5.5. Individual psychological characteristics
Individual differences are psychological traits that distinguish one person from another. Individual differences indicate the extent to which general psychological patterns are manifested in the mental activity of an individual. Individual differences are formed on the basis of the innate anatomical and physiological characteristics of a person and the influence of the surrounding social environment. The uniqueness of a personality is determined by the individual characteristics of the course of mental processes determined by the main features nervous system(neurodynamic differences), characteristics of temperament (psychodynamic differences), character, manifestations of general and special abilities, psychophysiological and social activity and needs, motives, orientation, attitudes and a person’s attitude towards himself, towards other people, towards society.
Individual psychological characteristics are of a psychological nature and vary individually.
These include:
Temperament,
Character,
Capabilities
TEMPERAMENT
TEMPERAMENT (from the Latin tempero - mix in the proper ratio) - an individual typological characteristic of humans and higher animals, which manifests itself in the strength, tension, speed and balance of their mental processes.
Temperament is understood as the dynamic characteristics of mental activity, which manifest themselves in general activity; motor sphere; properties of emotionality.
General activity determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, calm, passive, proactive, active, etc.
Manifestations of temperament in motor sphere can be seen as partial expressions of overall activity. These include: pace, speed, rhythm and total movements.
When they talk about emotionality as a manifestation of temperament, they mean vulnerability, sensitivity, impulsiveness, etc.
Thus, it depends on temperament:
1) the speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (speed of perception, speed of understanding, duration of concentration)
2) mental tempo and rhythm
3) intensity of mental processes (strength of emotions, activity of will)
4) the focus of mental activity on certain objects (introversion / extraversion)
The first doctrine of temperament belongs to Hippocrates (V century BC), who associated the manifestations of temperament with the predominance of a certain fluid in the body:
blood (lat. - sanguis) - produced by the heart;
bile (lat. - chole) - liver;
black bile (lat. - melaine chole) - spleen;
mucus or lymph (Greek - phlegm) - brain.
From the name of these liquids come the names of the four main temperaments.
The doctrine of temperament received scientific justification in theory I.P. Pavlova regarding the characteristics of the nervous system and types of higher nervous activity.
The main provisions of I.P. Pavlov’s concept of the types of higher nervous activity
1. The key to understanding the individual characteristics of humans and animals should be sought in the properties of the nervous system, and not in anything else.
2. These properties of the nervous system can, or better yet, should be studied using conditioned reflex procedures.
3. There are three such basic properties:
force
- the performance of the nerve cell and the nervous system as a whole;
equilibrium
- balance of excitation and inhibition processes;
mobility
- the speed at which one process changes to another.
They are common and constant for a given animal.
4. The combination of these basic properties forms 4 types of GNI.
5. These main types of GNI correspond to the main classical types of temperament, i.e. represent the physiological basis of psychological portraits described within the framework of the doctrine of temperament.
Types of GNI and temperament
Properties of temperament
A person's temperament (for practical purposes) can be judged by several its main features:
1. Sensitivity, or sensitiveness
- an indicator of the minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a mental reaction.
2. Reactivity
- with what strength a person reacts to certain influences.
3. Activity
- with what energy does a person influence the the world, his persistence, focus, etc.
4. Relationship between reactivity and activity
- that on which activity mainly depends: on random causes or on intended goals, aspirations, i.e. from a consciously determined line of behavior.
5. Pace
(speed) of mental reactions.
6. Plasticity - rigidity
: how easily and quickly adapts to external influences.
7.Extroversion - introversion.
8. Emotional stability - emotional instability.
CHARACTER
Character (Greek - seal, coinage) is an individual combination of the most stable, essential mental properties of a person, which express his attitude to reality and are manifested in behavior and actions.
Character depends on the system public relations and social groups to which the person belongs. In character, one can distinguish typical (expresses the general, inherent in a certain community, for example, national) and individual.
Character is most closely related to personality direction, but two people with a similar focus may reveal differences in the way they achieve goals. Behind these discrepancies are hidden character traits. Character contains a typical program of behavior for a person in typical circumstances. Knowing the character of a person, you can predict how he will behave in certain circumstances.
Character is closely related to the characteristics of the general type of GNI - hence the close connection between temperament and character. The type of temperament is one of the most important psychological conditions for the emergence of individually unique character traits.
The individual uniqueness of the emotional experiences of each typical situation in which a given character trait is manifested, as well as the individual uniqueness of the methods and qualities of action in each typical situation, depend on the personality’s relationships.
The most important thing that determines the formation of character is how a person relates to the environment and to himself. These relationships create 4 symptom complexes:
1. Character traits that express a person’s attitude towards activity, work, business
(hard work - laziness, initiative - conservatism, responsibility - irresponsibility, etc.)
2. Character traits that express a person’s attitude to other people
, team, society (sociability - isolation, collectivism - individualism, tactfulness - tactlessness).
3. Character traits that express a person’s attitude to yourself
(self-criticism - uncriticality, modesty - arrogance).
4. Character traits that express a person’s attitude to things
(neatness, economy, generosity).
Characters differ not only in individual traits, but mainly in certainty, integrity, development strong-willed qualities.
Physiological basis of character
1. Dynamic stereotype- a system of conditioned reflexes formed in response to an invariably repeating system of conditioned stimuli.
2. Properties of the general type of VND.
Character classifications
By certainty
- with a pronounced one or more features that dominates all others;
- “vague” character - not a single trait particularly stands out.
