Economic deprivation. What is deprivation. Its conditions, types, consequences. Early sensory deprivation

Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin

Aesthetics of verbal creativity

From the compiler

The works of M. Bakhtin, who compiled this book, reflect the entire path of the outstanding scientist: from an early appearance in the press - a brief article in 1919 - to the notes “On the Methodology of the Humanities” (1974) that concluded this path. Most of the works collected here were not published during the author's lifetime; some of them were published posthumously in whole or in part in the journals Questions of Literature, Questions of Philosophy, Literary Studies and in the theoretical yearbook Context; the rest are published for the first time. Almost all materials (with the exception of the article "Art and Responsibility" and fragments from the book "Problems of Dostoevsky's Creativity") are printed from manuscripts preserved in the author's archive.

For more than half a century, M. Bakhtin developed his own range of scientific and philosophical problems, internally interconnected; At the same time, in different periods, the author was mainly interested in certain aspects of this integral and coherent complex of topics and problems.

To understand the aesthetics of M. Bakhtin, the great work of the first half of the 1920s, devoted to the relationship between the author and the hero in aesthetic activity, in the act of artistic creation and the work of art, is essential. The time in which this work was created is, of course, reflected in it, especially in its terminology. But, belonging to its time, this work by M. Bakhtin, like his other works, opened up new problems and new areas of study. The work anticipated the relevance that the author's problem has acquired in modern aesthetics and poetics.

The scientific position of M. Bakhtin in the 1920s was determined in a polemical repulsion from those trends in art history and poetics, to which he gave the generalized name "material aesthetics"; In the closest way, this controversy related to the formal school, a deep criticism of which was deployed in a number of works by M. Bakhtin in the 1920s. This criticism is carried out in the published work about the author and the hero; here it is philosophically deployed as a critique of the reduction of life values to material. Another object of fundamental criticism in this work is the concept of “feeling”, which was influential in the aesthetics of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

M. Bakhtin defines his own field of study here as "the aesthetics of verbal creativity." This capacious formula of the author is taken as the title for this book.

If in the 1920s M. Bakhtin was primarily concerned with questions of general aesthetics, methodology, and philosophy of language, in the 1930s the author turned to questions of historical poetics, especially the poetics of literary genres. At the center of his interests now is the theory of the novel, which has been developed very widely: these developments include such issues as the evolution of the image of a person in literature, time and space as the main coordinates of the artistic picture of the world (chronotope theory), the historical fate of the word in various fields of culture and literary genres (“the word in the novel” is a topic that the author returned to more than once over the years, especially intensively in the 1930s), the deep folklore foundations of the literary image (the study of carnival and the idea of carnivalization of literature).

This edition contains for the first time materials related to great job M. Bakhtin of this time - the unpreserved book "The novel of education and its significance in the history of realism."

In his later studies of the 50s - early 70s, M. Bakhtin re-addresses the leading, cross-cutting themes of his aesthetics of verbal creativity (genres of speech, the problem of text, utterance as the subject of a special philological discipline, called metalinguistics by M. Bakhtin and substantiated precisely in these later works of his , the problem of the author, and finally, the philosophical and methodological foundations of the entire vast sphere of humanitarian and philological thinking). The published materials of this late period of M. Bakhtin's creative activity have their own peculiarity: these are often materials for a large work, the presentation takes on a concise character in places, different topics are intertwined and seem to intersect each other. The laboratory of thought of a great scientist opens up to us. And this is the special interest and value of this kind of "laboratory" materials from the scientific heritage of M. Bakhtin.

The works collected in the book give a picture of the development of the author's thought over decades and at the same time allow one to feel the organic coherence and integrity of the philosophical and scientific work of M. Bakhtin.

Art and responsibility1

A whole is called mechanical if its individual elements are connected only in space and time by an external connection, and are not imbued with an internal unity of meaning. Parts of such a whole, although they lie side by side and touch each other, but in themselves they are alien to each other.

Three areas of human culture - science, art and life - acquire unity only in a person who attaches them to his unity. But this connection can become mechanical, external. Alas, this is often the case. The artist and the person are naively, most often mechanically connected in one person; a person goes into creativity for a while from “everyday excitement” as into another world of “inspiration, sweet sounds and prayers”. What is the result? Art is too boldly self-confident, too pathetic, because it has nothing to answer for life, which, of course, cannot keep up with such art. “Yes, and where we are,” life says, “that is art, and we have worldly prose.”

When a person is in art, he is not in life, and vice versa. There is no unity and interpenetration of the internal in the unity of the individual between them.

What guarantees the internal connection of the elements of personality? Only unity of responsibility. For what I experienced and understood in art, I must answer with my life, so that everything experienced and understood does not remain inactive in it. But with responsibility comes guilt. Not only must life and art bear mutual responsibility, but also guilt for each other. The poet must remember that his poetry is to blame for the vulgar prose of life, and let the man of life know that his undemandingness and the frivolity of his life questions are to blame for the futility of art. The personality must become completely responsible: all its moments must not only fit side by side in the time series of its life, but penetrate each other in the unity of guilt and responsibility.

And there is nothing to justify irresponsibility to refer to "inspiration". The inspiration that ignores life and is itself ignored by life is not an inspiration, but an obsession. The correct, not self-proclaimed meaning of all the old questions about the relationship between art and life, pure art, etc., their true pathos lies only in the fact that both art and life mutually want to facilitate their task, remove their responsibility, for it is easier to create without answering for life. , and it is easier to live, regardless of art.

Art and life are not one, but must become one in me, in the unity of my responsibility.

The architectonically stable and dynamically living relation of the author to the hero must be understood both in its general fundamental basis, and in those various individual features that it takes from this or that author in this or that work. Our task is only to consider this fundamental basis, and then we will only briefly outline the ways and types of its individuation and, finally, we will test our conclusions by analyzing the attitude of the author to the hero in the works of Dostoevsky, Pushkin and others.

We have already said enough about the fact that each moment of the work is given to us in the author's reaction to it, which encompasses both the object and the hero's reaction to it (reaction to reaction); in this sense, the author intones every detail of his hero, every feature of him, every event of his life, every action, his thoughts, feelings, just as in life we value-react to every manifestation of the people around us; but these reactions in life are of a disparate nature, the essence is precisely reactions to individual manifestations, and not to the whole person, all of him; even where we give such a complete definition of the whole person, we define him as a good, evil, good person, an egoist, etc., these definitions express the life-practical position that we take in relation to him, not so much define him as give some prediction of what can and cannot be expected from him, or, finally, these are just random impressions of the whole or a bad empirical generalization; in life we are not interested in the whole person, but only in his individual actions, with which we have to deal in life, in which we are interested in one way or another. As we shall see later, least of all in ourselves we are able and can perceive the given whole of our own personality. In a work of art, on the other hand, the reaction of the author to the individual manifestations of the hero is based on a single reaction to whole the hero, and all his individual manifestations are important for characterizing this whole as moments of it. Specifically aesthetic is this reaction to the whole of the human hero, which collects all cognitive and ethical definitions and evaluations and completes them into a single and unique concretely visual, but also semantic whole. This total reaction to the hero has a principled and productive, creative character. In general, any principled relationship has a creative, productive character. What we in life, in knowledge and in action call a certain object, acquires its definiteness, its face only in our attitude towards it: our attitude determines the object and its structure, but not vice versa; only where the relationship becomes accidental on our part, as it were capricious, when we depart from our principled relationship to things and the world, does the determinateness of the object confront us as something alien and independent and begin to decompose, and we ourselves fall under the domination of the accidental, we lose ourselves. , we also lose the stable certainty of the world.

MM. Bakhtin

AESTHETICS OF VERBAL CREATIVITY

"ART"

Scanning:

Department of Russian Classical Literature and Theoretical Literary Studies, Yelets State University

http://narrativ.boom.ru/library.htm

(Library "Narrativ")

[email protected]

Bakhtin M. M.

Aesthetics of verbal creativity / Comp. S. G. Bocharov; Text prepared. G. S. Bernshtein and L. V. Deryugina; Note. S. S. Averintseva and S. G. Bocharova. - M.: Art, 1979. - 424 p. - (From the history of Soviet aesthetics and art theory).

The collection of selected works by M. M. Bakhtin includes works written in different years: the earliest refers to 1919, the latest - to the beginning of the 1970s. The main themes of the works are art and responsibility, the author and the hero in aesthetic activity and a work of art, time and space in literature, the problem of the text, questions of the methodology of the humanities, etc. Most of the works are published for the first time.

From the compiler … 3
Art and Responsibility … 5
Author and hero in aesthetic activity … 7

The spatial form of the hero ... 22

Temporary integer of the hero (problem inner man- souls) ... 88

The semantic whole of the hero ... 121

Foreword ... 181

From the chapter "Functions of an adventurous plot in the works of Dostoevsky" ... 182

From the chapter "Dialogue with Dostoevsky" ... 184
The novel of education and its significance in the history of realism ... 188

To the historical typology of the novel ... 188

Statement of the problem of the novel of education ... 198

Time and space in the works of Goethe... 204
The problem of speech genres … 237

I. Statement of the problem and definition of speech genres ... 237

II. Statement as a unit of verbal communication. The difference between this unit and the units of the language (words and sentences) ... 245
The problem of text in linguistics, philology and other humanities. The experience of philosophical analysis … 281

To the revision of the book about Dostoevsky … 308
Answer to the question of the editors of the "New World" … 328
From the records of 1970 - 1971 … 336
Towards the methodology of the humanities … 361
Appendix

From lectures on the history of Russian literature.

Vyacheslav Ivanov … 374
Notes … 384

FROM THE COMPILER

For understanding the aesthetics of M. Bakhtin, the great work of the first half of the 1920s, devoted to the relationship between the author and the hero in aesthetic activity, in the act of artistic creation and the work of art, is essential. The time in which this work was created is, of course, reflected in it, especially in its terminology. But, belonging to its time, this work by M. Bakhtin, like his other works, opened up new problems and new areas of study. The work anticipated the relevance that the author's problem has acquired in modern aesthetics and poetics.

The scientific position of M. Bakhtin in the 1920s was determined in a polemical repulsion from those trends in art history and poetics, to which he gave the generalized name "material aesthetics"; this controversy was most closely related to the formal school, a deep criticism of which was deployed in a number of works by M. Bakhtin in the 1920s. This criticism is carried out in the published work about the author and the hero; here it is philosophically deployed as a critique of the reduction of life values to material. Another object of fundamental criticism in this work is the concept of “feeling”, which was influential in the aesthetics of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
3

M. Bakhtin defines his own field of study here as "the aesthetics of verbal creativity." This capacious formula of the author is taken as the title for this book.

If in the 1920s M. Bakhtin was primarily concerned with questions of general aesthetics, methodology, and philosophy of language, then in the 1930s the author turned to questions of historical poetics, especially the poetics of literary genres. At the center of his interests now is the theory of the novel, which has been developed very widely: these developments include such issues as the evolution of the image of a person in literature, time and space as the main coordinates of the artistic picture of the world (chronotope theory), the historical fate of the word in various fields of culture and literary genres (“the word in the novel” is a topic that the author returned to more than once over the years, especially intensively in the 1930s), the deep folklore foundations of the literary image (the study of carnival and the idea of carnivalization of literature).

This edition for the first time publishes materials related to the great work of M. Bakhtin of this time - the lost book "The Novel of Education and its Significance in the History of Realism".

In his later studies of the 1950s and early 1970s, M. Bakhtin revisited the leading, cross-cutting themes of his aesthetics of verbal creativity (genres of speech, the problem of text, utterance as the subject of a special philological discipline, called metalinguistics by M. Bakhtin and justified precisely in these later works, the problem of the author, and finally, the philosophical and methodological foundations of the entire vast sphere of humanitarian and philological thinking). The published materials of this late period of M. Bakhtin's creative activity have their own peculiarity: these are often materials for a large work, the presentation takes on a concise character in places, different topics are intertwined and seem to intersect each other. The laboratory of thought of a great scientist opens up to us. And this is the special interest and value of this kind of "laboratory" materials from the scientific heritage of M. Bakhtin.

When a person is in art, he is not in life, and vice versa. There is no unity and interpenetration of the internal in the unity of the individual between them.

responsible: all her moments should not only fit side by side in the time series of her life, but penetrate each other in the unity of guilt and responsibility.

Art and life are not one, but must become one in me, in the unity of my responsibility.

THE PROBLEM OF THE AUTHOR'S ATTITUDE TO THE HERO
The architectonically stable and dynamically living relation of the author to the hero must be understood both in its general fundamental basis, and in those various individual features that it takes from this or that author in this or that work. Our task is only to consider this fundamental basis, and then we will only briefly outline the ways and types of its individuation and, finally, we will test our conclusions by analyzing the attitude of the author to the hero in the works of Dostoevsky, Pushkin and others.

not the whole person is interested, but only his individual actions, with which we have to deal in life, in which we are interested in one way or another. As we shall see later, least of all in ourselves we are able and can perceive the given whole of our own personality. In a work of art, on the other hand, the reaction of the author to the individual manifestations of the hero is based on a single reaction to whole the hero, and all his individual manifestations are important for characterizing this whole as moments of it. Specifically aesthetic is this reaction to the whole of the human hero, which collects all cognitive and ethical definitions and evaluations and completes them into a single and unique concretely visual, but also semantic whole. This total reaction to the hero has a principled and productive, creative character. In general, any principled relationship has a creative, productive character. What we in life, in knowledge and in action call a certain object, acquires its definiteness, its face only in our attitude towards it: our attitude determines the object and its structure, but not vice versa; only where the relationship becomes accidental on our part, as it were capricious, when we depart from our principled relationship to things and the world, does the determinateness of the object confront us as something alien and independent and begin to decompose, and we ourselves fall under the domination of the accidental, we lose ourselves. , we also lose the stable certainty of the world.

And the author does not immediately find a non-random, creatively principled vision of the hero, his reaction does not immediately become principled and productive, and the whole hero unfolds from a single value relationship: many grimaces, random disguises, false gestures, unexpected actions will be discovered by the hero, depending on those random emotional-volitional reactions, spiritual whims of the author, through the chaos of which he has to work out to his true value setting, until finally his face is formed into a stable, necessary whole. How many veils need to be removed from the face of the closest, apparently well-known person, the veils put on him by our random reactions, relationships and random life situations, in order to see his true and whole face. The struggle of the artist for a definite and stable image of the hero is to no small degree his struggle with himself.
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This process, as a psychological regularity, cannot be directly studied by us, we deal with it only insofar as it is deposited in a work of art, that is, with its ideal, semantic history and its ideal semantic regularity; what were its temporal causes, psychological course - in general, one can only speculate about this, but this does not concern aesthetics.

The author tells us this ideal story only in the work itself, and not in the author's confession, if any, and not in his statements about the process of his creation; all this should be treated with extreme caution for the following reasons: the total reaction, which creates the whole of the object, is actively carried out, but is not experienced as something definite, its definiteness is precisely in the product created by it, that is, in the shaped object; the author reflects the emotional-volitional position of the hero, but not his own position in relation to the hero; he realizes this latter, it is objective, but does not itself become the object of consideration and reflective experience; the author creates, but sees his creation only in the object that he forms, that is, he sees only the emerging product of creativity, and not its internal psychologically determined process. And such are all active creative experiences: they experience their object and themselves in the object, but not the process of their experience; creative work is experienced, but the experience does not hear or see itself, but only the product being created or the object to which it is directed. Therefore, the artist has nothing to say about the process of his creation - he is completely in the created product, and he can only point us to his work; and indeed, we are only there and will look for it. (The technical aspects of creativity, skill are clearly recognized, but again in the subject.) When the artist begins to talk about his work in addition to the created work and in addition to it, he usually replaces his actual creative attitude, which he did not experience in his soul, but was carried out in the work (not experienced by him, but experienced by the hero), by his new and more receptive attitude towards the already created work. When the author created, he experienced only his hero and put all his fundamentally creative attitude towards him into his image; when in his author's confession, as Go-
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gol and Goncharov, begins to talk about his heroes, he expresses his real attitude towards them, already created and defined, conveys the impression that they now make on him as artistic images, and the attitude that he has towards them as living certain people from the point of view of social, moral, etc.; they have already become independent of him, and he himself, the active creator of them, has also become independent of himself - a man, a critic, a psychologist or a moralist. If we take into account all the random factors that determine the statements of the human author about his heroes: criticism, his real worldview, which could change greatly, his desires and claims (Gogol), practical considerations, etc., it becomes quite obvious how unreliable the material must be. give these statements of the author about the process of creating a character. This material has an enormous biographical value, it can also acquire an aesthetic one, but only after it has been illuminated [inaudible] the artistic meaning of the work. The creator-author will help us understand the human author, and only after that his statements about his work will acquire an illuminating and replenishing meaning. Not only the created heroes break away from the process that created them and begin to lead an independent life in the world, but equally the real author-creator of them. In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize the creatively productive nature of the author and his total reaction to the hero: the author is not the bearer of spiritual experience, and his reaction is not a passive feeling and not a receptive perception, the author is the only active formative energy given not in a psychologically conceived consciousness, but in a stable significant cultural product, and its active reaction is given in the structure of the active vision of the hero as a whole, determined by it, in the structure of his image, the rhythm of his discovery, in the intonation structure and in the choice of semantic moments. Only by understanding this fundamental creative total reaction of the author to the hero, by understanding the very principle of seeing the hero, giving birth to him as a whole defined in all his moments, can one introduce a strict order into the formally meaningful definition of the types of the hero, give them an unambiguous meaning and create a non-random systematic classification of them. In this regard, complete chaos still reigns in the aesthetics of verbal creativity, and especially in the history of literature. Mixing
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different points of view, different plans of approach, different principles of evaluation are encountered here at every step. Positive and negative heroes (author's attitude), autobiographical and objective heroes, idealized and realistic, glorification, satire, humor, irony; epic, dramatic, lyrical hero, character, type, character, plot hero, the notorious classification of stage roles: lover (lyrical, dramatic), reasoner, simpleton, etc. - all these classifications and definitions of it are completely unfounded, not ordered in relation to each other, and there is no single principle for their ordering and justification. Usually these classifications are still uncritically crossed with each other. The most serious attempts at a principled approach to the hero are offered by biographical and sociological methods, but even these methods do not have a sufficiently in-depth formal aesthetic understanding of the main creative principle of the relationship between the hero and the author, replacing it with passive and transgredient psychological and social relations and factors that are transgredient to the creative consciousness: the hero and the author turn out to be not moments of an artistic work as a whole, but moments of a prosaically understood unity of psychological and social life.

