list of goods whose export is carried out with restrictions in accordance with the international obligations of the Russian Federation.

What purposes do import and export quotas serve?

By the end of the last decade, the countries studied exported from 90% (Algeria) to 96% (Libya) of the total physical volume of production of these products. The parameters of two more African oil exporters - Nigeria and Gabon, as well as one Middle Eastern state - Iraq fit into the same interval. A higher (over 97-98%) export quota was observed only in four Arabian oil monarchies (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE and Qatar). The performance of the other four OPEC members was noticeably lower. The weighted average level for all members of the organization taken together was determined to be 93%. By the beginning of the 90s, most experts predict a significant decrease. For example, according to the forecasts of the American researcher F. Fesharaki, the latter could reach about 20%.

In the current situation, which is aggravated by the protracted Iran-Iraq conflict, OPEC participants are finding it increasingly difficult to coordinate their interests and actions. At the same time, the largest oil exporter, Saudi Arabia, is making increasingly active attempts to introduce into this organization the same power principle that is characteristic of classic monopolistic groups. Thus, the resolution of the emergency London OPEC conference, adopted on March 14, 1983, formally assigned to the Arabian kingdom the role of a kind of arbiter, which it had actually assigned earlier thanks to the downturn in market conditions that began in 1981 liquid fuel. The key position is ensured by the fact that, unlike all other participants in the organization, which were allocated clearly limited export quotas, no production ceiling was set for this country. It was supposed to regulate Saudi oil production and exports depending on the dynamics of the market situation. The latter, apparently, is subject to individual assessment by the given state.

Immediately after the September 1969 revolution in Libya, profound changes in economic and social policy followed. However, changes occurred primarily in its goals, methods and social orientation, to a much lesser extent affecting the tools and base, which during the 60s managed to gain very strong inertia. First of all, preserved open type Libyan economy, which has become almost an integral feature of small oil-exporting countries, but is also characteristic, although to a somewhat lesser extent, of much larger states such as Algeria. Reproductive processes and, first of all, the conditions for the sale of the main part of the gross product for them continue to be largely determined by factors of the world capitalist market, as evidenced by the data in Table. 9 about the export quota in GDP production and the import quota in consumption.

The growth of economic efficiency, as is known, is based on the division of labor, both within national boundaries and on a global scale. By many indicators, the degree of internationalization of the world economy at the beginning of the century was quite high. Foreign trade quota (export plus import to GDP) at the beginning of the 20th century. in general it was 20-30%. For some countries it was noticeably higher. Thus, the export quota of British industry in 1912 was 40%, and annual British investments abroad before the First World War on average exceeded domestic ones by 3-4 times1. The export quota in the colonies and dependent territories was high, even without taking into account the reduced export prices, which makes it difficult to compare this indicator with modern levels.

In order to reasonably judge the degree of involvement of a country’s resources in the process of the international division of labor, it is necessary, along with the concentration of production, to use information about the development of foreign trade between this country and other participants in the MRI. It is the data on the state of foreign trade that show that the gross domestic product in individual countries is spent not only to satisfy domestic needs, but is also sold on the world market. The question of which side of foreign trade should be taken for analysis - exports, imports or trade turnover as a whole - depends on the specific goals of the study. It seems that when considering the degree of involvement of all the country’s resources in the process of the international division of labor, or, in other words, measuring the foreign trade intensity of countries, all these parameters can be used, although their meanings are different.

In world practice, two types of indicators are used to measure the foreign trade intensity of countries: the volume of foreign trade (or exports or imports separately) per capita of the country and the ratio of exports (or imports, or foreign trade turnover separately) to the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country.

1) volume of exports, imports or foreign trade turnover per capita:

where E d - export per capita;

I d - import per capita;

ZTO d - foreign trade turnover per capita;

E is the value of national exports for the year;

I is the cost of national imports for the year;

ZTO - foreign trade turnover of the country for the year (E + I);

H is the population of the country for the corresponding year.