By integrity
- integral character: unity of thoughts and feelings, goals and methods of activity, beliefs, views and actions;
- contradictory (contains features that are incompatible with each other): contradiction between thoughts and feelings, between beliefs and actions, between motives and goals.
According to the degree of development of volitional qualities
- strong (purposefulness, determination, self-control, endurance, courage, boldness);
- weak (indecision, cowardice, uncertainty, often combined with stubbornness, etc.).
Character accentuations
Accentuations of character (from the Latin accentus - emphasis) - excessive strengthening of individual character traits, which manifests itself in the selective vulnerability of the individual in relation to certain mental influences along with normal and even increased resistance to others
Accentuations are the limiting indicator of normal character development, but under unfavorable conditions they can lead to the development of psychopathy, i.e. pathological characters. You can distinguish between accentuated and pathological characters using criteria for psychopathy Gannushkin - Kerbikova
1) the character can be considered pathological, i.e. regarded as psychopathy if it is relatively stable over time
, i.e. changes little throughout life;
2) totality of manifestations
character: with psychopathy, the same character traits are found everywhere;
3) social maladjustment
: the constant occurrence of life difficulties, and these difficulties are experienced either by himself, or by the people around him, or by both.
In the case of accentuation, there cannot be any of the above signs of psychopathy, at least All signs are not present at once.
Types of accentuations
K.Leongard
1. Hyperthymic.
2. “Stuck.”
3. Affectively exalted.
4. Emotive.
5. Pedantic.
6. Anxious and fearful.
7. Cyclothymic.
8. Demonstrative.
9. Excitable.
10. Dysthymic.
Classification of accentuation of the character of adolescents A.E. Lichko
1. Hyperthymic
- mobile, love communication, prone to pranks, love restless companies of the same age, restless, not sufficiently disciplined. The mood is high. Conflicts with adults and parents.
2. Cycloid
- increased excitability, tendency to apathy. They like to be home alone. Even minor troubles are difficult to cope with. The mood changes from elated to depressed. They react irritably to comments.
3. Labile
- mood changes often. Able to fall into melancholy and gloomy state without any serious troubles or interference.
4. Astheno-neurotic
- increased distrust and touchiness, fatigue, excitability. Fatigue often manifests itself during complex mental work.
5. Sensitive
- increased sensitivity to everything. They do not like large companies, gambling, or active games. Shy, timid. They are obedient and show great affection for their parents.
6. Psychasthenic
- characterized by rapid intellectual development, a tendency to make judgments, introspection and assessment of people's behavior. Their self-confidence is combined with indecision.
7. Schizoid
- an essential feature is isolation. They demonstrate outward indifference to the people around them and poorly understand their condition.
8. Epileptoid
- they often cry. They love to torture animals, tease younger ones, and mock the weak. In children's companies they behave like dictators. Typical traits are cruelty, power, pride.
9. Hysterical
- the main feature is egocentrism, they require constant attention to their person. There is a pronounced tendency towards theatricality and boasting. They often act as ringleaders.
10. Unsustainable
- increased tendency to entertainment, idleness and festivity. Absence of any serious, including professional interests. They don't think about their future at all.
11. Conformal
- obey any authority, the majority in the group. They are prone to moralizing and conservatism; their main life credo is to be like everyone else.
CAPABILITIES
Abilities are human capabilities that are manifested in activities and are a condition for its successful implementation.
Abilities are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another, only those characteristics that are related to the success of an activity or several activities. Abilities are not reducible to knowledge, skills and abilities that have already been developed in a person, although they determine the ease and speed of their acquisition
Types of abilities
are common
- such individual properties of a person that provide relative ease and productivity in acquiring knowledge and implementing various types activities are identified in all types of human activity (cognitive, mnemonic, mental, memory, attention, etc.);
special
- a system of personality traits that helps to achieve high results in any particular area of activity, corresponding to a narrow range of requirements of a specific activity (musical, pedagogical, mathematical, etc.).
Successful performance of a certain activity involves a unique combination of general and special abilities.
Depends on abilities speed, depth, lightness and strength the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, but they themselves do not apply.
The natural basis of abilities is made up of inclinations.
Makings of
- morphological and functional features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement, which act as natural prerequisites for the development of abilities. This:
- structure and functioning of individual areas of the cerebral cortex
- congenital features of the visual and auditory analyzers
- typological features of the nervous system
- functional asymmetry of the brain
- anatomical structure of the musculoskeletal system
Levels of ability development
Giftedness - high level of inclinations , inclinations. Giftedness is the result and evidence of a high level of intellectual development of an individual. There is general and special talent. Since giftedness is revealed in specific mental processes, motor, sensory, perceptual, and intellectual giftedness are distinguished.
Talent
- the highest human ability for a certain type of activity, which makes it possible successful, independent and original
carry it out.
Genius
- personal characteristic person, the highest degree of her giftedness and talent. A person’s genius is manifested in his creative activity, the results of which have social, group and universal significance
Introduction
Since ancient times, man has thought about his nature, and what he is, what place he occupies in the world, what are the limits of his capabilities, whether he is capable of becoming the master of his destiny or is doomed to be its blind instrument. Today, the problem of man is in the center of attention of many sciences and forms the basis and subject of interdisciplinary research.
Personality psychology became an experimental science in the first decades of our century. Its formation is associated with the names of such scientists as A.F. Lazursky, G. Allport, R. Cattell and others. However, theoretical research in the field of personality psychology was carried out long before this time, and in the history of relevant research at least three periods can be distinguished: philosophical - literary, clinical and experimental itself.