The most common occurrence, even in a serious and conscientious historical and literary work, is to draw biographical material from works and, conversely, to explain this work by biography, and purely factual justifications seem to be completely sufficient, that is, simply the coincidence of the facts of the life of the hero and the author, samples are made that claim to have some meaning, the whole of the hero and the whole of the author are completely ignored; and consequently, the most essential moment is also ignored - the form of attitude to the event, the form of its experience in the whole of life and the world. Such factual comparisons and mutual explanations of the worldview of the hero and the author seem especially wild: the abstract-content side of a separate thought is compared with the corresponding thought of the hero. Thus, Griboyedov's socio-political statements are compared with the corresponding statements of Chatsky and they assert the identity or closeness of their socio-political worldview; the views of Tolstoy and the views of Levin. As we shall see below, there can be no question of a strictly theoretical
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the consent of the author and the hero, here the relationship is of a completely different order; everywhere here they ignore the fundamental diversity of the whole hero and author, the very form of the relationship to thought and even to the theoretical whole of the worldview. Quite often they even begin to argue with the hero as with the author, as if with

The main theme of our work is time-space and the image of a person in the novel. Our criterion is the development of real historical time and historical man in him. This task is mainly theoretical and literary in nature. But any theoretical problem can be solved only on a specific historical material. Moreover, this task in itself is too broad and needs a certain limitation, both from the theoretical and historical side. Hence our more concrete and special theme, the image becoming man in the novel.

But this particular topic, in turn, should be limited and clarified.

There is a special kind of novel genre called the "educational novel" (Erziehungsroman or Bildungsroman). This is usually referred to as chronological order) the following main examples of this genre variety: Xenophon's Cyropaedia (antiquity), Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival (Middle Ages), Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel, Grimmelshausen's Simplicisspmus (Renaissance), Fenelon's Telemachus (neoclassicism) , Rousseau's Emil (because this pedagogical treatise contains a significant element of the novel), Wieland's Agathon, Wezel's Tobias Knaut, Hippel's Biographies in the Ascending Line, Goethe's Wilhelm Meister (both novels), Jean's The Titan -Fields (and some of his other novels), Dickens' David Copperfield, Raabe's The Hungry Parish Pastor, Gottfried Keller's Green Heinrich, Pontoppidan's Lucky Per, Tolstoy's Childhood, Boyhood and Youth, An Ordinary Story" and "Oblomov" by Goncharov, "Jean Christophe" by Romain Rolland, "Buddenbrooks" and "Magic Mountain" by Thomas Mann and others.

Some researchers, guided by purely compositional principles (focusing the entire plot on the process of raising the hero), significantly limit this series (Rabelais, for example, is excluded). Others, on the contrary, requiring only the presence in the novel of a moment of development, the formation of a hero, significantly expand this series, introducing into it such works as Fielding's Tom Jones, Foundling, Thackeray's Vanity Fair, etc.

Already at the first glance at the above series, it is clear that it contains too heterogeneous phenomena, both from a theoretical and, in particular, from a historical point of view. Some novels are essentially biographical and autobiographical in nature, others are not; in some, the organizing principle is a purely pedagogical idea of educating a person, in others it is not even in sight; some are built in a strictly chronological plan of the educational development of the main character and are almost completely devoid of a plot, others, on the contrary, have a complex adventurous plot; even more significant are the differences associated with the relationship of these novels to realism and, in particular, to real historical time.

All this forces us to divide not only this series, but the whole problem of the so-called novel of education in a different way.

First of all, it is necessary to strictly highlight the moment essential development of man. The vast majority of novels (and novel varieties) know only the image finished hero. The entire movement of the novel, all the events and adventures depicted in it move the hero in space, move him on the steps of the ladder of the social hierarchy: from a beggar he becomes a rich man, from a rootless vagabond - a nobleman; the hero then moves away, then approaches his goal - to the bride, to victory, to wealth, etc. Events change his fate, change his position in life and in society, but he himself remains unchanged and equal to himself.

In most varieties of the novel genre, the plot, the composition and the entire internal structure of the novel postulate this immutability, the firmness of the hero's image, the static nature of his unity. Hero - constant in the formula of the novel; all other quantities - the spatial environment, social position, fortune, in short, all moments of the life and fate of the hero - can be variable values.

The very content of this constant value (a ready-made and unchanging hero) and the very signs of his unity, constancy and self-identity can be very different: starting from the identity of the hero’s empty name (in some varieties of adventure novel) and ending with a complex character, individual aspects of which are revealed only gradually, throughout the entire novel. The principle of materiality, which guides the selection of traits, may be different, the principle of their connection and unification into a whole image of the hero may be different. Finally, there may be different ways of compositional disclosure of this image.

But with all the possible differences in construction, in the very image of the hero there is no movement, no formation. The hero is that fixed and fixed point around which every movement takes place in the novel. The constancy and inner immobility of the hero is the premise of the novel movement. An analysis of typical novel plots shows that they presuppose a ready-made, unchanging hero, presuppose a static unity of the hero. The movement of the fate and life of such a ready-made hero is the content of the plot; but the very character of a person, his change and becoming, do not become a plot. This is the dominant type of novel.

Along with this dominant, mass type, there is another, incomparably rarer type of novel, which gives the image of a person who is becoming. In contrast to the static unity, here is given the dynamic unity of the hero's image. The hero himself, his character become variable in the formula of this novel. Changing the hero himself acquires story meaning, and in connection with this, the entire plot of the novel is fundamentally rethought and rebuilt. Time is introduced into a person, enters his very image, significantly changing the meaning of all moments of his fate and life. This type of novel can be described in the most general sense as novel of human development.

The development of a person can, however, be very different. Everything depends on the degree of development of real historical time.

In a purely adventurous time, the formation of a person is, of course, impossible (we will return to this later). But it is quite possible in cyclic times. Thus, in idyllic time, a person's path from childhood through youth and maturity to old age can be shown, with the disclosure of all those significant internal changes in a person's character and views that take place in him with a change in his age. Such a series of development (becoming) of a person has a cyclical nature, repeating itself in each life. A pure type of such a cyclical (purely age-related) novel of becoming has not been created, but its elements are scattered among the idyllics of the 18th century and among the representatives of regionalism and Heimatkunst * in the 19th century. Besides, in humorous branch In the novel of upbringing (in the narrow sense) represented by Hippel and Jean-Paul (partly also by Stern), the idyllic-cyclical ingredient is of great importance. It is available to a greater or lesser extent in other novels of formation (it is very strong in Tolstoy, who is directly connected in this respect with the traditions of the 18th century).

Another type of cyclical development, which retains a connection (albeit not so close) with ages, draws a certain typically repetitive path of human development from youthful idealism and daydreaming to mature sobriety and practicality. This path can be complicated in the end by varying degrees of skepticism and resignation. This type of novel of becoming is characterized by the depiction of the world and life as experience, how schools, through which every person must go and get out of it the same result - sobering up with varying degrees of resignation. This type is presented in its purest form in the classic novel of education of the second half of the 18th century, and above all in Wieland and Wezel. To a large extent, Keller's "Green Heinrich" also belongs here. Elements of this type are found in Hippel, Jean-Paul and, of course, Goethe.

The third type of becoming novel is the biographical (and autobiographical) type. There is no longer a cycle.

* Regions (German)

Becoming occurs in biographical time, it passes through unique, individual stages. It may be typical, but it is no longer cyclic typical. Becoming here is the result of the totality of changing living conditions and events, activities and work. Man's destiny is being created, and he himself, his character, is being created along with it. The formation of life-fate merges with the formation of man himself. Such is Fielding's Tom Jones, Dickens' David Copperfield.

The fourth type of the novel of formation is the didactic-pedagogical novel. It is based on a certain pedagogical idea, understood more or less broadly. Shown here pedagogical process education in the proper sense of the word. The pure type includes such works as Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Fenelon's Telemachus, and Rousseau's Emile. But elements of this type are also found in other varieties of the novel of becoming, including those of Goethe and Rabelais.

The fifth, and last, type of the coming-of-age novel is the most significant. In it, the formation of man is given in inseparable connection with the historical formation. The formation of a person takes place in real historical time with its necessity, with its fullness, with its future, with its deep chronotopicity. In the previous four types, the formation of a person took place against a motionless background of a world that was ready and, in the main, completely solid. If there were changes in this world, then they were peripheral, not touching its main foundations. Man became, developed, changed within the same era. The world that was present and stable in this presence demanded from man a certain adaptation to it, knowledge and submission to the laws of life. Man became, but not the world itself; the world, on the contrary, was a fixed reference point for developing man. The formation of man was, so to speak, a private matter, and the fruits of this formation were also of a private biographical order; everything in the world remained in its place. In itself, the concept of the world as an experience, as a school in the novel of education was very productive: it turned the world on the other side to the person - just the side that was alien to this novel before; this led to a radical rethinking of the elements of the novel's plot and opened up new and realistically productive points of view of the world for the novel. But the world, as an experience and as a school, still remained basically a fixed and ready-made given: it changed only in the process of learning for the student (in most cases it turned out to be poorer and drier than it seemed at first).

But in such novels as Gargantua and Pantagruel, Simplicissimus, Wilhelm Meister, the formation of man has a different character. It's not his private business anymore. He becomes together with the world reflects the historical formation of the world itself. He is no longer within an era, but at the turn of two eras, at the point of transition from one to the other. This transition takes place in him and through him. He is compelled to become a new, unprecedented type of person. It is precisely the formation of the new man that is at stake; the organizing power of the future here is therefore extremely great, moreover, of course, not a private-biographical, but a historical future. Just changing foundations world, and man has to change with them. It is clear that in such a novel of becoming in full growth there will be problems of reality and the possibility of a person, freedom and necessity, and the problem of creative initiative. The image of the emerging man begins to overcome here his private character (of course, to certain limits) and enters into a completely different, spacious realm of historical existence. Such is the last, realistic type of the novel of becoming.

Moments of such a historical formation of man are present in almost all great realistic novels, and, consequently, are present everywhere where a significant assimilation of real historical time has been achieved.

This last type of realistic novel of becoming is the special theme of our book. On the material of this type of novel, the more general theoretical task of our work is best understood and revealed - the development of historical time in the novel in all its essential moments.

But, of course, the fifth type of becoming novel cannot be understood and studied apart from its connections with the other four types of the becoming novel. This is especially true of the second type - the novel of education in the exact sense (Wieland as its founder), which directly prepared Goethe's novel. This novel is a characteristic phenomenon of the German Enlightenment. Already in this type, the problems of human possibility and reality and creative initiative were posed in an embryonic form.

On the other hand, this upbringing novel is directly connected with the early biographical novel of becoming, namely with Fielding's Tom Jones (in the very first words of his famous "preface" Wieland directly refers his "Agaton" to that type of novel - more precisely, the hero - which was created by "Tom Jones"). To understand the problem of mastering the time of human becoming, the idyllic-cyclical type of becoming, as it is presented by Gippel and Jean-Paul (in connection with more complex elements of becoming associated with the influence of Wieland and Goethe), is also essential. Finally, Goethe's idea of upbringing, as it took shape in the Enlightenment, and especially that specific variety of it that we find on German soil in Lessing's and Herder's idea of "education of the human race" are of great importance for understanding the image of a developing person in Goethe.

Thus, limiting our task to the fifth type of the novel of becoming, we will nevertheless be compelled to touch upon all the other types of this novel as well. At the same time, however, we do not at all strive for the historical completeness of the material (after all, our main task is theoretical) or for the establishment of all, even if basic, historical connections and relationships. Our work does not at all claim to be historically complete in considering the issue.

Rabelais (and partly Grimmelshausen) occupies a special place in the development of the realistic novel of becoming. His novel is the greatest attempt to build an image growing man in folklore folk-historical time. This is the tremendous significance of Rabelais both for the whole problem of mastering time in the novel, and, in particular, for the problem of the image of a person who is becoming. Therefore, in our work, he is given special attention next to Goethe.

Time and space in the works of Goethe

Skill see the time, read the time in the spatial whole of the world and, on the other hand, to perceive the filling of space not as a fixed background and a given once and for all, but as a becoming whole, as an event; is the ability to read signs of the passage of time in everything, starting from nature and ending with human customs and ideas (up to abstract concepts). Time is revealed first of all in nature: the movement of the sun, the stars, the crowing of roosters, the sensual, visible signs of the seasons; all this is inextricably linked with the corresponding moments of human life, life, activity (labor) - cyclic time of varying degrees of tension. The growth of trees, cattle, the age of people are visible signs of longer periods. Further, complex visible signs of historical time in the proper sense are visible traces of human creativity, traces of his hands and his mind: cities, streets, houses, works of art, technology, social organizations, etc. The artist reads through them the most complex ideas of people, generations , eras, nations, social class groups. The work of the seeing eye is combined here with the most complex thought process. But no matter how deep these cognitive processes are and saturated with the broadest generalizations, they do not completely break away from the work of the eye, from specific sensory signs and living figurative words. Finally, socio-economic contradictions are the driving forces and development - from elementary directly visible contrasts (the social diversity of the homeland on the high road) to their deeper and more subtle manifestations in human relations and ideas. These contradictions necessarily move the visible time into the future. The deeper they are revealed, the more essential and wider is the visible fullness of time in the images of the novelist.

One of the heights of the vision of historical time in world literature was reached by Goethe.

The vision and image of historical time are being prepared in the Enlightenment (on this issue, the Enlightenment was especially unfair). Here, the signs and categories of cyclic times are developed - natural, everyday and rural labor idyllic time (of course, after preparation by the Renaissance and the 17th century and not without the influence of ancient tradition). The themes of “seasons”, “agricultural cycles”, “human ages” stretch through the entire 18th century and have a high specific gravity in his poetic production. Moreover, these themes, which is especially important, do not remain on a narrowly thematic plane, but acquire an essentially compositional, organizing meaning (for Thomson, Gesner and other idyllics). The notorious non-historicity of the Enlightenment should be radically revised in general. First, the historicity of the first third of the 19th century, which so arrogantly called the Enlightenment anti-historical, was prepared by the enlighteners; secondly, the historical XVIII century must be measured not only from the point of view of this late historicity (we repeat, prepared by him), but in comparison with previous eras. With this approach, the 18th century is revealed as the era of the mighty awakening the sense of time, above all the sense of time in nature and in human life. Until the last third of the century, cyclic times prevail, but even they, for all their limitations, loosen the motionless world of previous eras with the plow of time. And on this soil, loosened by cyclical times, the signs of historical time begin to unfold. The contradictions of modernity, losing their absolute, God-given, eternal character, reveal in modernity the historical difference in time - remnants of the past and the beginnings, trends of the future. At the same time, the theme of human ages, passing into the theme of generations, begins to lose its cyclical character and begins to prepare historical perspectives. And this process of preparation for the disclosure of historical time in literary creativity passed faster, more fully and deeper than in the abstract philosophical and actually historical ideological views of the Enlightenment.