These indicators are widely used in international comparisons.

Export quota

In international comparisons, the export quota is used not only to characterize the level of intensity of a country's foreign trade, but also to assess the level of openness of the national economy and participation in the international division of labor.

It is calculated using the formula:

where E is the country’s annual export volume;

The export quota has important analytical significance. Firstly, it indicates the degree of dependence of the production of the national economy on the sale of its goods in the markets of other countries. Secondly, the share of exports in gross domestic product shows the ability of a given country to produce a certain amount of products for sale on the world market.

3) import quota the share of imports in a country's gross domestic product also characterizes the country's level of dependence on imports of goods and services. It is calculated using the formula:

de K i - import quota;

I is the country’s annual import volume;

GDP is the country's gross domestic product for the same period.

The import quota can be compared with the export quota and thus establish the relationship between exports and imports. They may be equal, but most often these values ​​do not coincide.

4) foreign trade quota:

This quota is calculated using the formula:

de K zt - foreign trade quota;

E, I - the annual volume, respectively, of the country’s exports and imports;

GDP is the country's gross domestic product for the same period.

The foreign trade quota shows the total volume of foreign trade turnover of a given country with a partner country or with the entire world community, but does not give its qualitative characteristics.

In practice, none of these intensity indicators has independent significance for assessing the level of trade intensity of countries. At the same time, between the level of foreign trade intensity of countries and the level of their economic development there is a close connection. Based on the level of foreign trade intensity of a country, one can determine the nature and functions of foreign trade:

Short- the minimum level of imports necessary for the functioning of the economy; exports can only cover critical imports depending on the state of the world market and prices on it.

Average- imports satisfactorily cover not only basic needs, but also allow the purchase of products with a sufficiently high technical level, but without establishing broad international production cooperation; exchange of simple goods for more complex ones mainly on an unequal basis.

High- developed industrial cooperation, high share of components, units, etc. in exchange; foreign trade influences the economy, shaping its structure and increasing efficiency.

5) level of intra-industry exchange in international trade. Intra-industry trade reflects parallel exports and imports of products of the same industry of a given country (or group of countries) over a certain period of time (usually a year). Intra-industry trade indicators are calculated using the Grubel-Lloyd method.

The level of intra-industry trade is defined as the difference between the total turnover of a given industry and the volume of inter-industry trade of this industry:

de H i- level of intra-industry trade;

E i,I i- respectively, exports and imports of the industry " i»;

(E i+ I i) - the cost of foreign trade turnover of the industry " i»;

| E i–I i |- the absolute value of the difference between exports and imports of products of a given industry is equal to the volume of interindustry trade in the industry “ і ».

5. Indicators of economic efficiency of export and import. The calculation of economic efficiency is carried out by comparing the achieved economic result (effect) with the expenditure of resources to obtain this effect. Economic results and resource costs have a quantitative dimension, and therefore economic efficiency can be measured quantitatively.

Each level of assessment corresponds to its own type of economic interests and its own efficiency criterion. Thus, at the macroeconomic (national economic) level, the economic efficiency of foreign trade is understood as the degree of national labor savings achieved by a country as a result of its participation in the international division of labor and foreign trade exchange. The criterion of economic efficiency in this case is the saving of national labor, as additional source growth of gross domestic product and other economic and social macro indicators. And at the level of enterprises and other economic entities, the economic efficiency of foreign trade operations is understood as the degree of increase in income from these operations. The criterion for economic efficiency here is profit as the main measure of efficiency.

· macroeconomic indicator of the effectiveness of foreign trade turnover:

where E is the efficiency of foreign trade turnover;

B I - cost savings as a result of imports;

B E - national expenditures on exports.

For the national economy as a whole, it is important that national export costs (B E) are less than the amount of cost savings resulting from imports (B i). Only in this case does the country save national work by participating in international trade.