The needs, interests, ideals, attitudes and values of an individual determine what a person wants, his abilities - what he can do. But the question still remains about what he is - what are the basic, core, most essential properties of a person that determine his general appearance and his behavior. This is a question of character. Closely related to the orientation of the individual, a person’s character at the same time has as its prerequisite his temperament. A person’s temperament is associated with the type of nervous system; although the latter is determined by heredity, it is not absolutely unchangeable. With age, as well as under the influence of systematic training, upbringing, and life circumstances, nervous processes can weaken or strengthen, and their switchability can speed up or slow down.
The concept of “personality” is introduced to highlight and emphasize the non-natural (“supernatural”, social) essence of man and the individual, thus the emphasis is on the social principle. Personality is the integrity of a person’s social properties, a product of social development and the inclusion of the individual in the system of social relations through active activity and communication.
Carrying out joint activities, people enter into communication with each other, establish psychological contact, which, according to the famous Russian psychologist B.D. Parygin, “a complex and multifaceted process, which can act at the same time as a process of interaction between individuals, and as an information process, and as the attitude of people to each other, and as a process of mutual influence on each other, and as a process of empathy and mutual understanding each other" (V.D. Parygin. The basis of socio-psychological theory. M., "Mysl" 1971).
Quite conventionally, the diversity of communication can be reduced to two main types. The first includes contacts organized in different types of professional activities, where it is necessary to coordinate the efforts of its participants to solve certain common problems. Such communication can be called business or role-playing. Here people act in relation to each other within the framework of certain socially accepted and professionally revealed roles.
The second type of communication includes cases when people come into contact not with the goal of solving the problems of any activity, but to clarify the relationships that have developed between them, such as sympathy and antipathy, trust and distrust, respect and contempt.
Unlike business communication, such communication can be called personal, since here people respond emotionally not to the professional knowledge and skills of other people, but to their moral qualities, which are usually manifested in certain relationships with other people (egoism - altruism), to joint activities (responsibility - irresponsibility), to oneself (critical - non-critical).
Currently, it is no longer necessary to prove that interpersonal communication is completely necessary condition the existence of people, that without it, the full formation in a person of not a single mental function or mental process, not a single block of mental properties, of the personality as a whole is impossible.
Since communication is the interaction of people and since it always develops their mutual understanding of each other, certain relationships are established, a certain mutual circulation takes place (in the sense of the behavior chosen by the people participating in communication in relation to each other). And interpersonal communication turns out to be a process that, if we want to comprehend its essence, must be considered as a person-person system in all the multidimensional dynamics of its functioning (other types of communication can be called: communication of an individual with various communities of people, communication of these communities among themselves).
Chapter I. Psychodynamic (temperamental) personality traits
Interest in the problem of temperament is associated with the evidence of individual differences between people. The psyche of each person is unique. Its uniqueness is associated both with the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, and with the unique composition of social connections and contacts.
As a rule, temperament is classified as a biologically determined personality substructure. When they talk about temperament, they mean many mental differences between people - differences in depth, intensity, stability of emotions, emotional sensitivity, pace, energy of actions and other dynamic, individually stable features of mental life, behavior and activity. However, temperament remains a controversial and unresolved issue today. However, with all the diversity of approaches to the problem, scientists and practitioners recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which the personality is formed as a social being [Nebylitsyn, 2].
Temperament reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior of a predominantly innate nature, therefore the properties of temperament are the most stable and constant compared to others mental characteristics person. The most specific feature of temperament is that the various properties of a particular person are not randomly combined with each other, but are naturally connected with each other, forming a certain organization [Nebylitsyn, 2]. Thus, temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in interconnection characterize the type of temperament.
Temperament (from Lat. Temperamentum - proper ratio of parts) is a characteristic of an individual from the dynamic side of his mental activity, i.e. tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity, components of the activity of mental processes and states. [V.D. Nebylitsyn, 2]
When talking about temperament, we usually mean, first of all, the dynamic side of the personality, expressed in impulsiveness and the pace of mental activity [Rubinshtein S.L., 2]. It is in this sense that we usually say that such and such a person has a large or small temperament, taking into account his impulsiveness, the swiftness with which his instincts manifest themselves, etc. Temperament is a dynamic characteristic of an individual’s mental activity [Rubinstein S.L., 2] .
The lack of necessary knowledge did not allow for a long time to give a truly scientific basis to the doctrine of temperaments, and only studies of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans conducted by I.P. Pavlov established that the physiological basis of temperament is a combination of the basic properties of nervous processes.
Temperament is indicative of the strength of mental processes. At the same time, not only their absolute strength at one moment or another is significant, but also how constant it remains, i.e., the degree of dynamic stability [Rubinshtein S.L., 2]. With significant stability, the strength of reactions in each individual case depends on the changing conditions in which a person finds himself and is adequate to them: stronger external irritation causes a stronger reaction, weaker irritation causes a weaker reaction. In individuals with greater instability, on the contrary, strong irritation can - depending on the very variable state of the personality - cause either a very strong or a very weak reaction; in the same way, the slightest irritation can sometimes cause a very strong reaction. A very significant event, fraught with the most serious consequences, can leave a person indifferent, and in another case, an insignificant reason will give a violent outbreak: the reaction in this sense is completely inadequate to the “stimulant”.