In Goethe, who in this respect was the direct heir and consummator of the Enlightenment, the artistic vision of historical time, as we have said, reaches one of its peaks (in some respects, as we shall see, it remains unsurpassed).

The problem of time and historical formation in the work of Goethe (and especially the image of a person who is becoming) will occupy us in its entirety in the second part of the book. Here we will touch upon only a few features and peculiarities of Goethe's sense of time in order to clarify the considerations we have expressed about the chronotope and the development of time in literature.

First of all, we emphasize (this is well known) the exceptional importance visibility for Goethe. All other external feelings, internal experiences, reflections and abstract concepts united around seeing eye as its center, as the first and last instance. Everything that is essential can and should be visible; everything invisible is unimportant. It is well known what importance Goethe attached to eye culture and how deeply and broadly he understood this culture. In understanding eyes And visibility he was equally far from primitive crude sensationalism and from narrow aestheticism. Visibility was for him not only the first, but also the last instance, where the visible was already enriched and saturated with all the complexity of meaning and cognition.

Goethe was disgusted with words that did not have their own visible experience. After his visit to Venice, he exclaims: “And now, thank God, Venice is no longer just a word for me, not an empty name that so often frightened me, a mortal enemy of meaningless sounds” (“Journey to Italy” *).

The most complex and responsible concepts and ideas, according to Goethe, can always be represented in visible form, can be shown with using a schematic or symbolic drawing, model or adequate drawing. All of Goethe's own scientific ideas and constructions are expressed in the form of precise diagrams, drawings and drawings, and he clothed other people's constructions, which he later mastered, in a visual form. On the first evening of his rapprochement with Schiller, expounding to him his "Metamorphosis of Plants", Goethe with a few characteristic strokes of the pen makes a symbolic flower ("Annals" **) appear before the eyes of his interlocutor. During their subsequent joint reflections "on nature, art and morals", Goethe and Schiller feel a vital need to resort to the help of tables and symbolic drawings ("die Notwendigkeit von tabellarischer und symbolischer Behandlung"). They make up a “rose of temperaments”, a table of beneficial and harmful influences of amateurism, draw diagrams of Goethe's theory of colors - “Farbenlehre” (“Annals”, S. 64).

Even the very basis of the philosophical worldview can be revealed in a simple and clear visual image. When Goethe, on his sea journey from Naples to Sicily, found himself for the first time on the high seas and the horizon line closed around him, he declares: “He who has not been surrounded on all sides by the sea has no concept of the world and of his relationship with the world” (XI , 248).

* Goethe I.-V. Sobr. op. in 13 volumes, v. 11. M., 1935, p. 75. "Journey to Italy" and "Poetry and Truth" are quoted in the translation of N. A. Kholodkovsky according to this edition, indicating the volume and page in the text after the quotation. - Note. ed.
** Goethes Samtliche Werke. Jubilaums-Ausg., Bd 30. Stuttgart-Berlin, 1930, S . 391. The Annals are cited in M. Bakhtin's translation, indicating the page of this edition. - Note. ed.

Word for Goethe it was compatible with the clearest visibility. In Poetry and Truth, he informs us of a "rather strange device" that he often resorted to. He sketched an object or area of interest to him on paper with the help of a few strokes, but he filled in the details. words which he entered right there in the figure. These amazing artistic hybrids allowed him to accurately recall any locality (Localit a t) that he might need for a poem or story (X, 309).

Goethe, therefore, wanted and knew how to see everything with his eyes. There was nothing invisible to him. But at the same time, his eye did not want (and could not) see anything. ready And motionless. His eye did not recognize the simple spatial contiguity, the simple coexistence of things and phenomena. Behind any static variety, he saw a difference in time: the different was located for him at different stages (epochs) of development, that is, it acquired a temporary meaning. In a short note “Further on my relationship to Schiller,” Goethe defines this feature of his own in this way: “I possessed an evolutionary method that reveals development (die entwickelnde entfaltende Methode), but by no means a method that orders by comparison; with phenomena located next to each other, I did not know what to do; rather, on the contrary, I could deal with their filiation ”(Annals, S. 393).

The simple spatial contiguity (neben einander) of phenomena was profoundly alien to Goethe; time, revealed in it the formation, development, spread nearby lying in space according to different temporary steps, epochs of formation 8 . Modernity for him - both in nature and in human life - is revealed as an essential difference in time: as remnants or relics of various stages and formations of the past and as the beginnings of a more or less distant future.

Goethe's heroic struggle for the introduction of the idea of formation and development into the natural sciences is well known. This is not the place to touch on his scientific work on the merits. We only note that in them, too, concrete visibility is devoid of static, combined with time. Everywhere here seeing eye seeks and finds time- development, formation, history. Behind what is ready, he sees what is becoming and what is being prepared, and all this with exceptional clarity. Moving through the Alps, he observes the movement of clouds and the atmosphere around the mountains and creates his theory of the formation of the weather. The inhabitants of the plains receive good or bad weather as early as finished product, in the mountains are present with her becoming.

Here is a small illustration of this "vision of becoming" from "Journey to Italy".

“When we look at mountains, near or from afar, and see their peaks either sparkling in the sun, or shrouded in mist, or among raging thunderclouds, under the blows of rain, or covered with snow, we attribute all this to the influence of the atmosphere, because its movements and changes we notice well and see with a simple eye. On the contrary, the mountains for our external senses remain motionless in their original form. We consider them dead when they are frozen; we think they are inactive because they are at rest. But for a long time now I have been unable to refrain from attributing most of the atmospheric changes precisely to their inner, quiet, secret influence" (XI, 28).

Further, Goethe develops his hypothesis that the force of attraction of the mass of the Earth, and in particular its prominent parts (mountain ranges), is not something constant and unchanging, but, on the contrary, under the influence of various reasons, it either decreases, then increases, constantly pulsing. And this pulsation of the mass of mountains itself has a significant impact on the change in the atmosphere. As a result of this internal activity of the mountains themselves, the weather is created, which is obtained in finished form by the inhabitants of the lowlands.

We are here completely unimportant scientific inconsistency of this hypothesis. What is important here is the characteristic feature of Goethe's vision. After all, mountains for an ordinary observer are static itself, the embodiment of immobility and immutability. In fact, the mountains are not dead at all, they are only frozen, they are not inactive at all, but only seem to be so, because they are at rest, resting (sie ruhen); and the very forces of mass attraction are also not a constant, always equal value, it changes, pulsates, oscillates; therefore, the mountains, in which this force seems to thicken, become internally changeable, active, creating the weather.

As a result, the picture with which Goethe began is sharply and fundamentally has changed. After all, in the beginning, abrupt changes in the atmosphere were given (shine in the bright sun, fogs, thunderclouds, lashing rain, snow) against a motionless background of eternally unchanged mountains; at the end did not appear at all of this immovable and unchanging background, it came into a more essential and deeper movement than the bright, but peripheral movement of the atmosphere, it became active, moreover, into it, into this background, and the true movement and activity moved.

This feature of Goethe's vision, revealed in our small example, in one form or another (depending on the material), with varying degrees of clarity, manifests itself everywhere. Everywhere that which before him served and seemed to be a solid and unchanging background for all kinds of movements and changes, for Goethe itself turned out to be involved in becoming, was completely saturated with time, and even turned out to be just the most essential and creative mobility. We will see further, when analyzing Wilhelm Meister, how everything that in the novel usually served as a solid background, an unchanging value, an immovable prerequisite for the plot movement, just here becomes the essential carrier of the movement, its initiator, becomes the organizational center of the plot movement, thanks to which the most novel plot is radically modified. For the “great genius” Goethe, an essential movement was revealed precisely in that immovable background of world foundations (socio-economic, political and moral), which the “narrow philistine” Goethe himself often proclaimed unchanged and eternal. In "Wilhelm Meister" this background of the world's foundations begins to pulsate, like the mountain ranges in the example given, and this pulsation determines a more superficial movement and a change in human destinies and human views. But more about that later.

Thus, we come to Goethe's amazing ability to see time in space. One is struck by the exceptional freshness and brightness of this vision of time (as, indeed, in general by the writers of the 18th century, for whom time seemed to be revealed for the first time), connected, however, partly with its relative simplicity and elementarity and therefore greater sensual clarity. Goethe had a sophisticated eye for all visible signs and signs of time in nature: he knew how, for example, to quickly determine the age of trees by eye, knew the growth rates of their various species, he knew how to see eras and ages. He had an exceptionally sharp look at all the visible signs of the time of human life - from everyday everyday time, measured by the sun and the everyday order of the human day, and up to the time of a whole human life - ages and epochs of the formation of man. On the importance of this last biographical time for Goethe and his deep vision of this time, his own autobiographies speak - biographical works that have a huge share in his work, and that constant interest in autobiographical and biographical literature, which he shared with his era (Goethe's autobiographical methods are included in our special topic nine).

As for Goethe's everyday everyday time, let us recall with what love and care he analyzes and depicts the everyday time of the Italians in his Journey to Italy.

“In a country where you enjoy the day, but even more rejoice in the evening, the onset of night is always especially significant. Then the work stops, then the walkers return from their walk, the father wants to see his daughter at home again, the day is over; but do we Cimmerians know what a day is? In the midst of eternal twilight and fog, day and night are indifferent to us: and in fact, how long do we really have to walk and enjoy in the open air? When night falls here, the day, consisting of morning and evening, finally passed, twenty-four hours lived; a new count of time begins, the bells ring, the evening prayer is read, the maid enters the room with a burning lamp and says: “Felicissima notte!” * This moment moves according to the season, and a person who lives here to the fullest cannot be mistaken, because every the good in his existence is confined not to a certain hour, but to the time of the day. If the German account of time were to be imposed on this people, they would be bewildered, because their own is intimately intertwined with the surrounding nature. An hour and a half or an hour before nightfall, the nobility begins to leave ... ”(XI, 58, 60).

Further, Goethe develops in detail his chosen method of translating organic Italian time into German, that is, ordinary time, and attaches a drawing where, with the help of concentric circles, a visual-visual image of the relationship of times is given (XI, 59).

* "Goodnight!" (Italian).

This is organic Italian time (time is counted from actual sunset, which at different times of the year falls, of course, at different hours), which is inextricably intertwined with all Italian life, and subsequently repeatedly stops Goethe's attention. All his descriptions of Italian life are imbued with a sense of everyday everyday time, measured by the pleasures and labor of a person's living life. This sense of time is deeply imbued with the famous description of the Roman carnival 10 (XI, 510 - 542).

Against the background of these times, nature, everyday life and life, still cyclic to one degree or another, are revealed for Goethe, intertwining from them, and the signs of historical time - the essential traces of the hands and mind of a person who changes nature, and the reverse reflection of the activity of a person and everything he created on his mores and views. Goethe first seeks and finds visible movement of historical time, inseparable from the natural environment (Localit a t) and the totality of man-made objects that are essentially related to this natural environment. And here Goethe shows exceptional sharpness and concreteness vision.

Here is one example of Goethe's accidental application of the historical vigilance inherent in his eye. Driving along the road to Pyrmont through the town of Einbeck, Goethe immediately eye I saw that about thirty years ago this town had an excellent burgomaster (Annals, S. 76).

What did he see that was special? He saw a lot of greenery, trees, saw their non-random character, saw in them a trace of a systematically acting single human will, but by age trees, which he identified approximately by eye, he saw the time when this systematically acting will was carried out.

No matter how accidental in itself the fact of historical vision we have cited, no matter how microscopic its scale and no matter how elementary it is, it very clearly and clearly reveals the very structure of such a vision. Let's dwell on it.

Here, first of all, there is essential And alive trace of the past in the present. We emphasize: essential and alive, because what is given here is not a dead, albeit picturesque, ruin, devoid of any essential connection with the surrounding living modernity and any influence on it. Goethe did not like such “ruined”, museum-antique outer shells of the bare past, he called them ghosts (Gespenster), he drove away from himself *. They, like an alien body, burst into the present, were unnecessary and incomprehensible in it. The mechanical mixing of the present with the past, devoid of a true connection between times, was deeply disgusting to him. That's why he disliked so much those idle historical reminiscences about historical places that tourists usually indulge in when visiting such places; hated the guides' stories about what a historical event had once taken place here. All these were ghosts, devoid of necessary and visible connection with living surrounding reality.

Once in Sicily, near Palermo, in a luxurious valley with overflowing fertility, the guide told Goethe in detail about those terrible battles and extraordinary feats that Hannibal had once accomplished here. “I severely forbade him,” says Goethe, “this fatal evocation of vanished ghosts (das fatale Hervorrufen solcher abgeschiedenen Gespenster).” Indeed, what necessary and creative (historically productive) connection could there be between these cultivated fields with their overflowing fertility and the memory of Hannibal's elephants and horses trampling them?

The guide was surprised by Goethe's indifference to classical reminiscences. “And I could not explain to him in any way what I experienced at the same time. blending the past with the present.

The conductor was even more surprised when Goethe, "indifferent to classical reminiscences", began to carefully collect some pebbles on the river bank. “I couldn’t explain to him that the best way to get an idea of a mountainous area is to explore the mineral rocks that are carried away by streams, and that the task opens up here - from individual fragments to get an idea of \u200b\u200bthese always classic peaks ancient period the existence of the earth "(XI, 250 - 251).

The above passage is extremely characteristic. For us, the presence of some element of Rousseauism in it is not essential here (the opposition of natural time and creativity - "always classical peaks of the ancient period of the earth's existence" and a fertile valley - human history with its wars and devastations). Something else is important. Here, firstly, Goethe's characteristic dislike for detached to the past, to the past in and for itself, that past which will just be so sweet to the romantics. He wants to see necessary connections of this past with a living present, to understand required space this past in continuous series of historical development. An isolated, detached piece of the past for him is a “ghost”, deeply disgusting and even terrible. That is why he opposes to such "disappeared ghosts" fragments of stones on the bank of a stream, because from these fragments one can create an integral idea of the character of the entire mountainous area and of the necessary past of the earth. He understands the whole lengthy process, as a result of which these fragments have necessarily found themselves today here and now, on the bank of the stream, their breed is clear, their geological age is clear, their place in the continuous development of the earth is clear. There is no longer a random mechanical mixing of the past with the present: everything has its own solid And necessary place in time.

* Goethe's attitude to the antiquarian and archaeological hobbies of the era. Suffice it to recall the enormous worldwide success of Barthélemy's "archaeological" novel The Journey of the Young Anacharsis in Greece (1788), which created the genre of the archaeological novel.

Secondly - and this is a very important feature of Goethe's vision of historical time - the past itself must be creative, should be efficient in the present (even if in a negative, undesirable direction for him). Such a creatively active past, which determines the present, together with this present gives a certain direction to the future, to a certain extent predetermines the future. This achieves the fullness of time moreover, visual, visible fullness. This is the past on a microscopic scale he saw near the town of Einbeck. This past - systematic plantings - continues to effectively live in the present (in this case, in the literal sense, since the planted trees still live and continue to grow, determine the present, creating a certain physiognomy for the town of Einbeck and, of course, influencing the future to a certain microscopic extent) .

And one more point we must emphasize in our small example. Goethe's historical vision is always based on a deep, careful and concrete perception of the locality (Localit a t). The creative past must be revealed as necessary and productive in the conditions of a given locality, as a creative humanization of this locality, turning a piece of earthly space into a place of people's historical life, into a corner of the historical world.

The terrain, the landscape, in which there is no place for man and his creative activity, which cannot be inhabited and built up, cannot become the arena of human history, were alien and unpleasant for Goethe.

His era, as you know, was characterized by a fascination with wild nature, virgin and inaccessible to man primitive landscape, both in literature and in painting. All this was profoundly antipathetic to Goethe. And in a later era, Goethe had a negative attitude towards similar tendencies that also manifested themselves on realistic grounds.

In 1820, Friedrich Gmelin sent his copper engravings to Weimar, intended for a deluxe edition of Virgil's Aeneid by Annibal Caro. The artist in a realistic manner depicted the desert wetlands of the Roman Campania. Paying tribute to the talent of the artist, Goethe condemns his direction. “What could be sadder,” he says, “than trying to help the poet (Virgil) by depicting desert areas, who are unable to again build and settle even the most vivid imagination” (“Annals”, S. 340).

Goethe's creative imagination first of all built up and populated every locality. From the point of view, so to speak, of development and settlement, Goethe could only consider any locality. In abstraction from a person, his needs and his activity, the area lost all visible meaning and significance for him, because all evaluation criteria, all measures and all living human scales of the area can be understood only from the point of view of builder man, from the point of view of turning it into a site of historical life. We will see a fairly consistent artistic application of this point of view in the analysis of "Wilhelm Meister".