2) macroeconomic indicator of export efficiency:

where E E is the efficiency of national exports;

V E - foreign exchange earnings from the export of goods and services;

B E - national expenditures on exports.

6. macroeconomic indicator of import efficiency:

where E i is the efficiency of national imports;

B i - cost savings as a result of imports;

V i - foreign exchange costs for imports.

The scope of use of these macroeconomic indicators is only analytical macroeconomic calculations for the purpose of developing and justifying possible options trade and political events aimed at realizing state interests in the development of foreign trading activities countries.

6. Dynamics indicators reflect trends and rate of change in indicators international trade for a certain time. This relative values, which are calculated using statistical methods:

1) growth rate indicators:

· export growth rate

T r.e. = E o.g. / E b.g. * 100%,

where T r.e. – export growth rate;

E o.g. – volume of exports in the reporting year;

E b.g. – volume of exports in the base year.

· import growth rate

Three. = I o.g. / I b.g. * 100%,

de T r.i. – import growth rate;

I o.g. – volume of imports in the reporting year;

I b.g. – volume of imports in the base year.

· growth rate of foreign trade turnover

T r.v.v. = WTO o.g. / WTO b.g. * 100%,

where T r.v.v. – growth rate of foreign trade turnover

WTO o.g. – volume of foreign trade turnover for the reporting year;

WTO b.g. – volume of foreign trade turnover for the base year.

The growth (decrease) rate indicator is used to assess trends in international trade volumes over a period of time. Growth rates are presented as a percentage for the period being studied and demonstrate trends in the overall dynamics of growth or decline in indicators, allowing us to determine the amount by which these changes have occurred over time.

· growth rate indicators:

– export growth rate

T e.g. = (E o.g - E bg.) / E bg. * 100%, or T ex.e. = T r.e. - 100%,

de T pr.e. – export growth rate;

Тр.е – export growth rate for the reporting year;

E og – export volume in the reporting year;

E bg. – volume of exports in the base year.

– import growth rate

6) growth rate of foreign trade turnover

similar to the export growth rate

Indicators of growth (decrease) rates are used to assess the rate of change in indicators of the level of international trade per unit time of the study period. Growth rates are presented as percentages and show the amount of increase or decrease in international trade.

3.4. Pricing in international trade.

The national value of goods in each country is determined on the basis of the level of socially necessary labor costs for the production of these goods. When carrying out international trade, national labor acts as a share of total labor in the world economy. Therefore, international trade is based on international value of a product, which is determined socially necessary time for its production under world average socially normal production conditions.

Price- this is the amount of money that the seller expects to receive by offering a product or service, and that the buyer is willing to pay for this product or service.

Prices for goods and services on the world market are set under the influence of certain factors :

1. General economic factors- act regardless of the type of product and the specific conditions of its production and sale:

· economic cycle;

· the state of aggregate supply and demand;

· inflation.

2. Specific economic factors– are determined by the characteristics of this product, the conditions of its production and sale:

· expenses;

· profit;

· taxes and fees;

· supply and demand for this product or service, taking into account interchangeability;

· consumer properties (quality, reliability, appearance, prestige).

3. Specific factors– valid only for certain types of goods and services:

· seasonality;

· operating costs;

· completeness;

· guarantees and conditions of service.

4. External economic factors- related to the action of foreign economic instruments:

· government regulation;

· exchange rate.

5.Special factors– are associated with the action of special mechanisms:

· political;

· military.

On the world market, different national prices for goods are compared, and world price is formed under the influence of those national prices, which are based on the world average socially necessary production costs on a global scale, that is, as the international price of production. World prices vary depending on the time of year, location, conditions of sale of goods, and the specifics of the contract.

In practice, world prices are taken to be the prices of significant, systematic and stable export or import contracts that are concluded in certain centers of world trade by well-known firms - exporters or importers of the relevant types of goods. For many commodities (cereals, rubber, cotton, cocoa beans, etc.), world prices are set through transactions on the world's largest commodity exchanges.