An essential expression of temperament is also the speed of mental processes. It is necessary to distinguish from the speed or speed of the flow of mental processes their tempo (the number of acts in a certain period of time, depending not only on the speed of each act, but also on the size of the intervals between them), and rhythm (which can be not only temporary, but also forceful). ). When characterizing temperament, one must keep in mind not only the average speed of mental processes. The amplitude of fluctuations characteristic of a given individual from the slowest to the most accelerated rates is also indicative of temperament. Along with this, it is also significant how the transition occurs from slower to faster rates, or, conversely, from faster to slower rates: for some it occurs, more or less evenly and smoothly increasing or decreasing, for others - as would be jerky, uneven and jerky. These differences can overlap: significant transitions in speed can be made by a smooth and uniform increase, and on the other hand, relatively less significant changes in absolute speed can be made by gusty shocks. These features of temperament affect all the activities of the individual, in the course of all mental processes.
Temperament is reflected in emotional excitability - the strength of emotional arousal, the speed with which it covers the personality - and the stability with which it is maintained. It depends on a person’s temperament how quickly and strongly he lights up and how quickly he then fades away. Emotional excitability manifests itself, in particular, in a mood that is elevated to the point of exaltation or decreased to the point of depression, and especially in more or less rapid changes in mood, directly related to impressionability [Rubinstein, 4].
Another central expression of temperament is impulsiveness, which is characterized by the strength of excitations, the speed with which they (excitations) take over the motor sphere and go into action, the stability with which they retain their effective force[Rubinstein, 4]. Impulsivity includes the impressionability that determines it, and emotional excitability in relation to the dynamic characteristics of those intellectual processes that mediate and control them. Impulsivity is that side of temperament by which it is connected with desire, with the origins of will, with the dynamic power of needs as incentives for activity, with the speed of transition of impulses into action.
Temperament finds a particularly clear expression in the strength, as well as the speed, rhythm and tempo of all psychomotor manifestations of a person - his practical actions, speech, expressive movements. A person’s gait, his facial expressions and pantomime, his movements, fast or slow, smooth or impetuous, sometimes an unexpected turn or movement of the head, the manner of raising his eyes or looking down, viscous lethargy or slow smoothness, nervous haste or powerful swiftness of speech reveal to us some kind of aspect of personality, that dynamic aspect of it that makes up its temperament [Rubinstein, 4]. At the very first meeting, with short-term, sometimes even only fleeting contact with a person, we often immediately get a more or less vivid impression of the temperament of a particular person from these external manifestations.
Since ancient times, it has been customary to distinguish four main types of temperaments: choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic. Each of these four temperaments can be determined by the relationship between impressionability and impulsiveness as the main psychological properties of temperament. Choleric temperament is characterized by strong impressionability and great impulsiveness; sanguine - weak impressionability and great impulsiveness; melancholic - strong impressionability and low impulsiveness; phlegmatic - weak impressionability and low impulsiveness. So this traditional classic scheme temperaments naturally follows from the relationship of the basic characteristics by which we define temperament, and at the same time acquired the corresponding psychological content. The differentiation of both impressionability and impulsiveness in terms of strength, speed and stability, outlined above, opens up opportunities for further differentiation of temperaments.
The physiological basis of temperament is the neurodynamics of the brain, i.e., the neurodynamic relationship of the cortex and subcortex. The neurodynamics of the brain are in internal interaction with the system of humoral and endocrine factors. A number of researchers (Pende, Belov, partly Kretschmer, etc.) were inclined to make both temperament and even character dependent, first of all, on these latter. There is no doubt that the system of endocrine glands is included among the conditions affecting temperament. Thus, the congenital absence of the thyroid gland or a painful decrease in its activity (its hypofunction in myxedema) leads to a delay in mental functions and to sluggish, monotonous movements. Increased secretion of the thyroid gland also has a noticeable effect on the dynamics of mental manifestations. Further, excessive work of the brain appendage often entails a slowdown in reactions and a decrease in impulsivity; intense activity of the pancreas causes physical weakness and thus causes a certain lethargy.
It would be wrong, however, to isolate the endocrine system from the nervous system and turn it into an independent basis of temperament, since the humoral activity of the endocrine glands itself is subject to central innervation. There is an internal interaction between the endocrine system and the nervous system, in which the leading role still belongs to the nervous system.
For temperament, the excitability of the subcortical centers, with which the characteristics of motor skills, statics and autonomics are associated, is undoubtedly of significant importance. The tone of the subcortical centers and their dynamics influence both the tone of the cortex and its readiness for action. Due to the role they play in the neurodynamics of the brain, subcortical centers influence temperament. The subcortex and cortex are inextricably linked with each other. Therefore, it is impossible to separate the first from the second. What is ultimately decisive is not the dynamics of the subcortex itself, but the dynamic relationship between the subcortex and cortex, as I. P. Pavlov emphasizes in his doctrine of the types of the nervous system.
You cannot find two people who are identical in their mental properties. Each person differs from others in many ways, the unity of which forms his individuality.
In the psychological differences between people, the so-called dynamic features of the psyche occupy a significant place. As you know, people differ markedly from each other in the strength of their response to environmental influences, in the energy they display, in the pace and speed of mental processes. These kinds of features significantly characterize the mental activity of an individual, his motor skills, and emotional manifestations. So, for one person passivity is more characteristic, for another - tireless initiative, one is characterized by the ease of awakening feelings, and the other - composure, one is distinguished by sharp gestures, expressive facial expressions, the other - restraint of movements, very little facial mobility.