Such are the structural features of Goethe's vision of historical time, as they are revealed in the elementary example we have cited.

Let us concretize and deepen our provisions on more complex material.

In Poetry and Truth, Goethe makes one confession that is very important for this issue: “One feeling, which took on very strange forms, owned a lot entirely - the feeling of merging the past and the present together, and this look introduced something illusory into the present. This feeling is expressed by me in many large and small works, and in poems it always works favorably, although at the moment when it was directly expressed in life itself, it must have seemed strange, inexplicable, perhaps even unpleasant.

Cologne was just such a place where antiquity could make such an incalculable impression on me. The ruins of the cathedral (since an unfinished building is the same as a destroyed one) aroused in me feelings to which I have become accustomed since the time of Strasbourg ”(X, 184).

This remarkable confession introduces some correction to what we said above about Goethe's aversion to the romantic sense of the past, to the "ghosts of the past" clouding the present. It turns out that he himself had this feeling.

That feeling of merging the past and the present into one, which Goethe speaks of in the above confession, was difficult feeling. It also included a romantic (as we will arbitrarily designate it), “ghostly” component. In the well-known early eras of Goethe's work (primarily in the Strasbourg period), this component was stronger and almost set the tone for the whole feeling. This created the well-known romanticism of the corresponding (mostly small and only poetic) works of Goethe.

But next to this conditionally romantic component in the feeling of merging the past with the present, from the very beginning there was also realistic component (as we also conventionally denote it). Precisely due to the fact that the realistic component existed since from the very beginning A purely romantic sense of time is nowhere to be found in Goethe. In the further development of Goethe, the realistic component intensifies, displaces the romantic, and already in the early Weimar period, almost complete victory triumphs. Already here there is a deep disgust Goethe to the romantic component, reaching a special urgency during the Italian journey. The evolution of Goethe's sense of time, which boils down to the consistent overcoming of the romantic component and the complete victory of the realistic, could be traced in those works that passed from the early period to the late, primarily on Faust and partly on Egmont.

In the process of this development of the sense of time, Goethe overcomes those moments of the illusory (Gespensterm a ssiges), the eerie (Unerfreuliches) and the unconscious (Unzuberechnendes) that were strong in his initial sense of the merging of past and present into one (whole). But the very feeling of the confluence of times remained in full and unfading strength and freshness until the end of his life, blossoming into the true fullness of time. The ghostly, eerie, and unaccountable in him were overcome by the structural moments of the vision of time that we have already disclosed: the moment significant connection the past with the present, the moment need past and the need for its place in the line of continuous development, the moment creative efficiency the past and finally the moment connections past and present with necessary future.

The fresh wind of the future penetrates more and more strongly into Goethe's sense of time, clearing him of everything dark, illusory, unconscious; and perhaps we feel this wind most strongly in Wilhelm Meister's Years of Wanderings (and in the last scenes of Part II of Faust). Thus, in Goethe, from a vague and most frightening sense of the merging of the past with the present, a realistic sense of time flourished, exceptional in world literature in terms of strength and at the same time in clear clarity.

Let us dwell on the chronotopic vision of the terrain, the landscape in Goethe. His seeing eye saturates the area with time, moreover, with creative, historically productive time. As we have said, point of view builder determines the contemplation and understanding of the landscape in Goethe. At the same time, his creative imagination curbs itself, subjugates itself need given area, the iron logic of its historical and geographical existence.

Goethe, first of all, seeks to penetrate into this geological and historical logic of the existence of the locality, moreover, this logic must be from beginning to end visible, meaningfully visual. To do this, he had his original way of orientation.

In Poetry and Truth, in connection with his journey through Alsace, he says: “During my still few wanderings around the world, I have already managed to see how important it is to inquire about the flow of waters when traveling, asking even about the smallest stream where it flows . Thanks to this, we get a general view of the river basin in which we are, we get an idea of the relationship between heights and lowlands, and through this guiding thread, which helps both sight and memory, we most easily get out of the geological and political confusion of territories ”(IX, 437). And at the very beginning of Journey to Italy: “The area rises to the very Tirschenreith. The waters flow towards you, towards Eger and the Elbe. From Tirschenreith begins the descent to the south, and the waters rush into Danube. I find my bearings very quickly in any locality, as soon as I can determine the direction of even the smallest stream or river basin to which it belongs. In this way, you mentally establish a connection between mountains and valleys, even in areas that you cannot grasp with a glance ”(XI, 20). Goethe also speaks of the same method of contemplating regions in the Annals (see, for example, S. 161).

The living, dynamic sign of running rivers and streams gives a visual representation of the water basins of the country, and of its relief, and of its natural boundaries and natural connections, and of its water and dry ways and passes, of fertile and dry places, etc. This is not an abstract geological and geographical landscape - it reveals for Goethe the potential of historical life; it is the arena of a historical event, it is a firmly defined boundary of that spatial channel along which the stream of historical time will flow. A historically active person is placed in a living visual, visible system of waters, mountains, valleys, borders and paths: build, drain swamps, lay paths through mountains and rivers, develop mountain subsoil, cultivate irrigated valleys, etc. essential And necessary the nature of human historical activity. And if he wages wars, it will be clear how he will lead them (that is, there will be a need here too).

In the Annals for 1817, Goethe says: “I owe much clarity in the field of geology and geography to the mountain map of Europe compiled by Sorrio 12. So, it immediately became clear to me what treacherous soil in Spain is for the commander (with a regular army) and what favorable soil for the Guerillas. I drew on my map of Spain its main watershed, and every route, and every military campaign, and every undertaking of a regular and irregular nature, became immediately clear and understandable to me ”(Annals, S. 303).

Goethe does not want and cannot see and think any locality, any natural landscape as abstract, for the sake of its, so to speak, self-sufficient naturalness, it must be illuminated by human activity and historical events; a piece of earthly space must be included in the history of mankind, outside of which it is dead and incomprehensible, there is nothing to do with it. But, on the other hand, there is nothing to do with a historical event, with an abstract historical memory, if it is not localized in earthly space, if it is not understandable (not visible) need its fulfillment at a certain time and in a certain place.

Reveal this visible specific need Goethe wants human creativity and historical event. All fantasizing, inventing, dreamy recollection, abstract judgment must be curbed, suppressed, abolished, must give way to the work of the eye, contemplating the need for accomplishment and creativity in certain place and in certain time.“I just open my eyes wide and remember things well. I would not want to think at all, if it were possible” (XI, 133). And a little later, noting how difficult it is to create a concept of ancient antiquities from the surviving ruins, he adds: “With what is called classical soil, the situation is different. If you do not approach it fantastically, but take it quite realistically, such as it is, these are still the stages that decisively determined great deeds; therefore I always take advantage of the geological and landscape point of view in order to suppress the power of imagination and immediate feeling and acquire a free, clear view of the area. Then suddenly next to her, as if alive, rises history, you cannot understand what is happening to you - and now I feel a strong desire to read Tacitus in Rome ”(XI, 134).

Thus, in a correctly understood, objectively seen (without admixture of fantasy and feelings) space, the visible inner necessity of history (that is, a certain historical process, events) is revealed.

For Goethe, the creativity of ancient peoples has the same internally necessary character. “I climbed Spoleto and was on the aqueduct, which at the same time serves as a bridge from one mountain to another ... This is the third work of the ancients that I see, and everywhere the same lofty design. Their architecture is second nature, subordinated to the goals of citizenship; such is the amphitheater, and the temple, and the aqueduct. Now only I feel how just was the hatred that everything aroused in me arbitrary- for example, a winter box on Weissenstein, perfect nothing, a huge candy decoration, and a thousand other similar items. All this remains stillborn, because, in which there is no true, inner existence, there is no life in it, and it can neither be nor become great ”(XI, 133).

Human creativity has its own internal laws, it must be human (and civilly expedient), but it must be necessary, consistent and true, like nature. Any arbitrariness, invention, abstract fantasizing is disgusting for Goethe.

Not abstract moral rightness (abstract justice, ideology, etc.), but need creativity and any historical work was important for Goethe. This draws the sharpest line between him and Schiller, between him and the majority of representatives of the Enlightenment with their abstract moral or abstract rational criteria.

Necessity, as we have already pointed out, became the organizing center of Goethe's sense of time. He wanted to pull together and bind the present, past and future with the ring of necessity. This Goethe necessity was very far from both the necessity of fate and the mechanical necessity of nature (in the naturalistic sense). It was a visible, concrete, material, but material-creative, historical necessity.

A genuine trace - a sign of history is humane and necessary, in it space and time are pulled together into one inseparable knot. Earthly space and human history are inseparable from each other in Goethe's holistic concrete vision. This makes historical time in his work so dense and materialized, and space so humanly meaningful and intense.

This is, above all, the need for artistic creativity. In connection with the Italian letters of Winckelmann, Goethe says:

“Except the creations of nature, which is true and consistent in all its parts, nothing speaks so convincingly as the legacy of a good, reasonable person, like true art, which is no less consistent than it. Here, in Rome, where such arbitrariness raged, where power and money perpetuated so many stupidities, this is felt especially clearly ”(XI, 161).

It is in Rome that Goethe feels especially keenly this amazing concentration of historical time, its fusion with earthly space:

“In particular, history is read differently here than anywhere else on the globe. In other places you approach what you read from the outside; here it seems that you are reading from within: all this spreads around us and at the same time, as it were, emanates from within ourselves. And this applies not only to Roman history, but also to world history. After all, from here I can accompany the conquerors to the Weser and to the Euphrates ... ”(XI, 166). Or else: “The same thing happens to me that happened in the field of natural science, because the whole world is connected with this place. world history, and I consider the day when I entered Rome a new birthday, a true rebirth ”(XI, 160).

And elsewhere, justifying his intention to visit Sicily, he says: “Sicily points me to Asia and Africa; it is not a trifle to stand oneself on the magical point at which so many radii of world history converge” (XI, 239).

Essence of historical time on a small piece of land in Rome, visible the coexistence of different epochs in it makes the contemplator, as it were, a participant in the great council of the world's destinies. Rome is the great chronotope of human history: “When you see before you a life that has been going on for more than two thousand years and has changed to its foundation more than once in the change of eras, however, even now you still have the same soil, the same mountain, often the same wall or column, and in the people, as before, traces of its ancient character are preserved, then you become an accomplice to the great decisions of fate, and at first it is difficult for the observer to unravel how Rome follows Rome, and not only the new after the old, but also the various eras of the old and the new one after another" (XI, 143).

Synchronism, the coexistence of times at one point in space, the space of Rome, reveals for Goethe the “fullness of time”, as he felt it in his classical period (the Italian journey is its climax): “Be that as it may, everyone should be fully given the freedom to perceive works of art in their own way. During our tour, I had a feeling, a concept, a concrete idea of what could be called in the highest sense the presence of classical soil. I call it sensual-supersensible the conviction that there was, is and will be great. That even the greatest and most beautiful is transient, lies in the nature of time and constantly warring moral and physical elements. At our cursory glance, we did not experience a feeling of sadness, passing by the ruins, rather we were overwhelmed with joy at the thought that so much had been preserved, so much had been restored even more luxurious and grandiose than it had once been.

On such a grandiose scale, no doubt, the Cathedral of St. Peter, grander and bolder than all the temples of antiquity, and before our eyes lay not only what had been destroyed by two millennia, but at the same time what a higher culture could bring to life again.

The very fluctuation of artistic taste, the striving for majestic simplicity, the return to exaggerated pettiness - everything pointed to life and movement; the history of art and humanity stood synchronistically before our eyes.

We should not be saddened by the inevitability of the conclusion that everything great is transient; on the contrary, if we find that the past was great, this should prompt us ourselves to create something significant, which later, even if turned into ruins, would still prompt our descendants to noble activity, just as our ancestors "(XI, 481 - 482).

We have included this long quotation in order to conclude the series of quotations we have cited as a summary. Unfortunately, in this summary of Roman impressions, Goethe did not repeat the motive of necessity, which for him was the real connecting link of times. Therefore, the final paragraph of the quotation, which introduces a new motif of historical generations (we will meet with it in a deeper interpretation in Wilhelm Meister), somewhat simplifies and reduces - in the spirit of Herder's Ideas * 13 - Goethe's historical vision.

* Goethe gets acquainted with the corresponding parts of them just in Italy.

Let us summarize our preliminary analysis of Goethe's vision of time. The main features of this vision: the merging of times (past with the present), the completeness and clarity of the visibility of time in space, the inseparability of the time of an event from a specific place of its accomplishment (Localit a t und Geschichte), visible significant the connection of times (the present and the past), the creatively active nature of time (the past in the present and the present itself), necessity penetrating time, connecting time with space and times among themselves, and finally, on the basis of the need penetrating localized time, the inclusion of the future, completing the fullness of time in the form of Goethe.

It is necessary to highlight and emphasize the points necessity and fullness of time. Goethe, closely and essentially associated with sense of time awakened in the 18th century and reached its peak on German soil with Lessing, Winckelmann and Herder, in these two moments it overcomes the limitations of the Enlightenment, its abstract morality, rationality and utopianism. On the other hand, the understanding of necessity as a humanly creative, historical necessity (“second nature” - an aqueduct serving as a bridge between two mountains; see XI, 133) separates it from the mechanical materialism of Holbach and others (see his review of the “System of Nature” in the eleventh book of "Poetry and Truth"; X, 48 - 49). These two points also sharply separate Goethe from subsequent romantic historicity.

All of the above reveals to us the exceptional chronotopicity of Goethe's vision and thinking in all areas and spheres of his many-sided activity. Everything that he saw, he saw not “sub specie aeternitatis” (“under the angle of vision of eternity”), as his teacher Spinoza did, but in time and in the power of time. But the power of this time is productive and creative power. Everything - from the most abstract idea to a fragment of a stone on the bank of a stream - bears the stamp of time, is saturated with time, and in it takes on its form and its meaning. Therefore, everything is intense in the world of Goethe: there are no dead, motionless, frozen places in it, there is no unchanging background, scenery and furnishings that do not participate in the action and formation (in events). On the other hand, this time in all its essential moments is localized in a specific space, imprinted in it; there are no such events, plots, temporal motives that would be indifferent to a certain spatial place of accomplishment, which could take place everywhere and nowhere ("eternal" plots and motives), are not in Goethe's world. Everything in this world - timespace, authentic chronotope.

Hence the uniquely concrete and visible world of human space and human history, to which all the images of Goethe's creative imagination are related, which serves as a moving background and an inexhaustible source of his artistic vision and image. Everything is visible, everything is concrete, everything is corporeal, everything is material in this world, and at the same time everything is intensive, meaningful and creatively necessary.

The great epic form (great epic), including the novel, should give a complete picture of the world and life, should reflect the whole peace and all a life. In the novel, the whole world and all life are given in the context the integrity of the era. The events depicted in the novel must somehow replace a lifetime of the epoch. This ability to replace the real whole is their artistic essentiality. According to the degree of this essentiality and, consequently, artistic significance, novels are very different. They primarily depend on the degree of realistic penetration into this real integrity of the world, from which the essentiality shaped in the novel as a whole is abstracted. "The whole world" and its history as the reality that opposed the novelist, by the time of Goethe had changed profoundly and significantly. Three centuries ago, "the whole world" was a kind of symbol that could not be adequately represented by any model, any map or globe. In this symbol, “the whole world”, visible and known, densely real, was a small and discontinuous patch of earthly space and an equally small and torn segment of real time, everything else was unsteadily lost in the fog, mixed up and intertwined with other worlds, with a detached ideal , fantastic, utopian. The point was not only that the other-worldly and fantastic made up for the poor reality and united and rounded shreds of reality into a mythological whole. The Otherworld disorganized and bled this present reality. The real compactness of the world was dissolving, disintegrating the admixture of the other world, preventing the real world and real history from gathering and rounding into a single, compact and complete whole. The otherworldly future, torn off from the horizontal of earthly space and time, rose like an otherworldly vertical to the real flow of time, bleeding the real future and earthly space as the arena of this real future, giving everything a symbolic meaning, devaluing and discarding everything that could not be symbolically comprehended.

During the Renaissance, "the whole world" began to condense into a real and compact whole. The Earth firmly rounded and took a certain place in the real space of the universe, she herself began to acquire geographical certainty (far from complete) and historical meaningfulness (even more incomplete). And here in Rabelais and Cervantes we see a significant condensation of reality, no longer drained of otherworldly roundness; but this reality still rises against the very shaky and foggy background of the whole world and human history.