In the global market, the pricing process has its own peculiarities, associated with the fact that participants in international trade face more competitors in the market than in the domestic market. Therefore, they must constantly work in the mode of comparing their production costs not only with domestic market prices, but also with world ones.

The world market is characterized by a plurality of prices, which is explained by the influence of various commercial, trade and political factors.

Protecting its own markets is important for every state. To implement such protection, they use different methods. They are aimed at preventing foreign producers from flooding the market and giving domestic producers the opportunity to work. At the same time, it is not profitable for the state to export too much Russian “goods”; in this case, an export quota is applied. In addition, the indicator of import, export and foreign trade quotas makes it possible to assess the degree of openness of the country's economy.

There are the following purposes for using quotas:

1. Deficit reduction specific type product on the market. At the same time, import supplies are replaced with national goods.
2. Saturation of domestic markets with goods that are not produced in Russia or their quantity is too limited.
3. Exception negative impact imported goods on the country's economy, health and life of citizens.
4. How to fulfill international obligations.

For a country, such restrictions ensure that imports do not exceed the government-adopted limit. At the same time, the foreign manufacturer will not be able to reduce the price in order to increase sales volume.

Also quotas are more flexible tool regulation, because there is no need to go through a lengthy procedure for acceptance into legislative bodies. At the same time, foreign trade policy becomes more selective, since through the issuance of a certain volume of licenses the state manages to provide support to certain areas of the domestic economy and even individual enterprises.

The essence and types of quotas

Quotas are an opportunity to allocate a certain part, which has a certain effect on participation in a joint business. If we apply it to the economy, then it makes it possible to regulate the relations between participants in the economy. activities within the country. The main purpose of the export quota and import quota is to limit quantitative indicators:

• Production.
• Consumption.
• Sales.
• Export or import.

Quotas are not introduced on a permanent basis, but for a certain period. Once the goal is achieved, the restrictions are removed.

These restrictions are different, there are the following types:

1. Group. They impose restrictions on several states that supply imported goods to the market.
2. Global, such import quotas apply to specific goods, without regard to the country of origin.
3. Anti-dumping. They determine the size of imports regarding a specific country.
4. Compensatory. They impose restrictions on the volumes of goods imported into the country.
5. Proportional. When using them, the volume of goods is redistributed between supplying countries in proportion to their share in imports in the previous period.
6. Seasonal. Their introduction is associated with the peak production volume in the importing country, that is, at the moment when the price is most favorable.
7. Tariffs. The import of a certain volume of goods during a specific period is allowed. In this case, reduced duty rates are used.
8. Double sided. Increased quotas are granted to the country that undertakes reciprocal obligations to import goods from Russia.

It is worth understanding that there is a difference between a quota and a tariff. The main thing is that they have different contents of the redistribution effect, in different strengths of restrictions that they impose on imports.

Consideration of import quotas

An import quota is a restriction that applies to goods that are imported into a country. It is typical for international trade relations; control over its implementation rests with Customs. Used to protect the interests of its own producers. The value of the quota is determined by the Government of the country. At the same time, indicators of competitiveness and influence on entrepreneurs in the country are taken into account.

To calculate the import quota, a formula is used that includes the following parameters:

• Share of a country's imports.
• Gross domestic product.

Import quota = (import to in monetary terms/ country's GDP) *100%

The calculated indicator confirms the importance of domestic consumption and production.

There are goods for which they have preemptive right Sales only to exporting countries. These include: sugar, equipment for the army, etc. Licensing is used to document the process. The number of licenses is limited and they are issued to a specific entrepreneur.

Import quotas are the ratio of the imported product to its cost parameter. The period for which it is often set is 1 year. It is determined for each state from which imports come separately and only after a thorough analysis and consultation with specialists. When calculating, the interests of both parties to the transaction must be taken into account. The actual value of the quota is determined taking into account the volume of the consignment of goods that is imported.