Of course, a person’s dynamic manifestations may depend on the requirements of the situation, on educated attitudes and habits, etc. But the mental differences in question also appear under other equal conditions: in the same circumstances, with relative equality of motives of behavior. These individual characteristics manifest themselves even in childhood, are distinguished by particular constancy, and are found in the most different areas behavior and activity. Many experimental studies have proven that the basis of this kind of dynamic manifestations is the individual, natural, innate properties of a person.
The dynamic traits inherent in an individual are internally interconnected and form a unique structure. An individually unique, naturally determined set of dynamic manifestations of the psyche is called human temperament.
Temperament- these are individually unique, extremely stable mental properties, caused by the simultaneous action of several psychophysical mechanisms that give behavior a certain direction and a certain range of formal-dynamic properties of the motor, emotional and perceptual subsystems. The mental tempo and rhythm, the speed of the emergence of feelings, their duration and stability, the focus on certain contacts with objects and people, on interest in oneself or in other people depend on it. The dynamic features of the psyche reveal both features of aspirations, actions, and experiences. The sphere of manifestations of temperament is general mental activity and emotionality.
The term “temperament” goes back to the views of ancient science on the nature of individual psychological differences. Ancient Greek medicine, represented by its largest representative Hippocrates (5th century BC), believed that the condition of the body depended mainly on the quantitative ratio of “juices” or liquids present in the body. Blood, bile, black bile and mucus (phlegm) were considered such “juices” necessary for life, and it was assumed that their optimal ratio was necessary for health. Roman doctors, working several centuries later, began to use the word temperamentum to denote “proportion” in the mixing of liquids, which means “proper proportion of parts,” from which the term “temperament” is derived. Gradually, in ancient science, the idea was recognized that not only bodily functions, but also mental characteristics of people are an expression of their temperament, i.e. depend on the proportion in which the main “juices” are mixed in the body. The Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen was the first to give a detailed classification of different types of temperament. Subsequently, representatives of ancient medicine reduced the number of temperament types to four. Each of them was characterized by the predominance of one liquid.
The mixture of fluids in the body, characterized by a predominance of blood, was called the sanguine temperament (from the Latin word “sanguis” - blood); mixing in which lymph predominates - phlegmatic temperament (from the Greek word “phlegm” - mucus); mixing with a predominance of yellow bile - choleric temperament (from the Greek word "chole" - bile) and, finally, mixing with a predominance of black bile - melancholic temperament (from Greek words"melainachole" - black bile).
Sanguine- a person with noticeable mental activity, quickly responding to surrounding events, striving for frequent changes of impressions, experiencing failures and troubles relatively easily, lively, active, with expressive facial expressions and movements. Phlegmatic person - a calm person, with stable aspirations and mood, with constancy and depth of feelings, with uniformity of actions and speech, with a weak external expression of mental states. Choleric - a very energetic person, fast and impetuous, prone to violent emotional outbursts and sudden mood swings, with rapid movements. Melancholic - an impressionable person, easily vulnerable, with deep feelings, but outwardly reacting poorly to his surroundings, with restrained movements and muffled speech.
Each type of temperament has its own correlation of mental properties, primarily different degrees of activity and emotionality, as well as certain features of motor skills. A certain structure of dynamic manifestations characterizes the type of temperament. It should be noted that each person exhibits manifestations in varying proportions of all four types of temperament. And only a more vivid expression of properties of any type allows us to say that a given person has a certain type temperament.
Over the many centuries that have passed since ancient science, various new hypotheses have been put forward that seek to explain the reason for the differences in the dynamic manifestations of the psyche. In the history of the study of this problem, three main systems of views can be distinguished.
The most ancient of them, the humoral theory (from the Latin humor - moisture, juice), as mentioned above, connects the cause of individual differences with the role of certain fluid environments of the body. In modern times, ideas about the special significance of blood have become widespread. Thus, the German philosopher I. Kant ( late XVIII c.), who made a great contribution to the systematization of psychological ideas about temperaments, believed that the natural basis of temperament are individual characteristics blood. Close to this point of view is the idea of the Russian teacher, anatomist and doctor P.F. Lesgaft, who wrote (in late XIX- early 20th century) that the manifestations of temperament are based on the properties of the circulatory system. In particular, the thickness and elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, the diameter of their lumen, the structure and shape of the heart, etc., which are related to the speed and strength of blood flow and, as a consequence, a measure of the excitability of the body and the duration of reactions in response to various stimuli. Long-standing ideas about the importance of body fluids have received partial confirmation in modern endocrinological studies, which have shown that such properties of the psyche as this or that dynamics of reactivity, sensitivity, emotional balance, largely depend on individual differences in the functioning of the hormonal system.
At the turn of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. the so-called somatic concept was formed, according to which there is a connection between the properties of temperament and physique. The works of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer (20s of the 20th century) became widely known, in which they substantiate the idea that differences in the types of body structure (certain features of height, fullness, proportions of body parts) also indicate certain differences in temperament. The American scientist W. Sheldon (40s of the 20th century) also put into direct connection bodily characteristics, which appear in varying degrees of development of various tissues of the body, and characteristics of temperament. Somatic theories should not be overly opposed to humoral theories. Both the type of body structure and the dynamic properties of the psyche can be a consequence of the same cause - the result of the action of hormones secreted by the endocrine glands.