The process of rounding, completing and wholesomeness of the real world reached its initial completion in the 18th century, and precisely by the time of Goethe. The position of the globe in the solar system and its relation to other worlds of this system were determined, its size, seas and continents, geological composition, its countries, its rocks, its routes of communication, etc. were determined, it became meaningful and really historical. It's not about the number of great discoveries, new travels, acquired knowledge, but about that new quality comprehension of the real world, which was the result of all this: a new, real unity and integrity of the world from the fact of abstract consciousness, theoretical constructions and rare books have become a fact of concrete (ordinary) consciousness and practical orientation, a fact of ordinary books and everyday reflections, have become associated with established visual images, have become a visual-visible unity; for that which was not directly visible, visual equivalents could be found. The greatest role in this concretization and visualization was played by the immeasurably increased real, material contact (economic and, on its basis, cultural) with almost the entire geographical world and technical contact with the complex forces of nature (the visible effect of the application of these forces). Such a thing as Newton's law of gravitation, in addition to its direct natural-scientific and philosophical significance, rendered exceptional assistance to the vision of the world, it made the new unity of the real world, its new natural regularity, almost visually visible and tangible.

The eighteenth century, the most abstract and anti-historical, was in fact a time of concretization and vision of the new, real world and its history. From the world of a sage and scientist, he became the world of the ordinary working consciousness of an advanced person.

The philosophical and journalistic struggle of the Enlightenment against everything otherworldly and authoritarian that permeated views, art, life, system, etc., played a huge role in this process of purification and thickening of reality. As a result of Enlightenment criticism, the world seemed to become qualitatively poorer, in fact, there was much less real in it than previously thought, the absolute mass of reality, actual being, seemed to become smaller, contracted; the world has become poorer and drier 14 . But this abstract negative criticism of the Enlighteners, dispelling the remnants of otherworldly adhesions and mythical unity, helped reality gather and condense into the visible whole of the new world. In the thickening reality, new sides and endless perspectives were revealed. And this positive productivity of the Enlightenment reaches one of its peaks in the work of Goethe.

This process of consummating rounding and making the real world whole can be traced in Goethe's creative biography. This is not the place to go into it in any detail. A good mountain map of Europe was still an event for him. The proportion of travel, other geographical books (their proportion was already high in the library of Goethe's father), archaeological and history books (especially on the history of art) in working Goethe's library was very large.

This process of concretization, visualization, targeting, we repeat, was only just coming to an end. Hence the amazing freshness and convexity of all this in Goethe. New were the "historical radii" from Rome and Sicily; new and fresh was the very feeling of fullness. world history (Herder).

For the first time in Goethe's novels (in "Years of Apprenticeship" and in "Years of Wanderings") the integrity of the world and life in the context of an epoch is referred to this new, concretized, visualized, goal-oriented real world. Behind the whole novel is this great real integrity of the world and history. Every great novel in all epochs of the development of this genre was encyclopedic. Encyclopedic "Gargantua and Pantagruel", encyclopedic "Don Quixote", encyclopedic great novel of the Baroque (let's not even talk about "Amadis" and "Palmerinas"). But in the novels of the Renaissance, late chivalric novels ("Amadis") and in the novels of the Baroque, this is precisely the encyclopedic character, which is of an abstract bookish nature, there was no models world whole.

Therefore, both the selection of the essential and its rounding off into a novelistic whole had a different character until the middle of the 18th century (before Fielding, Stern, Goethe).

Of course, that essential condensation of the whole of life, which a novel (and a great epic in general) should be, is not at all a concise presentation of this whole whole, a summary of all its parts. It's out of the question. This is not the case, of course, in Goethe's novels either. The action here takes place in a limited area of the earth's space and covers a very short period of historical time. But nevertheless, behind the world of the novel, this new, whole world always stands here; all of it sends its representative representatives into the novel, who reflect its new and real completeness and concreteness (geographical and historical in the broadest sense of these words). Far from everything is mentioned in the novel itself, but the compact integrity of the real world is felt behind every image of it; every image in this world lives and takes its form. The real completeness of the world determines the very type of materiality. True, the novel still includes utopian and symbolic elements, but their character and functions have become completely different. The whole character of the novel's images is determined by the new relationship they have entered into towards the new, already real, integrity of the world.

We will touch briefly here on this new relationship to the new world on the basis of Goethe's creative ideas (the analysis of novels is a matter for the next).

In his autobiographical writings - in "Poetry and Truth", in "Journey to Italy", in "Annals" - Goethe tells in detail about a number of his artistic ideas, which either were not carried out "on paper" at all, or were carried out only fragmentarily. Such are “Mohammed”, “The Eternal Jew”, “Navzikaya”, “Tell”, “Pyrmont” (as we conditionally call it), finally, the children's fairy tale “New Paris” and the children's multilingual novel in letters. We will focus on some of them as more characteristic of the chronotopic nature of Goethe's artistic imagination.

The children's fairy tale "New Paris" is already characteristic in one of its features (see Poetry and Truth, Book II). This feature is the exact designation of the real place where the fabulous event depicted in the fairy tale took place: a part of the Frankfurt city wall, called the “bad wall”; there really was a niche with a fountain, a plaque with an inscription built into the wall, old hazel trees rose behind the wall. The fairy tale added to these real signs of the place a mysterious gate and brought together a niche with a fountain, hazels and a plank. In the future, these three objects allegedly moved, now approaching again, then moving away from each other. This mixture of real spatial signs with fabulous ones created a peculiar charm of a fairy tale: a fairy tale plot was woven into the visible reality, as if directly arising from this ancient “bad wall”, surrounded by some legends, with its fountain in a deep niche, old hazel trees and a built-in board . And this feature of the tale had a special impact on Goethe's little listeners: each of them made a pilgrimage to the "evil wall" and examined real signs - a niche, a fountain, hazel trees. With this tale, Goethe created, as it were, a “local legend”, on the basis of which a small “local cult” (pilgrimage to the “evil wall”) was formed.

This fairy tale was created by Goethe in 1757-1758. In the same years, the same "local cult", but already on a large scale, was created on the shores of Lake Geneva, at the site of the events of Rousseau's "New Eloise". A similar "local cult" was created earlier by Richardson's "Clarissa Harlow", later a "local cult" by Werther would be created; in our country, a similar cult was associated with Karamzin's "Poor Liza".

These peculiar “local cults”, brought to life by literary works, are a characteristic feature of the second half of the 18th century, which speaks of a certain reorientation of the artistic image in relation to reality. The artistic image felt, as it were, an organic desire to attach itself to a certain time, and most importantly, to a certain concrete and visually visible place in space. The point here is not the artistic realism of the image itself (which, of course, does not at all require exact geographical certainty, the "non-fictional" location of the action). This epoch is characterized by the immediate geographical reality image, and not so much even its inner plausibility, but the idea of it as really having been, that is, in real time an event that has taken place (hence, in particular, the sentimental attitude towards the artistic image of a person as a living person, the artistically intentional “naive realism” of the image and its perception by the public, which is characteristic of sentimentalism). The relationship of the artistic image to the new, geographically and historically concrete and visualized world is manifested here in an elementary, but clear and also visual form. These "local cults" first of all testify to the completely a new sense of space and time in a work of art.

The desire for a specific geographical localization is also manifested in Goethe's still children's multilingual novel, on which he worked somewhat later (see "Poetry and Truth", book IV). “For this bizarre form, I found content by studying the geography of those areas where my heroes lived, and came up with such human relations to enliven the dry description of the situation that would correspond to the character of the characters and their occupations” (IX, 139). And here, as we see, the same characteristic humanization of specific geographical areas is manifested.

In "Journey to Italy" Goethe tells about the origin and nature of the idea of the drama "Navzikaya". This idea took shape in Sicily, where the images of the Odyssey directly appeared before Goethe from the sea and island landscape of this country. “I intended to revive this simple plot with a wealth of secondary motives, a special plan and a peculiar setting for the action unfolding against the backdrop of the sea and islands” (XI, 318). And a little lower: “Now, when I mentally see before me all these coasts and foothills, bays and bays, islands and headlands, rocks and sands, bushy hills, soft meadows, fertile fields, decorated gardens, sleek trees, hanging vines, cloudy mountains and always cheerful plains, cliffs and coasts, all this, surrounded by a sea, changeable and diverse - now only the Odyssey has become a living word for me ”(XI, 342 - 343).

Even more characteristic in this respect is the intention of "William Tell". The images of this idea arose directly from a living contemplation of the corresponding historical places in Switzerland. In the Annals, Goethe says: “When on the way back and forth (during a trip to Switzerland, 1797) I again surveyed the Vierwaldstet lake, Schwyz, Fluelen and Altdorf with a free and open eye, they forced my imagination to populate these areas with characters, representing such a grandiose (ungeheure) landscape. And what other images could come to my imagination faster than the image of Tell and his bold contemporaries? ("Annals", S. 141 - 142). Tell himself presented himself to Goethe as the embodiment of the people (eine Art von Demos), in the form of a colossal force of a weight-bearer, all his life engaged in carrying heavy animal skins and other goods through his native mountains.

Finally, let us dwell on the idea that arose in Goethe during his stay in Pyrmont 15 .

The area of Pyrmont is saturated with historical time. There are references to it in Roman writers. Outposts of Rome reached here; here passed one of those radii of world history which Goethe contemplated from Rome. The ancient ramparts are still preserved; hills and valleys speak of the battles that took place here; remnants of antiquity have been preserved in the etymology of the names of various places and mountains and in the customs of the population; everywhere signs of the historical past, penetrating space. “Here you feel as if you are closed in a magic circle,” says Goethe, “you identify the past with the present, you contemplate universal spatiality through the prism of this immediate spatial environment and, finally, you feel in a pleasant state, because for a moment it begins to seem that the most elusive has become the subject of direct contemplation” (“Annals”, S. 81).

Here, in these specific conditions, the idea of a work arises, which should have been written in the style of the end of the 16th century. The entire scheme of the plot outlined by Goethe is intertwined in the subtlest way with the motives of the area and its, so to speak, historical transformation. The spontaneous movement of the people to the wonderful source of Pyrmont is depicted. A knight becomes the head of the movement, he organizes it and leads the people to Pyrmont. Social and characterological diversity is shown populace. An essential point is the image of the construction of a new settlement and the parallel social differentiation and the allocation of the nobility ("noble"). The main theme is the work of the creatively organizing human will on the raw material of a spontaneous mass movement. The result is the emergence of a new city on the ancient historical site of Pyrmont. In conclusion, the motif of the future greatness of Pyrmont is introduced in the form of a prophecy of three strange aliens - a young man, a husband and an old man (a symbol of historical generations). This whole idea is nothing else than an attempt to turn into a plot that historical-creative will, both spontaneous-mass - of the people and the organizing will of the leaders, the direct visible trace of which is Pyrmont, or, in other words, the "elusive" flow of historical time to seize and fix by "direct contemplation".

These are the unfulfilled creative ideas Goethe. All of them are deeply chronotopic. Time and space merge here into an inseparable unity both in the plot itself and in its individual images. The starting point of creative imagination in the majority is a certain and very specific locality. But this is not an abstract landscape imbued with the mood of the contemplator - no, this is a piece of human history, historical time condensed in space. Therefore, the plot (the totality of the depicted events) and the characters do not come into it from the outside, do not imagine the landscape, but are revealed in it as being present in it from the very beginning, as those creative forces that shaped, humanized this landscape, made it a speaking trace of movement. history (historical time) and to a certain extent predetermined its further course, or as those creative forces that a given area needs as organizers and continuers of the historical process embodied in it.

Such an approach to the locality and to history, their inseparable unity and interpenetration became possible only because the locality ceased to be part of abstract nature and part of an indefinite, discontinuous and only symbolically rounded (filled) world, and the event ceased to be a segment of the same indefinite, everywhere itself equal, reversible and symbolically replenished time. The locality has become an indispensable part of a geographically and historically defined world, that's this, completely real and fundamentally observable world of human history, and the event has become an essential and non-displaceable moment in this particular human history, taking place in this, and only in this, geographically defined human world. As a result of this process of mutual concretization and interpenetration, the world and history have not become poorer and smaller; on the contrary, they condensed, condensed and filled creative possibilities further endless real formation and development. Goethe's world is germinating seed, to the end real, cash-visible and at the same time full of the real, the future growing from it.

It was this new sense of space and time that led to a significant change in the orientation of the artistic image: he felt an irresistible attraction to a certain place and to a certain time in this now definite and real world. And this new orientation manifests itself both in the elementary (but clear) form of naive-realistic "local cults" literary heroes, and in a deeper and more complex form in such works as "Wilhelm Meister", lying on the border between the novel and the new great epic.

Let us touch on another, somewhat earlier stage in the development of the sense of time in the 18th century, as it is presented by JJ Rousseau.

Rousseau's artistic imagination was also chronotopic. He discovered for literature (and specifically for the novel) a special and very important chronotope - "nature" (although this discovery, like all real discoveries, was prepared by centuries of previous development 16). He deeply knew how to feel the time in nature. The time of nature and the time of human life entered into the closest interaction and interpenetration with him. But the moment of real historicity of time was still very weak. From the cyclic background of natural time, only idyllic time (also still cyclical) and biographical time, already overcoming cyclicality, but not yet fully merging into real historical time, separated for him. Therefore, the moment of creative-historical necessity was almost completely alien to Rousseau.

Contemplating the landscape, Rousseau, like Goethe, inhabits it with images of people, humanizes it. But these people are not creators or builders, but people of an idyllic and individually biographical life. Hence, his plot is poor (in most cases - love with its sufferings and joys and idyllic work), and his future has the utopian character of the "golden age" (historical inversion 17) and is devoid of creative necessity.

During his hiking trip to Turin, Rousseau admires the rural landscape and inhabits it with images of his imagination. “I imagined,” he says in “Confessions,” “country meals in the huts, frisky games in the meadows, swimming near the water, walking, fishing, charming fruits on the trees, passionate te te -a-te te under their shadow, on the mountains there are vats of milk and cream, sweet idleness, peace, simplicity, the pleasure of wandering, not knowing where to” (“Confession”, part I, book II).

In a letter to Malserbe (January 26, 1762), the utopian moment in the artistic imagination of Rousseau appears even brighter:

“I populated it (that is, beautiful nature. - M. B.) soon with creatures that pleased me ... and transferred to the shelters of nature people worthy of inhabiting it. I formed for myself a delightful society... my fantasy revived the golden age, and, filling these beautiful days with all the scenes of my life that left me a sweet memory, and also with all those that my heart could still desire, I felt moved to tears, thinking of the true pleasures of mankind, so charming and so pure, which are now so far from people.

These confessions of Rousseau are already very indicative in themselves, but they become especially striking when compared with the corresponding confessions of Goethe, which we have quoted above. Instead of a man - a creator and builder, an idyllic man of pleasure, play and love appears here. Nature, as if bypassing history with its past and present, directly gives place to the "golden age", that is, the utopian past, transferred to the utopian future. Pure and blissful nature gives place to pure and blissful people. The desired, the ideal, here is divorced from real time and from necessity: it is not necessary, it is only desired. Therefore, the time of all these games, rural meals, passionate rendezvous, etc., is devoid of real duration and irreversibility. If inside an idyllic day there is a change of morning, evening, night, then all idyllic days are similar to each other, repeat each other. It is also quite understandable that such contemplation does not in the least hinder the penetration into the contemplated of subjective desires, emotions, personal memories, fantasizing, that is, everything that Goethe curbed and suppressed in his contemplation, striving to see the necessity of accomplishment independent of his desires and feelings.

* Quoted. according to the book: Rozanov M. N. Zh.-Zh. Rousseau and the literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, vol. 1. M., 1910, p. fifty.

Of course, the peculiarities of the sense of time, and even natural time, in Rousseau are far from being exhausted by what has been said. In his novel and in his autobiographical writings, other, deeper and more significant aspects of the sense of time are revealed: he knew both idyllic labor time, biographical time, and family-biographical time, he introduced new and significant points into the understanding of a person’s ages, etc. e. We will have to touch on all these points later.

The second half of the 18th century in England and Germany is characterized, as you know, by an increased interest in folklore; one can, with a certain right, even speak of discovery of folklore for literature perfected in this era. At the same time, it was primarily about national and local (within the national) folklore. Folk song, fairy tale, heroic and historical legend and saga were, first of all, a new and powerful means of humanizing and intensifying the native space. With folklore, a new, powerful and extremely productive wave broke into literature. folk-historical time, which had a tremendous influence on the development of the historical worldview in general and in particular on the development of the historical novel.

Folklore is generally saturated with time; all his images are deeply chronotopic. Time in folklore, the fullness of time in it, folklore future, folklore human meters of time - all these are very important and urgent problems. Here, of course, we cannot touch upon them, although the folklore time had an enormous and productive influence on literature.