Features of import duties

Import quotas limited the possibilities for filling state budget. The income is transferred in full to the entrepreneur who purchased the license. At the same time, those who have a license have the exclusive right to:

• Purchase of goods.
• Sales on the domestic market.
• Request a price, which is often higher than the purchase price.

Import quotas affect, among other things, every citizen of the country. After all, what exactly and in what volumes will be released to the market determines what residents of the Russian Federation will be able to consume.

Export quotas

An export quota is a certain volume of production of certain goods and their supply for export. They are established separately for each product in each country, including Russia. Often, export quotas are adopted taking into account international trade agreements. To put it simply, an export quota is the maximum volume of a particular product that is allowed to be exported outside the country within one year.

This parameter is quantitative and demonstrates the importance of exporting a particular type of product or product for the country’s economy and individual industries. These restrictions are also calculated for a certain period.

For participants, this option has important. There is even a separate item called “quota” and it is required to be filled out when crossing the border with goods.

The Russian export quota 2018 is established only for those goods that have strategic importance for the economy. This is how they exist for food products. At the same time, import restrictions are formed in relation to agricultural products and aquatic and biological resources. This is necessary in order to speed up the sale of similar domestic goods and thereby support their manufacturers.

The export quota indicator indicates the degree of connection of a particular product with the world market, that is, its competitiveness. A striking example: poor countries supply mainly one type of product/raw material to the international market, and they will be indicated in the calculation data as active participants in international trade. If we talk about developed countries that actively export many goods High Quality, then as a result of calculations they will be presented as countries with limited connections with external markets. This is easy to explain - many goods from developed countries are consumed on the domestic market, which cannot be said about the poor.

That is, the export quota indicator determines the welfare and quality of goods produced in the country.

Calculation

The export quota is determined separately for each type of product or product. This takes into account:

• Total production volume.
• The volume of goods exported abroad over a certain period of time.

The calculation result is presented as a percentage ratio of one indicator to the second.

When using the formula for calculating the export quota, the following are taken into account: the list of goods, its parameters, the percentage of the volume that is allowed for export with the same indicators relative to national production.

All quota parameters are specified in the license, which can be obtained from government agencies of the Russian Federation. This document helps regulate the import and export of goods.

The essence of voluntary export restrictions

The introduction of voluntary export quota restrictions is one of the methods of non-tariff regulation of foreign trade. The essence of the procedure is the conclusion of an agreement between the exporting country (Russia) and the importing country (any other country in the world) to restrict the import of a certain product. That is, it actually sets a quota on it. Voluntary export quotas have a certain procedure that is followed by participants in foreign trade activities, more specifically:

1. An intergovernmental agreement is concluded at the official level.
2. Producers and consumers from the two countries negotiate informally.
3. Next, a multilateral interstate agreement is drawn up and signed, its main purpose is to approve a voluntary export restriction.

As a result, voluntary export restrictions ensure that the interests of producers in one country and consumers in another are respected.

What do export quotas mean?

Control over imported and exported products and supply volumes helps maintain a harmonious industrial structure within the country. The main point is the protection of producers who may cease to exist altogether in the presence of unequal competition. As a result, profitability increases in areas of production where quotas were applied. The increase in the export quota reflects the increased level of competitiveness of specialized products on the international market.

If quotas were not used in a particular industry, this entails:

• Competitive pressure.
• Additional expenses. They are reimbursed at the expense of the consumer, that is, the manufacturer increases the price.

As a result, products from domestic manufacturer will cost more than similar imported ones.

Application of quotas: advantages and disadvantages

Quotas are a convenient restrictive and regulatory instrument of the country's foreign trade policy. Moreover, such restrictions are flexible and progressive in nature when compared with tariff methods. Thus, the latter are formed in accordance with laws and international agreements.