The most important milestone on the path to studying the sources of differences in temperament was the appeal of I.P. Pavlova to the study of the properties of the brain. The great physiologist developed (in the 20-30s of the 20th century) the doctrine of the types of the nervous system or types of higher nervous activity. He identified three main properties of the nervous system:
1) the strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, which depends on the performance of nerve cells;
2) balance of the nervous system, that is, the degree of correspondence of the strength of excitation to the force of inhibition;
3) mobility of nervous processes, that is, the rate of change from excitation to inhibition and vice versa.
The balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition gave rise to the identification of four main types of the nervous system. Namely: strong, balanced, agile - lively type; strong, balanced, inert - calm, but sedentary type; strong, unbalanced with an advantage of excitation over inhibition - excitable, unrestrained type; weak type.
This typology of the nervous system by I.P. Pavlov associated it with temperament. Using the terminology of Hippocrates' temperaments, he wrote that a sanguine person is an ardent, balanced, productive type, but only when he has many interesting things to do that excite him. A phlegmatic person is a balanced, persistent, productive worker. Choleric is a clearly combative type, pugnacious, easily and quickly excited. Melancholic is an inhibitory type of nervous system. For him, every phenomenon in life becomes an inhibitory agent, he is distrustful, sees bad and dangerous in everything. Choleric and melancholic temperaments I.P. Pavlov considered extreme people in whom unfavorable situations and living conditions can cause psychopathological manifestations - neurasthenia in a choleric person and hysteria in a melancholic person. In the golden mean, as Pavlov put it, are the sanguine and phlegmatic temperaments - their balance is a manifestation of a healthy, truly vital nervous system.
Let us take into account that the classification of temperament types is largely conditional. The question of the diversity of temperaments has not yet been finally resolved in science. In fact, there are many more types of temperament (as well as types of nervous system) than four. Many people, although close in their individual manifestations to one of the main types, still cannot be quite definitely attributed specifically to this type. When a person exhibits traits of different temperaments, they speak of mixed type temperament.
The approach to differences in the dynamic side of the psyche from the side of properties such as the nervous system marked the beginning of a new stage in the study of the physiological foundations of temperament. In the works of psychologists B.M. Teplova, V.D. Nebylitsyn (50-60s) the ideas about the properties of the type of higher nervous activity of a person were clarified and enriched. New properties of the nervous system were discovered. One of them is lability. The rate of occurrence and cessation depends on this property. nervous process, in contrast to mobility, which characterizes the speed of change from one process to another. Exactly at functional features brain, its cortex and subcortex, in the properties of types of nervous activity (regulating the accumulation and expenditure of energy) modern science sees the immediate causes of individual differences in temperament (research by V. S. Merlin, J. Strelyau, etc.). At the same time, in last years The point of view is becoming widespread according to which the basis of temperament lies in the general constitution of the body (covering the biological foundations of the psyche at different levels), in which a particularly significant place belongs to brain mechanisms (V.M. Rusalov).
Character
Character They call a set of stable individual characteristics of a person, which develop and manifest themselves in activity and communication, determining the typical modes of behavior for the individual. The individual characteristics that make up a person’s character relate primarily to the will (for example, decisiveness or uncertainty, fearfulness) and feelings (for example, cheerfulness or depression), but to a certain extent also to the mind (for example, frivolity or thoughtfulness). Manifestations of character are complex formations and in some cases practically cannot be separated into categories of volitional, emotional or intellectual processes (for example, suspicion, generosity, generosity, rancor, etc.).
Character is not innate, but the peculiarities of a person’s natural organization are reflected both in the process of its formation and in its manifestations. Character is influenced by the type of nervous system, characteristics of the body and the functioning of other systems (cardiovascular, endocrine, etc.). From a natural scientific point of view, character is a fusion of temperament and life experiences of an individual.
Temperament leaves its mark on the dynamic manifestations of character. Features of temperament can promote or inhibit the development of individual character traits. For example, it is more difficult for a melancholic person than for a choleric person to develop determination and initiative. Temperance is difficult to develop in a choleric person.
The character of the human personality is always multifaceted. It can highlight individual traits or sides, which, however, do not exist in isolation, separately from each other, but are linked together, forming a more or less integral character structure.
Among the character traits, some act as the main, leading ones, setting the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations. Along with them, there are secondary features, which in some cases are determined by the main ones, and in others may not be in harmony with them. In life there are more integral characters and more contradictory ones. The existence of integral characters makes it possible to distinguish among the enormous variety of characters certain types of them, endowed with common features.
Character traits cannot be identified with beliefs, views on life and other characteristics of a person’s orientation. One good-natured and cheerful person can be highly moral and decent, and another - also good-natured and cheerful - but at the same time does not disdain any, including unscrupulous, actions to achieve his goals.
The main quantitative properties of character are integrity, activity, hardness, stability and plasticity.
Integrity is associated with the presence or absence of contradictory features in its structure. A holistic character is considered to be one in which there is consistency in its relations to to various parties reality and there are no contradictions in interests, aspirations, actions.
Activity is manifested by the degree of resistance to external circumstances and the energy with which a person overcomes obstacles. In this regard, they talk about strong and weak character.
Hardness is determined by the perseverance of the individual in consciously defending his views and decisions taken. Excessive strength of character develops into stubbornness.
Sustainability there is the ability to maintain the basic properties of character even with an insignificant change in the situation. Character is always something very stable and difficult to change.
Plastic manifests itself in the ability to change under the influence of a radically changed situation.