We are here interested in another side of the matter - the use of local folklore, especially heroic and historical legend and saga, to intensify the native soil in the process of preparing a historical novel.

Local folklore comprehends and saturates space with time, draws it into history.

In this respect, the use of local myths by Pindar was very characteristic on ancient soil. Through the complex and skillful interweaving of local myths with common Hellenic ones, he included every corner of Greece while preserving all its local wealth. unity Greek world. Each source, mound, grove, bend of the coastline had its own legend, its own memory, its own event, its own hero. With the help of skillful associations, metaphorical correspondences, genealogical connections * Pindar wove these local myths with common Hellenic myths, creating a single and dense fabric covering the entire Greek land and giving, as it were, a folk-poetic replacement for the missing political unity.

A similar use of local folklore, albeit in different historical conditions and for other purposes, we find in Walter Scott.

Walter Scott is characterized by a desire specifically for local folklore. He traveled his native Scotland, especially its border regions with England, knew every bend of the Tweed, every ruin of the castle, and all this was consecrated for him by a legend, a song, a ballad. Each piece of land was saturated for him with certain events of local legends, was deeply intensified by the legendary time, and, on the other hand, every event was strictly localized, condensed into spatial signs. His eye could see time in space.

But this time with Walter Scott at that early period his work, when he created "Songs of the Scottish Border" and his poems ("The Song of the Last Minstrel", "The Night on the Eve of Midsummer Day", "Lady from the Lake", etc.), had another character closed past. This is the essential difference between him and Goethe. This past, read by Walter Scott in the ruins and in various details of the Scottish landscape, was not creatively active in the present, it dominated itself, it was a closed world of a specific past; the visible present only evoked memory about this past, was not a repository of the past itself in its still living and active form, but a repository of precisely the memories of it. That's why fullness of time even in the best folklore poems of Walter Scott is minimal.

* That nodal point or pivot, from where the threads of associations and connections diverged in all directions, in Pindar's epinicia 18 was the glorified hero himself - the winner of the games, his name, his clan, his city.

In the subsequent, "novel" period of his work, Walter Scott overcomes this limitation (although not to the very end). From the previous period, the deep chronotopic nature of his artistic thinking, the ability to read time in space, are preserved, elements of the folklore coloring of time (folk-historical time) are preserved; and all these moments turn out to be extremely productive for a historical novel. Simultaneously with this, there is an assimilation of the novel varieties of the previous development of this genre, especially the Gothic and family-biographical novel, and, finally, the assimilation of historical drama. On this basis, the isolation of the past is overcome and the fullness of time necessary for the historical novel is achieved.

We have briefly outlined one of milestones on the way of mastering real historical time by literature, a stage represented primarily by the mighty figure of Goethe. At the same time, we think, the exceptional importance of the very problem of mastering time in literature, and especially in the novel, has also become clear.

Deprivation should be understood as any condition that creates or can create in an individual or group a feeling of being disadvantaged in comparison with other individuals (or groups), or with an internalized set of standards. The feeling of deprivation can be conscious when individuals and groups experiencing deprivation can understand the causes of their condition. But such a development of the situation is also possible, when deprivation is experienced as something else, i.e. individuals and groups perceive their condition in a transformed form, without realizing its true causes. In both cases, however, the deprivation is accompanied by a strong desire to overcome it. The only exceptions can be situations where deprivation is justified by the value system of a given society, for example, the caste hierarchy in India.

Five types of deprivation can be distinguished.

Economic deprivation arises from the uneven distribution of income in society and the limited satisfaction of the needs of some individuals and groups. The degree of economic deprivation is assessed according to objective and subjective criteria. An individual who, according to objective criteria, is economically quite prosperous and even enjoys privileges, may, nevertheless, experience a subjective feeling of deprivation. For the emergence of religious movements, the subjective feeling of deprivation is the most important factor.

social deprivation due to the tendency of society to evaluate the qualities and abilities of some individuals and groups higher than others, expressing this assessment in the distribution of such social rewards as prestige, power, high status in society and the corresponding opportunities for participation in social life. The grounds for such an unequal assessment can be very diverse. In today's society, young people are valued more than the elderly, male workers more than their female counterparts, talented people are given privileges that are not available to the mediocre. Social deprivation usually complements economic deprivation: the less a person has in material terms, the lower his social status, and vice versa. In general, an educated person ranks “higher” on the social and economic scale than an uneducated person.

Organismic deprivation associated with congenital or acquired individual human shortcomings - physical deformities, disability, dementia, etc.

ethical deprivation associated with a value conflict that arises when the ideals of society do not coincide with the ideals of individuals or groups. These kinds of conflicts can arise for many reasons. Some people may feel the internal inconsistency of the generally accepted system of values, the presence of latent negative functions of established standards and rules, they may suffer because reality does not correspond to ideals, etc. Often the value conflict arises due to the presence of contradictions in the social organization. Such conflicts are known between society and intellectuals who have developed their own criteria for excellence in art, literature and other areas of creativity, not shared by the general public. Many religious reformers (for example, Luther), as well as politicians of a radical revolutionary trend (Marx), apparently experienced a sense of deprivation caused by an ethical conflict with society. – the inability to lead a lifestyle that corresponds to their own system of values.

mental deprivation arises as a result of the formation of a value vacuum in an individual or group - the absence of a significant system of values, in accordance with which they could build their lives. This is mainly the result of an acute and not resolved for a long time state of social deprivation, when a person, in the order of spontaneous mental compensation for his condition, loses adherence to the values of a society that does not recognize him. The usual reaction to mental deprivation is the search for new values, new faith, meaning and purpose of existence. A person experiencing a state of mental deprivation, as a rule, is most receptive to new ideologies, mythologies, and religions. In contrast to this category, people who experience ethical deprivation demonstrate a deep commitment to the values they are accustomed to. Mental deprivation manifests itself primarily in a feeling of despair, alienation, in a state of anomie, arising from objective states of deprivation (social, economic or organismic). It often results in actions aimed at eliminating objective forms of deprivation.

The subjective feeling of deprivation is a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of any organized social movement. However, deprivation in itself is only a necessary, but by no means a sufficient condition for this. For a protest movement to form, the state of deprivation must be shared by many people; the existing institutions in society must be unable to resolve it; finally, a leader must appear with a new idea attractive to the masses.

Personal resources for overcoming the situation of socio-economic deprivation

Krasnodar 2006

The dissertation was completed at the Department of Social Psychology and Sociology of Management, Kuban State University

general description of work

The relevance of research. Instability in the sphere of socio-economic processes leaves an imprint on the situations that individuals have to face in the process of their development and construction. life path. This requires specialists to be prepared to be able to provide psychological support to people in difficult life situations.

The issue of "a person in difficult situations" is being developed in personality psychology, social psychology, psychotherapeutic practice and labor psychology. The study of psychological overcoming difficult life situations associated with studies of psychological defense (A. Freud, G. Vaillant, L.I. Wasserman, F.E. Vasilyuk, R.M. Granovskaya, I.M. Nikolskaya, D. Parker, J. Peri, L.Yu. Subbotina, N. Khaan, N. Endler, E.G. Eidemiller); mental and socio-psychological adaptation (F.B. Berezin, Dikaya L.G., B.D. Parygin, A.A. Rean, T.V. Sereda, A.A. Nalchadzhan, S.A. Shapkin); coping with stress (V.A. Bodrov, A. Billing, S. Carver, S. Kobasa, B.E. Compass, R. Lazarus, W. Leer, R. Moos, K. Aldwin, L. Perlin, G. Tome, S. Folkman, M. Sheyer); self-regulation of activity and behavior, regulation of functional states (V.A. Bodrov, L.G. Dikaya, O.A. Konopkin, A.B. Leonova, V.L. Marishchuk, V.I. Morosanova, A.K. Osnitsky , A. O. Prokhorov, E. A. Sergienko); activity and its role in overcoming life's difficulties (B.G. Ananiev, K.A. Abulkhanova, A.K. Belousova, A.V. Brushlinsky, A.N. Demin, V.V. Znakov, T.L. Kryukova , B.F. Lomov, V.A. Petrovsky, S.L. Rubinstein).

In understanding the content of the process of overcoming difficulties and the factors that determine its effectiveness, a special role is assigned to the resources of the individual. The term "resources" in psychology is understood in several interpretations: 1) in a broad interpretation, "resources" are included in the concept of personal and human potentials (G.M. Zarakovskiy, M.S. Kagan, G.B. Stepanova, P.G. Shchedrovitsky ), as well as in the description of life strategies (K.A. Abulkhanova, L.I. Antsyferova, A.A. Kronik, Yu.M. Reznik, E.A. Smirnov); 2) in a narrow interpretation are considered as opportunities and means of overcoming stress (P.B. Baltes, V.A. Bodrov, R. Lazarus, S. Hobfall) and elements of self-organization, self-regulation of activity and behavior (A.N. Demin, L. G. Dikaya, T. L. Kryukova, V. I. Morosanova, K. Muzdybaev, A. K. Osnitsky, S. A. Shapkin).

The problem of coping behavior resources, according to L.I. Antsyferova, V.A. Bodrov and other authors, in psychology has not yet received due consideration, since the corresponding system of concepts is still poorly formed. Thus, the main problem of the study is the need for a theoretical and empirical analysis of personal resources for overcoming difficult life situations. A variety of difficulties, specific sources of their occurrence, a variety of psychological and social consequences for a modern person create a cognitive situation in which it is necessary to analyze the features of overcoming in a wide range of life situations. That is why researchers prefer to study coping in specific life situations in order to capture the individual and situational specificity of the phenomenon. For example, overcoming family difficulties (A. Kocharyan, T.L. Kryukova, A. Libina, E.G. Eidemiller), difficulties in educational and professional activities (V.A. Bodrov, T.L. Kryukova, V.I. Morosanova), features of self-regulation in a situation of job loss (A.K. Osnitsky), in different forms individual employment crisis (A.N. Demin), poverty (K. Muzdybaev), etc.

A special difficult life situation in the structure of the individual's life path is the socio-economic deprivation of the individual. The need to take into account situational specifics in the study of coping with life's difficulties determines an additional research problem, which consists in the need to reveal the psychological content of socioeconomic deprivation, because in the psychological literature this concept has been used so far in a purely economic interpretation.

The practical relevance lies in the study of the specific content of the psychological overcoming of the socio-economic deprivation of the individual, since in the field of psychological assistance there is a lack of knowledge and ways to provide targeted assistance to people experiencing psychological difficulties in life crises.

The generalization of the obtained results will make it possible to extend the results of the study of personal resources in overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual to other life situations that are similar in their characteristics.

The purpose of the study is to identify the psychological mechanisms and personal resources for overcoming socio-economic deprivation.

The object of the study is the process of overcoming socio-economic deprivation by a person, which is part of the life path of a modern person.

The subject of the research is the content, structure and mechanisms of using personal resources in the process of overcoming social and economic deprivation by a person.

The main hypothesis of the study is the following assumption:

the achievement of positive effects of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual is associated with the ratio of motivational, reflexive, social network parameters of personal resources and the peculiarities of accessing these resources in the process of overcoming.

The object and subject of the study determined the need to formulate and test an auxiliary hypothesis:

such a difficult life situation as socio-economic deprivation of a person can be interpreted as a kind of individual employment crisis, highlighting the specifics of its prerequisites, sources of occurrence, psychological symptoms, dynamics, methods, resources and the cost of overcoming.

The following theoretical and empirical tasks were set in the study:

To analyze approaches to the psychological overcoming of difficult life situations in order to highlight the content side of this process.

Conduct a theoretical analysis of the concept of "resources", reflecting the content of the process of psychological overcoming of difficulties, substantiate the definition of personal resources, specify their criteria, content and structure.

Give a psychological definition of the socio-economic deprivation of the individual and describe its specificity as a kind of individual employment crisis, conduct an empirical verification of the theoretical definition.

To single out the psychological mechanisms for overcoming socio-economic deprivation by a person and describe the types of relationships to individual and social-environmental resources as part of these mechanisms.

To analyze the features of the use of personal resources in achieving positive results in the process of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual.

The methodological and theoretical foundations of the study were: the principle of subjectivity, developed in the theories of the life path of the individual (B.G. Ananiev, K.A. Abulkhanova, A.V. Brushlinsky, B.F. Lomov, S.L. Rubinshtein); procedural-dynamic approach to the study of personality (K.A. Abulkhanova, L.I. Antsyferova,); the principle of transaction or component perspective (A. Bandura, E.Yu. Korzhova, K. Levin, D. Magnusson); approaches to overcoming life's difficulties and the role of resources in this process, reflected in the theory of coping with stress by R. Lazarus and the theory of resource conservation by S. Hobfall, studies of coping with life's difficulties as an element of a person's life path (K.A. Abulkhanova, T.L. Kryukova, A. Libin, A. Libina, S.K. Nartova-Bochaver, Yu.M. Reznik, E.A. Smirnov), overcoming difficulties and stress in various activities (V.A. Bodrov, L.G. Dikaya, L.A. Kitaev-Smyk, T.L. Kryukova, A.B. Leonova, S.A. Shapkin); approaches to the study of personality deprivation (T. Garr, K. Muzdybaev, S. Rosenzweig, V. Runciman, S. Stoufer); the concept of individual employment crises (A.N. Demin).

To implement the tasks set, qualitative and quantitative approaches to the organization and construction of the study were used. Each of the approaches involves the use of specific methods of data collection and analysis.

Data collection methods:

In the "qualitative" part of the study, focused semi-structured interviews with people in a situation of socio-economic deprivation were used. The interview was conducted in 3 stages: 1998, 1999, 2004. The longitudinal format of this part of the study made it possible to reflect not only the content of overcoming, but also the features of its dynamics.

Quantitative data were obtained using methods and questions aimed at measuring motivational and reflexive, as well as social network, behavioral characteristics of a person. To determine the psychological effects of overcoming, the diagnostic technique of the “level of general self-efficacy” (R. Schwarzer, M. Yerusalem, V. Romek) and the scale of “psychosocial stress” by L. Ryder (adapted by O.S. Kopina) were used. Additional questions are included on psychological and non-psychological problems, socio-demographic characteristics, economic and social status, and the availability of material resources.

Qualitative data analysis methods: axial and transverse coding of interview transcripts, analytical generalization of the obtained data.

Quantitative data were analyzed using the method of criterion groups, calculation of the level of significance of differences (Student's t-test), correlation analysis based on the use of the STATISTICA statistical package.

The reliability and validity of the results and conclusions of the study is ensured by the systematic theoretical and empirical analysis of the object and subject of the study, the use of methodological principles of psychology, the use of methods for collecting and analyzing data adequate to the objectives of the study, harmonization, complementarity of the results of the analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, confirmation of the theoretical positions of the work by the results, obtained in the empirical part.

Research base and characteristics of the sample: in the "qualitative" part of the study, employees of crisis enterprises in the city of Krasnodar were studied. The main criterion for the crisis situation at these enterprises is long-term non-payment of wages; the quantitative part of the study involved employees of crisis enterprises located in four cities of Russia (Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Yekaterinburg and Krasnodar). The sample of the survey was quoted according to sex, age, education, official status, and also according to the criteria of material deprivation.

The total sample was 268 people.

The scientific novelty of the research is as follows:

A theoretical scheme for the analysis of personal resources is proposed, which includes the basis for classifying resources, criteria for determining personal resources, and ways to use them. The list of criteria for allocating personal resources has been expanded and refined: awareness of the available means or opportunities to achieve them, willingness to use, optimality, compensability, convertibility. The definition of personal resources for overcoming difficult life situations is given.

The psychological mechanisms of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation by the individual, which ensure the achievement of delayed positive results, are identified: 1) strategic and tactical planning, supported by actions to implement these plans; 2) the importance of recognition from other people; 3) concretization of ideas about oneself, highlighting one's own capabilities, not limitations, high self-efficacy; 4) taking responsibility for the possibility of positive changes in one's own life and specific situation; 5) differentiation of spheres of application of one's forces; 6) lack of global explanations for failures and difficulties; 7) attitude to social opportunities as a means of achieving positive effects.

Types of attitude to different types of resources are singled out: 1) to individual resources, differing in ideas about their own efficiency and correlated with the implementation of these ideas; 2) to social network resources, reflecting the ways of extracting resources from the network, depending on the existing image of the network. An empirical classification of positions has also been created, reflecting the links between individual and social-environmental resources.

The factors influencing the achievement of positive psychological effects of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the personality are identified, most of which are motivational (plans, claims, labor and life values) and reflexive characteristics of the personality (conclusions from the situation, explanation of the causes of the events).