As for export and import quotas, they do not allow prices to be reduced due to increased sales volumes. As a result, the state helps its own producers and certain industries.

Other advantages include:

1. A convenient regulatory tool in economic relations between countries.
2. A tool for exerting direct or indirect pressure on other countries.
3. Option for regulating interstate trade relations.
4. They guarantee the safety of domestic producers.
5. Prevent depletion of mineral resources.
6. Maintains the state's balance of payments.

As for the shortcomings, they are felt to a greater extent by the consumer; this applies, among other things, to voluntary export restrictions. Specific disadvantages:

• An artificial shortage of products is created.
• The price of goods from national producers is rising.
• The range of product selection is narrowing.

Another negative result is the inhibition of the development of free competitive relations in the sales market.

Conclusion

Quotas have proven to be an effective tool for non-tariff regulation and influence on other countries. But still, the main task of introducing both export and import quotas is to protect our own producers and resources that are extracted within the country.

Video: Determining the degree of openness of a country's economy

An open economy is considered to be a country where most markets, spheres and sectors of the economy have free access to foreign entities. In recent decades, as a result of changes in the global economy, most countries have become open economies.

The most important indicators of the openness of the economy are participation in (the specific value of exports and imports in production, the size of the foreign trade quota), as well as the relative weight of foreign investments relative to domestic ones. Absolute indicators include, for example, the value of exports of goods (services) in monetary terms per capita. In the USA this figure is more than $3,200, in Russia it is about $700.

Given the open nature of the world economy, the state regulates development with the help of the so-called. tariff and non-tariff barriers. Tariffs include increases in size on imported goods. In 1948, between the member countries of the World War trade organization an agreement was concluded, from the beginning of which to the present day the level of customs duties has decreased on average from 40% to 5-7%. Currently, the leverage is mainly through non-tariff methods.

What it is? First of all - quotas. A foreign trade quota is a restriction imposed on the export or import of goods based on their quantity or total value. Quotas are set for a specific period and can be both general (for government needs) and special:

Natural, bearing restrictions due to capacity, for example, oil pipelines or port terminals;

Exceptional (introduced in emergency cases to protect the domestic market and ensure national security);

Tariff (limiting the number of goods imported at reduced rates or duty-free. Goods imported in excess of the established limit are subject to duty at the full rate);

Export and import.

An export quota is a limited volume of export supplies of a particular product. It is usually introduced in countries specializing in the export of specific raw materials as a measure of price stabilization. Thus, the export quota is a quantitative indicator characterizing the significance for National economy export of a certain type of product or raw material. It is calculated for a certain period as a percentage of the volume of exported products (in quantitative or value terms) to the value of domestic production.

In voluntary export restrictions, the export quota is usually established through a bilateral agreement or international agreement.

Such an agreement may determine each country's share in the export of a specific product (for example, oil). Also, an export quota can be introduced by the government of the country in order to:

Sufficient filling of the domestic market with this type of product;

Restrictions on exports and stabilization of product prices on the domestic market;

Ensuring balance and protection of national production interests;

Regulating the processes of supply and demand in the domestic market;

Safety natural resources;

In response to discrimination in the trade policies of other countries.

Import quotas avoid dependence on imported supplies in case of stock reduction necessary products(due to climatic or other conditions) and serves as a tool in negotiations on export supplies of national products.

Quotas are a more flexible and progressive instrument of foreign trade policy than changing tariffs, since the latter is established by the country’s legislation and international agreements, and besides, a quota makes it impossible to increase sales by lowering prices. In addition, through quotas, the state can provide support to certain producers and industries.

Licensing of foreign trade can act as part of quotas or as independent instrument impact. A license (permission from government bodies) can be issued to carry out import-export operations or their volume. It is applied for a certain period in relation to goods of general public use and in a number of other cases. In the Russian Federation, the right to export goods under a quota, as well as the import and export of certain goods, is subject to licensing special purpose(military, precious stones and metals, etc.)