Qualitative parameters of character are manifested in actions and deeds, in the extent to which the subject is actively involved in joint activities. In this regard, character turns out to be dependent both on the content of activity, on successful or unsuccessful overcoming of difficulties, on distant or immediate prospects in achieving basic life goals. In addition, character depends on how a person relates (based on his previously established characteristics) to his failures and successes, to public opinion and a number of other circumstances. Thus, the most important point in the formation of character is how a person relates to the environment and to himself. These relationships are at the same time the basis for the classification of the most important character traits.
A person’s character is manifested, firstly, in how he relates to other people: family and friends, work and study friends, acquaintances and strangers, etc. Stable and unstable attachment, integrity and unprincipledness, sociability and isolation, truthfulness and deceit, tactfulness and rudeness reveal a person’s attitude towards other people.
Secondly, a person’s attitude towards himself is indicative of his character: pride and self-esteem or humiliation and lack of self-confidence. For some people, selfishness and egocentrism (placing oneself at the center of all events) come to the fore, for others - selflessness in the struggle for a common cause.
Thirdly, character is revealed in a person's attitude to business. Thus, the most valuable character traits include conscientiousness and diligence, seriousness, enthusiasm, responsibility for the assigned work and concern for its results.
Fourthly, character is manifested in a person’s attitude towards things: not only the attitude towards property in general, but also the careful or careless handling of one’s things, clothes, shoes, books, textbooks, etc.
B.C. Merlin highlighted the differences between temperament properties and character traits.
1. Temperament is genetically determined, it reflects the properties of the nervous system and is innate. Character is formed on the basis of lifetime relationships in the process of socialization.
2. Temperament can be defined as stable and unchanging. However, it can be masked by character, age characteristics, professional skills, motivation, etc. Character is characterized by flexibility, variability and adaptability.
3. Temperament characterizes the dynamic side of behavior. It cannot be assessed in terms of social desirability(“good”, “negative”, etc.). Character can be assessed. It reflects not the dynamic, but the substantive side of behavior.
4. Each property of temperament is manifested in every behavioral act. Character traits are more specific; they are often situationally determined.
5. Temperament properties manifest themselves automatically, primarily when control of consciousness decreases (for example, in stressful situations). Character traits depend on the cultural and social environment, on upbringing. However, second-order automatism in the form of habits is possible.
6. Temperament is associated with the emotional sphere of a person, and character, to a greater extent, is associated with the volitional sphere.
-3-INTRODUCTION
Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, and cessation. Properties of temperament to the number itself personal qualities a person can only be classified conditionally; they rather constitute his individual characteristics, since they are mainly biologically determined and innate. However, temperament has a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his individuality, so it is impossible to completely separate temperament from personality. It acts as a connecting link between the body, personality and cognitive processes.
Personality structure is a system of ideas about personality that generalizes the procedural-hierarchical substructures of personality with the subordination of lower substructures to higher ones, including substructures of abilities and character superimposed on them.
Temperament (from the Latin Temperamentum - the proper balance of traits, from tempero - I mix in the proper state) is a characteristic of an individual from the dynamic characteristics of his mental activity, i.e. tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity, the mental processes and states that make up this activity.
Temperament is a personality quality formed in a person’s personal experience on the basis of the genetic determination of his type of nervous system and largely determines the style of his activity. Temperament refers to the biologically determined substructures of personality. There are four main types: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic.
GENERAL CONCEPT OF TEMPERAMENT.
When they talk about temperament, they mean many mental differences between people - differences in depth, intensity of emotions, emotional sensitivity, pace, energy of actions and other dynamic, individually stable features of mental life, behavior and activity. However, temperament today remains a largely controversial and unresolved problem. However, with all the diversity of approaches to the problem, scientists and practitioners recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which the personality is formed as a social being.
Temperament reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, mainly of an innate nature, therefore the properties of temperament are the most stable compared to other mental characteristics of a person. The most specific feature of temperament is that different
temperament properties this person They do not combine with each other by chance, but are naturally connected with each other, forming a certain organization and structure.
The properties of temperament include individual characteristics that:
1) regulate the dynamics of mental activity as a whole;
2) characterize the peculiarities of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
3) have a stable and permanent nature and remain in development over a long period of time;
4) are in a strictly natural relationship, characterizing the type of temperament;
5) are determined by the general type of nervous system.
Using certain signs, it is possible with sufficient certainty to distinguish the properties of temperament from all other mental properties of a person.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF TEMPERAMENT.
Analysis of the internal structure of temperament presents significant difficulties due to the lack of a single content and a single system of external manifestations in temperament (in its usual psychological characteristics). Attempts at such an analysis lead to the identification of three main leading components of temperament related to the areas of the individual’s general activity, his motor skills and his emotionality. Each of these components, in turn, has a very complex multidimensional structure and in different forms psychological manifestations.
Of particular importance in the structure of temperament is that component that is designated as the general mental activity of the individual. The essence of mental activity lies in the individual’s desire for self-expression, effective mastery and transformation of external reality; Of course, the direction, quality and level of implementation of these tendencies is determined by other characteristics of the individual: his intellectual and characterological characteristics, the complex of his relationships and motives. The degree of activity extends from lethargy, inertia and passive contemplation at one pole to the highest degree of energy, powerful swiftness of action and constant ascent at the other.