A psychological understanding of the socio-economic deprivation of the individual as a specific phenomenon in the structure of the life path of the modern individual and a variety of the employment crisis of the individual is proposed. Features of socio-economic deprivation are external, socially conditioned prerequisites - non-payment of wages or a chronic lack of financial resources; deformation of the ties of the individual with the institution employment leading to material and social (status) deprivation, long-term negative experiences (a feeling of dependence on external circumstances, uncertainty about the future, self-doubt); the presence of specific mechanisms for overcoming the crisis, the content of which includes awareness, choice, use of individual and social resources; high probability of overwork, deterioration of health, decrease in psychological and social well-being during a long stay in this crisis. In its psychological content, socio-economic deprivation differs from another type of individual employment crisis - unemployment.

Theoretical significance of the results of the study.

The definition of "personal resources" is given as internal and external opportunities perceived and used as a means to achieve positive results. The important role of personal resources in the process of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual is substantiated.

The proposed scheme for the analysis of personal resources can be used in the study of various life crises of the individual.

The identified factors for achieving positive psychological and social effects specify the mechanisms of coping behavior, contribute to understanding the activity of the individual in difficult life situations.

The psychological definition of socio-economic deprivation enriches the idea of the structure of the life path of a modern person; it is important for understanding the interaction of the individual and the situation in the process of overcoming life crises.

The highlighted features of overcoming this specific situation allow us to compare the features of the content of overcoming various life crises, to expand the phenomenology of personality employment crises.

The practical significance of the results of the study lies in the possibility of creating the foundations for a more accurate, reasonable solution to personality problems in difficult life situations.

Data on the specifics of overcoming socio-economic deprivation can be used in psychological profiling in the labor market, orientation of the individual in the field of employment.

The results obtained will allow to provide targeted psychological help personality found itself in a situation of socio-economic deprivation. Knowledge of coping mechanisms and personal resources included in these mechanisms, as well as factors associated with the achievement of positive effects, can be used both by people in crisis themselves and by professionals involved in counseling.

Theoretical and empirical results of the study can be used in training courses on personality psychology, economic psychology, psychology of employment, advanced training courses for specialists of specialized organizations dealing with employment issues.

Defense provisions.

Personal resources are internal and external opportunities perceived and used as a means to achieve positive results. Personal resources must meet the following criteria: 1) awareness of the available funds or the possibility of their acquisition; 2) willingness to use them as a means to an end; 3) optimality, i.e. an adequate ratio of the goal and one's own capabilities when choosing means; 4) compensability, i.e. interchangeability; 5) convertibility, i.e. the value of resources in the social environment.

The psychological content of socio-economic deprivation is determined by understanding it as part of the life path of the modern individual, which is a kind of crisis in the employment of the individual. It is characterized by specific prerequisites and the immediate source of occurrence, psychological symptoms, methods, resources, criteria and the "price" of overcoming.

The achievement of positive results in the process of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual is due to a number of initial factors that determine the choice and use of individual and socio-environmental resources of the individual. Important reflexive characteristics of a person are clear conclusions from the situation - knowledge of ways to change the situation and an explanation of the reasons why it is not changed, not determined through resource deficits. Important motivational characteristics of a person are plans that imply the possibility of a positive resolution of the situation, plans for the future, high material claims, labor values, focused on the possibility of realizing oneself as a professional, the possibility of increasing one's official status. Of great importance is the presence of a variety of very important life values that affect many areas of the realization of the individual.

Constructive overcoming of the socio-economic deprivation of the individual is accompanied by such procedural factors as: 1) strategic and tactical planning, supported by actions to implement these plans; 2) the importance of recognition from other people; 3) concretization of ideas about oneself, highlighting one's own capabilities, not limitations, high self-efficacy; 4) taking responsibility for the possibility of positive changes in one's own life and specific situation; 5) differentiation of spheres of application of one's forces; 6) lack of global explanations for failures and difficulties; 7) attitude to social opportunities as a means of achieving positive effects.

The selected initial and procedural factors are consistent and complement each other.

Approbation of the work: The results of the dissertation research were presented and discussed at meetings of the Department of Social Psychology and Sociology of Management of the Kuban State University, methodological seminars, as well as at the International Scientific and Practical Conference of Students and Postgraduates (St. Petersburg, 2002), the Second International Scientific and Practical Conference young social scientists "Vectors of development of modern Russia" (Moscow, 2003); 3rd All-Russian Congress of Psychologists (St. Petersburg, 2003); All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference "Lomonosov 2003" (Moscow, 2003); All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference "Personality and Being: Subjective Approach" (Krasnodar, 2002, 2003, 2004); All-Russian conference "Professional self-awareness and economic behavior of the individual" (Omsk, 2005). The work was repeatedly presented at the annual scientific and practical conferences of students and graduate students of the Faculty of Management of KubSU (Krasnodar, 1999 - 2006).

The results of the study are used within the framework of the training courses "Psychology of employment", "Management of labor resources".

Publications. There are 15 publications on the research topic.

Dissertation structure: the dissertation research consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography. The text contains 2 figures, 10 tables, 5 appendices. The list of references includes 174 sources.

The introduction substantiates the relevance of the problem under study, determines the purpose of the study, its object and subject, formulates hypotheses and tasks, indicates research methods, reveals scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance, and outlines the main provisions submitted for defense.

The first chapter "Psychology of overcoming difficult life situations" provides a theoretical analysis of the use in psychology of the concept of overcoming life difficulties and the role of personal resources in this process.

The phenomenon of psychological overcoming is considered in a broad interpretation - as an element of life orientation (associated with the study of activity and its role in overcoming life's difficulties in the works of B.G. Ananiev, A.G. Asmolov, K.A. Abulkhanova, A.K. Belousova, A. V. Brushlinsky, V. V. Znakov, B. F. Lomov, V. A. Petrovsky, S. L. Rubinstein, mental and socio-psychological adaptation in the works of F. B. Berezin, A. A. Nalchadzhan, B. D. Parygin, A. A. Rean, T. V. Sereda);

in a narrow interpretation - as a phenomenon of self-regulation and regulation of behavior (associated with the study of overcoming stress in the works of V.A. Bodrov, S. Carver, S. Kobasa, B.E. Compass, R. Lazarus, R. Moos, K. Aldwin, L. Perlina, S. Folkman, C. Holohan, M. Sheyer); self-regulation of activity and behavior, regulation of functional states in the works of L.G. Wild, O.A. Konopkina, A.B. Leonova, V.L. Marishchuk, V.I. Morosanova, A.K. Osnitsky, A.O. Prokhorova, E.A. Sergienko). Based on a theoretical analysis, the content of the process of psychological overcoming is concretized, its specific features are indicated.

Empirical studies of psychological coping are usually built on the basis of two schemes: causal and process-oriented.

The causal scheme involves the allocation of factors that determine the achievement of positive, both situational and delayed results (effects) of overcoming. As situational effects of overcoming, they distinguish the solution of urgent problems and a sense of psychological well-being. The delayed effects include the transformation of the situation, the achievement or restoration of social, psychological well-being, as well as the state of health.

A process-oriented scheme involves the allocation of strategies, coping mechanisms, phases and features of transitions from one phase to another, which allows you to study the content, individual originality of overcoming life's difficulties.

The most promising is the study of the content of overcoming life's difficulties, based on the combination of process-oriented and causal schemes, taking into account the specifics of the situations that initiated it.

The result of the theoretical analysis is the choice of a working definition of overcoming life's difficulties. The understanding that has developed in psychology as an adaptive form of behavior was taken into account (V.A. Ababkov, F.E. Vasilyuk, T.L. Kryukova, A. Libin, A. Libina, etc.). Further, overcoming is understood as such ways of regulating one's behavior that provide an accessible level and form of solving a problem in a given difficult situation and directly or indirectly prepare favorable outcomes in future situations due to the optimal correlation and use of personal and environmental resources (A.N. Demin, 2001 , 2004).

There are several approaches to the definition of the concept of "resources" of overcoming:

Definition of resources as an element of the process of overcoming, which is presented as a set of mechanisms for activating and operating resources (process model of coping - P. Baltes, V.A. Bodrov, P. Wong, T. Jackson, R. Lazarus, J. Fredi, S. Hobfall, M. Zeidner, R. Schwarzer);

Definition of resources as factors of successful human behavior in the process of overcoming difficulties. For example, studies on the importance of internality (its influence on the effectiveness of overcoming) (T. Anderson, S. Carver, M. Scheier), optimism (S. Carver, K. Muzdybaev, K. Aldwin, M. Seligman), feelings of connection with world (Antonovsky), self-efficacy and self-respect (A. Bandura, T.A. Kryukova, R. Moos, D. Terry, S. Folkman). In domestic research, special attention is paid to internal psychological resources - emotional, volitional, motivational, temperamental and other personality traits (in the works of V.A. Bodrov, A.N. Demin, L.G. Dikoy, O.A. Konopkina, T. L. Kryukova, A. Libin, V. I. Morosanova, A. V. Makhnach, A. K. Osnitsky, S. A. Shapkin.).

Resources are included in the process of overcoming through motivational, cognitive, reflexive, behavioral components of the personality as a subject making efforts to overcome difficult life, stressful, crisis situations. Their presence and perception (value both in itself and as a means to achieve the desired result) determines the direction of overcoming activity and its success. Based on the theoretical analysis, the grounds for the classification of resources are generalized and specified.

We consider resources both as an element of coping mechanisms and as a coping factor associated with the achievement of positive results in order to create a holistic view of the content and results of psychological coping. Personal resources are defined as internal and external opportunities perceived and used as a means to achieve positive results. In accordance with the definition, personal resources must meet the following criteria: awareness of the available means or opportunities to achieve them, willingness to use these means, optimality, compensability, convertibility.

The content of psychological overcoming reflects both initial and procedural resources associated with a person's attitude to other types of resources that are formed in the process of overcoming a difficult life situation. Attitude can be realized subjectively (internally) as an awareness of opportunities as a means to achieve a goal and a willingness to use them, as well as in external activity in the form of behavioral acts.

The allocation of procedural resources allows one to interpret resources as a bipolar formation, when the same property, a means can be updated, become a factor in overcoming a difficulty or, conversely, a factor blocking overcoming.

In the second chapter “Socio-economic deprivation as a difficult life situation”, the understanding of socio-economic deprivation as a specific phenomenon in the life path of a modern person, a kind of individual employment crisis that initiates external and internal efforts to overcome, is substantiated.

Socio-economic deprivation of the individual is considered as a difficult life situation caused by objective deprivations that conflict with the values and claims of the individual and are perceived as a loss of the ability to satisfy the needs of different levels (both deficient and meta-needs). Overcoming a difficult life situation largely depends on the specifics of the situation, which determines the context and the main tasks of psychological overcoming.

The theoretical foundations for understanding personality deprivation are studies of deprivation as a characteristic of a situation (S. Rosenzweig); elements of theories of mental deprivation (in the psychoanalytic direction - the works of D. Benjamin, R. A. Spitz, D. V. Winicott; the theory of learning - the works of D. Bruner, D. JI. Gevirts, W. Denis; socially-oriented studies of O. G. Brima, X. G. Goff); analysis of the impact of deprivation in childhood on the development of the life path of the individual (K.A. Abulkhanova); the concept of relative deprivation (T. Garr, Davis, V. Runciman, S.A. Stoufer), socio-economic deprivation (K. Muzdybaev).

Appeal to the analysis of the structure and content of the situation due to the fact that "psychological overcoming" occurs at the crossroads of two basic categories of psychology: personality and situation. The synthetic approach is taken as the basis, which understands behavior as the result of continuous interaction between the individual and the situation, where cognitive and motivational factors are significant from the side of the individual, and from the side of the situation, the psychological significance that it has for the individual. These ideas are implemented in the psychology of personality in the principle of transaction (L.I. Antsyferova), in the social-cognitive theory of personality - in the principle of triple interconditioning (A. Bandura, W. Michel, J. Rotter,); in the psychology of all-age development - in the principle of contextuality (P. Baltes); in social psychology - in the principle of situationism, etc. (L. Ross and R. Nisbett).

For the psychological analysis of the socio-economic deprivation of the personality, the scheme of analysis of the individual employment crisis (A.N. Demin) was used, which includes prerequisites, immediate sources, psychological symptoms, dynamics, factors and methods of overcoming, criteria, circumstances that aggravate the course of the crisis, price overcoming.

The specificity of socio-economic deprivation as a kind of individual crisis of employment of a person is manifested in the following: the crisis is non-normative, because it is initiated by external objective changes in the field of employment; the crisis is determined not by a break, but by a deformation of ties with the institution of labor employment; the relative nature of both status and material deprivations is noted, while deprivations are experienced hard, because. determine the perception of the broken integrity, the sequence of the individual life path of the individual; for some, the contradictions that have arisen are softened by the possibility of satisfying certain needs, which gives this work, as well as the importance of other spheres of life.

The psychological symptoms of the crisis are characterized by various changes in the psychological well-being of the individual (feeling of uncertainty about the future and dependence on external circumstances, high stress, low self-efficacy). These symptoms, on the one hand, are not specific, they manifest themselves in other types of crises, which is emphasized by a number of authors (K.A. Abulkhanova, L.I. Antsyferova, K. Levin, K. Muzdybaev, L. Frank). On the other hand, in this situation they are the main ones and manifest themselves as clearly as possible. The main psychological criterion of the crisis is the direct antagonism between the image of the desired and the present, which is manifested in the correlation of the main problems and values that have a high degree of importance.

Psychological overcoming of a life crisis can have both immediate and delayed results. The indicators of internal success (the level of stress and self-efficacy) and external success (subjective closeness to solving the most acute problem) were used as direct results of overcoming. These criteria indicate the situational success of the individual in overcoming the crisis. Overcoming by one criterion may not coincide with overcoming by another criterion.

External and internal efforts to overcome the socio-economic deprivation of the individual, in the absence of positive results, may be accompanied by increasing overwork and a decrease in health strength caused by a large number of side jobs, a decrease in the feeling of psychological and social well-being. If the efforts made are long-term and are not accompanied by positive results for the individual, then it is possible to predict an increase, an increase in the factors blocking overcoming.

The third chapter "Empirical study of personal resources in overcoming socio-economic deprivation" describes the logic of the study, the methods used to collect and analyze data, and presents the results of analysis, generalization and interpretation of data.

When solving empirical problems, causal and process-oriented research schemes were combined. A process-oriented scheme for studying personal resources is implemented as part of a qualitative research strategy using qualitative methods. To implement the causal scheme, a quantitative strategy for constructing a study, quantitative methods for collecting and analyzing data were used. The schemes are combined according to the principle of mutual complementarity.

As a result of the analysis of the qualitative data obtained in the interview, some respondents were classified as subjects of coping behavior, while others were classified as avoiding, amotivated, or implementing defensive behavior. In this part of the study, procedural resources for overcoming difficulties are identified, which form mechanisms that reflect the awareness, choice and use of personal resources.

The mechanisms for overcoming socio-economic deprivation are identified, which allow achieving intermediate positive effects: 1) active awareness of individual resources; 2) the ability to see the situation as a set of chances; 3) the ability to see many areas of application of one's forces; 4) objectivity of assessments, intentions and plans; 5) control over the situation; 6) use of network resources: direct circulation or use as a consumer of products of own production.

The longitudinal format of this part of the study made it possible to concretize and supplement the main coping mechanisms, taking into account the achievement of positive long-term results. An objective change in the situation and positive psychological well-being was accompanied by the following mechanisms: 1) strategic and tactical planning, supported by actions to implement these plans; 2) the importance of recognition from other people; 3) concretization of ideas about oneself, highlighting one's own capabilities, not limitations, high self-efficacy; 4) taking responsibility for the possibility of positive changes in one's own life and specific situation; 5) differentiation of spheres of application of one's forces; 6) lack of global explanations for failures and difficulties; 7) attitude to social opportunities as a means of achieving positive effects. As a result, receiving positive changes in the situation, people change the criteria for success and increase the requirements for life, for other people, they value themselves more.

The content side of overcoming is characterized by the attitude towards individual, social and environmental resources and their ratio. The following types of relationships to individual resources have been identified: 1) "I can do anything"; 2) "I can because I have to"; 3) "I can only do what I can, and therefore I fight with all my might"; 4) "what can I do?". The first and second types are characterized by a mobile and broad self-image, these types are characterized by a higher and more effective activity to increase material income. The third and fourth types are characterized by limited, undifferentiated ideas about oneself, a rigid idea of oneself and one's abilities, as well as behavioral activity that does not lead to positive results.

In relation to social and environmental resources, types are identified that reflect their perception and use as a means of overcoming difficulties: 1) “infusion into a social network”; 2) network encapsulation; 3) orientation to one network segment; 4) focus on a holistic image of the network.

An empirical classification of types has been created that reflects the relationship between individual and social and environmental resources of the individual: 1) manipulation - the use of social resources to obtain one-sided benefits; 2) mutual exchange - activity aimed at building relationships with the social environment, where, with a certain share of the contribution, they receive a return that makes it possible to constructively and optimally solve problems; 3) expectation of outside help - shifting the active role in solving the problem to other people. Treat them and yourself as substitute resources.

The result of the generalization of the obtained data on the content of the process of overcoming, its procedural characteristics are the following provisions:

the achievement of positive results is associated with the awareness and use of social resources as personal, as opportunities for obtaining help, a useful result, the possibility of using them to change a difficult situation, but this action should be preceded by activity aimed at building a network with resources;

in relation to individual resources, the most effective is a differentiated positive idea of one's capabilities, an emphasis on opportunities, not limitations, and using them in real behavior as a means to achieve goals;

the strategy of relying on only one of the types of resources cannot be clearly defined as effective. The value of certain resources is determined by the specifics of the situation, previous events and experience of their use.

In the quantitative part of the study, a causal model of studying resources is implemented by highlighting the factors of constructive overcoming.

In accordance with the organizational scheme of this part of the study, which implies the fixation of initial characteristics and the absence of the possibility of fixing the final positive overcoming of socio-economic deprivation by the personality, overcoming is correlated with the achievement of intermediate positive results. Three main criteria were used as intermediate criteria for overcoming this form of crisis: subjective proximity to solving the most acute problem (external component of success), self-efficacy indicator, level of psychosocial stress (internal components of success).

According to the severity of these criteria, the respondents were divided into contrasting groups (for each criterion separately), between which differentiating parameters were identified. Below, these parameters are summarized in the description of contrast groups.

Based on the subjective proximity to solving the most acute problem, two groups were distinguished: 1) respondents who took concrete steps to solve the acute problem, but did not completely resolve it (40.7%) (only 3% of respondents managed to completely solve the problem associated with material difficulties ); 2) respondents who do not know what can be done to solve the most acute problem (39.5%). The selected variables significantly differentiate the representatives of these subgroups (error probability from p< 0,045 до p< 0,001).

People who take steps to solve material problems are constantly trying to change something in the situation and, for the most part, they are confident that the situation is solvable. They show a higher behavioral activity in the field of employment (even before the changes they had irregular earnings and are now actively earning extra money, the total number of jobs and paid employment have increased, and the amount of free time has noticeably decreased). Along with an increase in labor activity, changes in professional status are noted (qualifications have decreased and the inability to use qualifications is noted as an acute problem).

The situation is perceived by them as a set of chances, and they believe that all the chances must be used as much as possible, they try to do this and, in general, believe that they succeed. In this case, the representation, implementation and effectiveness of actions coincide. The presence of a holistic image of the situation is reflected by their correlated ideas about themselves and the situation in the time span from the past to the future, i.e. although the usual course of life is disrupted, in their view, life goes on and has various options for development.

External activity is complemented and inner work aimed at regulating one's own state (constant attempts to change something in one's state). These efforts have been met with success. It combines both problem-oriented overcoming and emotionally-oriented overcoming (in terms of R. Lazarus). They value autonomy and independence more, the presence of good and true friends and relaxation, pleasure and entertainment. At the same time, material and status deprivations are compensated by increased moral support from relatives and friends and the presence of close friends.

Those who do not know what to do to solve the most acute problem believe that the main psychological causes of difficulties: lack of knowledge, connections, confidence - they often mention such psychological problems oh, how self-doubt, inability to present themselves, uncertainty in the future, inability to navigate the situation. This indicates a lack of self-control and the inability to control the situation as the main limitations. Limitations of individual resources are also accompanied by limited social resources (a decrease in the moral support of relatives, as well as tensions in the family or the absence of relatives and friends nearby).

The designated differentiating parameters specify the coping mechanisms (identified in the qualitative part of the study) that ensure the achievement of positive results. The identified mechanisms can be specified as follows: 1) a vision of many areas of application of one’s forces (there is a lot of work, qualifications are declining, but this does not affect the feeling of one’s own strength to solve the problem, but at the same time, not everyone agrees to perform any work; not only the sphere of employment matters, but also family relationships and relationships with friends); 2) the ability to see the situation as a combination of chances and their use (the main conclusion from the current situation is to use all the chances provided by life, they do it and think that it works out); 3) active use of personal resources (assessment of oneself as a means or source of achieving the goal, the ability to offer oneself to the employer. This is accompanied by an increase in one's own activity and an assessment of one's ability to earn money - the main priority and problem in this situation); 4) the presence and use of network resources: an increase in the moral support of relatives and the presence of friends, the high value of having good and true friends; 5) the presence and specification of intentions and plans that reflect the "temporal perspective" (make general plans for the future and more often analyze the past, including own actions, and act on the most important conclusion from the situation, believe that they manage to change something both in their state and in the situation).

So, when positive results are achieved according to this criterion, attempts are combined to control and change the situation, to control and change one’s own state, accompanied by subjective success, as well as behavioral activity aimed at solving the main problem in a particular situation, and a vision of the possibility and prospects for the development of the situation in the future (temporary perspective).

The second criterion of psychological success in overcoming the situation of socio-economic deprivation is the level of general self-efficacy. Based on the data, two subgroups were distinguished: those with low self-efficacy scores (56.9%) and those with normal self-efficacy scores (40.7%). The selected variables significantly differentiate the representatives of these subgroups (error probability from p< 0,05 до p< 0,001)

Respondents with high self-efficacy scores believe that their social status has not changed. Material difficulties are not so acute, because most of them have savings and a relatively higher material income of the family. Significantly, most of them, as before, work part-time, having irregular, unregistered earnings and fees or a second paid job. At the same time, they do not want to leave this place of work, because the work makes it possible to realize themselves professionally, it is a pity for them to interrupt their professional career (career, official, professional claims are clearly expressed), but at the same time they continue to earn extra money and look for a decent job for themselves.

Thus, we can say that the crisis, although non-conflict nature of the contradictions in relations with the institution of employment in this subgroup (which is mitigated by the presence of stocks of material resources, as well as the value of not only material aspects in the existing work) is accompanied by preparatory work, which can provide a way out of the situation if positive changes do not occur at the enterprise. This strategy manifests a situational response and preparation of opportunities for development and change in the situation.

A holistic vision of the situation is reflected in their tendency to make general plans for the future and ponder the actions taken. The “successful” ones are characterized by an analysis of past events and the current situation, which allowed them to draw some life conclusions even before the start of the transformations and make sure that they are correct at the moment. They believe that the most significant resources in this situation are the knowledge of the laws, the urgent demand for what you are entitled to by law; believe that it is necessary to use all the chances that life provides, to actively establish the right connections with people, be persistent in achieving your goals, try to calculate all the possible consequences of your decisions, behave more confidently, learn to present yourself. They value themselves highly, consider them a source of resources and strength to transform the situation. At the same time, they pay attention to both introspection and analysis of the situation and believe that it is necessary to present oneself as positively and persistently as possible, use all opportunities, take everything that is supposed to.

In the group with low self-efficacy, the negative effects of experiencing a crisis situation are reinforced by the lack of savings, as well as a decrease in material support from relatives and relatives and the lack of financial assistance from relatives (although advice from relatives increases). Another factor that intensifies the crisis nature of experiences is health problems, which in this subgroup were not strong before, but now there is a decrease in its strength.

As changes in psychological well-being, a decrease in confidence in one's abilities, a decrease in independence from circumstances are noted much more often, but at the same time, the invariance of usefulness for society is practically the only thing that this work can still provide. Respondents with low indicators of self-efficacy more often indicate a desire to stay at the enterprise, suggest taking on any job, and at the same time believe that there is nowhere to go, there is no other job. Two opposite trends are observed: on the one hand, they suffer hardships at this place of work, which make them increase their activity aimed at generating income, and it is difficult psychologically to experience this situation; on the other hand, outside of this work they do not see prospects, the situation seems even more uncertain, which forces them to maintain their position, to maintain their existing positions.

Based on the analysis of quantitative data, it is possible to concretize and supplement the mechanisms identified earlier in the qualitative analysis for overcoming socio-economic deprivation. The following coping mechanisms can be specified: 1) active awareness of individual resources (perception of oneself as a source or means of achieving the goal, possessing characteristics that are important (valuable) for society, awareness of one's own value for society, the presence of diverse and highly important life values); 2) the objectivity of intentions, assessments and plans, the severity of the temporal perspective (they evaluate the past, make plans for the future, made many conclusions before the start of changes, which became stronger in this situation); 3) the ability to see the situation as a set of chances (the conviction of the need to use all the chances provided by life, the intention to use them, the conviction of the need to consistently achieve one's goal); 4) exactingness, perseverance and active positioning of oneself in relation to the situation.

In this case, maintaining confidence in one's own effectiveness in overcoming the situation is correlated with the availability of some convertible resources, which allows one not to be limited to a situational response, but to go beyond the situation, to be more demanding of it. In general, we can say that the lack of resources either blocks overcoming or stimulates behavioral activity aimed at restoring their minimum level; and the availability of resources (material, status, official, health) and their weight (value for oneself, society) enhances the role of motivational and reflexive factors, behavioral activity, which is accompanied by greater demands on the environment and a clear positioning of one's own interests.

As the third criterion of success in overcoming the situation of socio-economic deprivation, the indicator of the severity of psychosocial stress was used. This indicator is divided into two subgroups: high level stress (9.7%) and low stress (38.4%). The selected variables significantly differentiate the representatives of these subgroups (error probability from p< 0.05 до p< 0.000)

The high level of stress is associated with an increase in paid employment, including part-time jobs, but the absence of a regularly paid second job. Having increased their work activity, people fail to solve material problems (they note the low material income of the family and the presence of debts). In addition, this activity does not allow you to have opportunities for your favorite activities and significantly reduces the availability of free time, i.e. they do not see the results of their efforts and at the same time cannot satisfy other needs, they feel that losses continue, confidence in themselves and their capabilities decreases.

Assessing their ability to find another job, most believe that they are hindered by the lack of necessary social connections(blata), lack of health or no suitable work for them at all. It should be noted that they are more demanding, in comparison with the contrast group, to a “suitable job”: when looking for and choosing a job, high wages, stable pay, proximity to home and the availability of benefits are very important for the majority. At the same time, they realize that their ideal ideas and real possibilities do not correspond. Therefore, they plan to change the employment strategy: 1) they intend to increase activity (take on any job); 2) change the direction of activity (look for opportunities in another area, learn another profession or specialty); 3) switch to household chores, work more around the house (generally leaving the profession); 4) some of them note the lack of their own business as a problem, but do not plan to organize it yet.

As resource deficits, the state of health, advanced age, and deficits in social resources are singled out. We are convinced of the importance of social resources and plan to develop them to receive assistance, but have not yet done so. Moreover, they are focused not on changing the quality of existing social relations, but on increasing their number, expanding and seeking support in another area.

A high level of stress is associated with the realization of the unrealistic nature of one's claims, the inability to realize one's aspirations, which are accompanied by increased feelings of psychological distress and a decrease in faith in one's own abilities. In general, the situation and one's own psychological state are assessed as uncontrollable, one's own limitations are recognized, and not opportunities are singled out, the causes of failures are emphasized, and the feeling of dependence on external circumstances increases.

Summarizing the data obtained on the impact of personal resources on the success of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual, we identified factors that correlate with all the criteria used to achieve positive results.

Five factors significant for all success criteria have been identified. Among them: 1) one motivational - "successful" do not notice a decrease in self-confidence; 2) three reflexive ones - a small part of them do not experience psychological problems, they are ready to take on any job (but at the same time they are guided by the criteria regarding the content of the work), they believe that there is a lot of work and it can be found; 3) one socio-demographic - "successful" spent more time on their own education.

In most cases, the achievement of positive results by one criterion did not coincide with the achievement of positive results by other criteria. Among all the factors that determine the intermediate success of overcoming in one or two indicators, the following motivational and reflexive factors turned out to be differentiating:

The successful ones are characterized by the following reflexive factors - the presence of conclusions from the situation and an explanation of the reasons why they still do not radically change the situation, remain at the enterprise. Among the motivational factors are general plans for the future and specific plans; high claims; labor and life values: orientation towards interesting work and stable employment (for external success), compliance with the specialty, opportunities for professional and career growth (for the internal component of success), values of independence, independence, having good and true friends, the importance of recreation, entertainment , the values of public recognition and respect for others, self-confidence, an active active life, material security, the realization of professional abilities, personal dignity, self-respect.

These factors determine the choice and use of opportunities as a means to achieve positive results and determine the intensity and direction of activity, which is manifested in differences in the number, intensity and nature of side jobs.

unsuccessful are characterized by reflexive factors related to explaining the causes of ongoing events (the impossibility of achieving positive results, localized both externally and in one’s own characteristics), basic scarce resources (both psychological and non-psychological problems and the reasons that determine that they remain at this enterprise). Motivational factors are represented by plans to change the direction of activity (change profession, perhaps start your own business, work more at home, take care of children, look for other housing); labor and life values: focus on high pay, on stable pay, the ability to use benefits, proximity to home; stable life, the importance of good health, material security.

The identified factors differ from the factors of overcoming the main phenomenon of the individual employment crisis - unemployment. The specificity of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the personality is manifested, firstly, in a more variable content of overcoming, oriented towards achieving the internal components of success, and secondly, in a lesser representation of social network factors.

In conclusion, the results of the study are summed up, general conclusions are formulated, it is noted that the study made it possible to solve the tasks and confirm the hypotheses put forward, to verify the theoretical schemes.

Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions of the dissertation research were made:

Personal resources characterize the content side of the psychological overcoming of socio-economic deprivation as a specific phenomenon in the structure of the life path of a modern person and a variety of an individual employment crisis. Personal resources are understood as internal and external opportunities perceived and used as a means to achieve positive results.

Personal resources must meet the following criteria: 1) awareness of the available funds or the possibility of acquiring them; 2) willingness to use them as a means to an end; 3) optimality, i.e. an adequate ratio of the goal and one's own capabilities when choosing means; 4) compensability, i.e. interchangeability; 5) convertibility, i.e. the value of resources in the social environment.

Achieving positive results in overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual is accompanied by the following mechanisms: 1) strategic and tactical planning, supported by actions to implement these plans; 2) the importance of recognition from other people; 3) concretization of ideas about oneself, highlighting one's own capabilities, not limitations, high self-efficacy; 4) taking responsibility for the possibility of positive changes in one's own life and specific situation; 5) differentiation of spheres of application of one's forces; 6) lack of global explanations for failures and difficulties; 7) attitude to social opportunities as a means of achieving positive effects.

The process of overcoming is characterized by both the achievement of positive results and their absence. Of greatest importance for achieving positive results are such initial factors as the total number of years spent on education, self-confidence, willingness to take on any job, the conviction that a job can be found, and the absence of acute psychological problems.

The contribution of factors to the achievement of results is not balanced. Both "successful" and "unsuccessful" take steps to solve problems, but the content characteristics of their activity differ and are determined by reflexive and motivational factors. “Unsuccessful” focus on the causes of failures, explaining them by the lack of their own resources, have undifferentiated ideas about the possibilities of a positive resolution of the situation or believe that the resolution of psychological and non-psychological problems is impossible, are characterized by intense chaotic labor activity. The "successful" made specific conclusions (the basis of which is an orientation to individual resources and active positioning of their own interests), convinced themselves of them, know what to do, make plans for the future, focus on the content and status characteristics of the work, have a greater number of diverse and more degrees of valuable objects and states. The content side of constructive overcoming is characterized by the correlation of ideas about oneself and the situation, the conviction that it is possible to solve problems, and the implementation of these ideas in order to achieve positive results.

4. The psychological content of the socio-economic deprivation of the individual is due to the fact that it is initiated by external prerequisites - non-payment or long delay in wages; immediate sources are deprivation of social, economic and professional status; the main psychological symptoms manifest themselves in the form of uncertainty about the future, a feeling of dependence on external circumstances, self-doubt. The content side of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual has its own specifics and includes the choice and use of overcoming resources, the content of which is determined by a complex of motivational, reflexive, socio-demographic factors and some behavioral features.

Unlike overcoming unemployment, overcoming socio-economic deprivation is more variable. The constructiveness of overcoming this form of a life crisis is more manifested in the achievement of internal criteria for success, and is also less focused on the use of social network resources.

So, personal resources determine the achievement of positive results, reflect the content side of overcoming the socio-economic deprivation of the individual. The specificity of the use of individual and social-environmental resources is determined by a complex of factors, among which the reflexive and motivational characteristics of the individual play a leading role.

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Time and space in the works of Goethe

Personal resources for overcoming the situation of socio-economic deprivation

general description of work

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