The group of qualities that make up the first component of temperament is closely adjacent to the group of qualities that make up the second - motor, or motor - component, the leading role in which is played by qualities associated with the function of the motor (and special speech-motor apparatus). Among the dynamic qualities of the motor component, one should highlight such as speed, strength, sharpness, rhythm, amplitude and a number of other signs of muscle movement. The set of features of muscle and
Speech motor skills constitute that facet of temperament that is easier to observe and evaluate than others and therefore often serves as the basis for judging the temperament of their carrier.
The third main component of temperament is “emotionality,” which is a broad complex of properties and qualities that characterize the emergence, course and cessation of various feelings, affects and moods. The main characteristics of “emotionality” are impressionability, impulsiveness and emotional lability. Impressiveness expresses the subject’s affective sensitivity, his sensitivity to emotional influences, his ability to find the basis for an emotional reaction where such soil does not exist for others. The term "impulsivity" refers to the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force behind actions and actions without prior thought and a conscious decision to carry them out. Under emotional lability usually the speed at which a given event ceases is taken emotional condition or one experience is replaced by another.
The main components of temperament form in acts of human behavior that peculiar unity of motivation, action and experience, which allows us to talk about the integrity of manifestations of temperament and makes it possible to relatively clearly limit temperament from other mental formations of the personality - its orientation, character, abilities, etc.
TEMPERAMENTS OF FEELINGS.
1. Sanguine temperament of a person of cheerful disposition.
The way a sanguine person feels can be recognized by the following manifestations. This is a carefree person, full of hope; he gives every thing a moment great importance, and after a minute he stops thinking about her. He honestly promises, but does not keep his word, because... he had not yet thought deeply enough about whether he was able to contain it. He is good-natured enough to help others, but he is bad
The debtor always demands a deferment. He is a good conversationalist, jokes, is ready not to attach much importance to anything in the world, and all people are his friends.
He is not usually an evil person, but he is a sinner who is not easily reformed. True, he repents greatly, but he soon forgets his repentance (which never turns into grief for him). His work soon tires him, but he tirelessly engages in what is essentially only a game. For play is always associated with change, and endurance is not his thing.
2. Melancholic temperament of a person of gloomy disposition.
A person disposed to melancholy (not melancholic, for this already means a state, and not just a disposition to the state), attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, finds reasons for fear everywhere and pays attention, first of all, to difficulties. He will hardly make a promise, because he does not
may not fulfill it, but doubts whether he is able to fulfill it. And all this for him is explained not by moral reasons (for here we are talking about sensual motives), but by the fact that the opposite gives him trouble, and that is why he becomes preoccupied, distrustful, full of doubts and unresponsive to fun. However, when this disposition of spirit becomes habitual, it contrasts with the disposition of the philanthropist, which is more characteristic of a sanguine person, at least by impulse, for one who himself must do without joy is unlikely to wish it on another.
TEMPERAMENTS OF ACTIVITY.
3. Choleric temperament of a hot-tempered person.
They say about him that he is hot, flares up quickly, like straw, but with the compliance of others he soon cools down. There is no hatred in his anger, and he loves another the more strongly the sooner he yields to him. His activity is fast, but short-lived. He is active, but is reluctant to take on tasks precisely because he lacks self-control; that is why he willingly becomes a boss who manages affairs, but does not want to lead them himself. Therefore his dominant passion is ambition; he willingly takes on public affairs without wanting to be loudly praised. He willingly takes others under his protection and is seemingly generous, not out of love, but out of pride, for he loves himself more. He keeps order and seems smarter than he is. He likes to have means; he is polite, but loves ceremony and is tense. Pompous in
He is courteous and willingly has with him some flatterer who serves as a target for his wit, and is more worried when his proud claims are met with rebuff. A little bit of caustic wit is enough for the aura of importance to instantly disappear. In a word, the choleric temperament is the most unfortunate of all temperaments, because it causes self-reluctance more than others.
4. Phlegmatic temperament of a cold-blooded person.
Phlegm means absence of affect, not inertia (lifelessness),
And therefore, a person who does not have phlegm cannot be called a phlegmatic person and under this nickname be included in the category of lazy people.
Phlegm as a weakness is a tendency to inactivity, a reluctance to get down to business, even if the motivation to do so is very strong. Insensitivity to impulses represents a contented uselessness, and his tendencies are directed only towards satiety and sleep.
Phlegm as a force is the ability to move, not easily or quickly, but for a long time. Someone who has a good dose of phlegm in their blood warms up slowly, but retains heat for a long time. He does not get angry easily, but at first hesitates whether he should be angry.
A cold-blooded person has nothing to regret about the fact that he has a completely ordinary share of reason, but at the same time he is naturally gifted with this phlegm; although he lacks brilliance, he proceeds from principles, and not from instincts. Its lucky
temperament replaces wisdom for him, and even in everyday life he is often called a philosopher. With his temperament he surpasses others without hurting their vanity. He has an unyielding but prudent will and knows how to adapt the will of those around him to his own.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT.
Currently, science has sufficient quantity facts in order to give a complete psychological description of all types of temperament according to a certain harmonious program. However, to compile the psychological characteristics of the traditional 4 types, the following basic properties of temperament are usually distinguished:
Sensitivity is determined by what is the least force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction in a person, and what is the speed of occurrence of this reaction.
Reactivity is characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (critical remarks, an offensive word, a harsh tone, even sound).
Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (perseverance, focus, concentration).
The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what a person’s activity depends on to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (mood, random events) or on goals, intentions, beliefs.
Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and rigid his behavior is.
Extraversion and introversion determine what a person’s reactions and activities primarily depend on - on external impressions arising at the moment (extrovert), or on images, ideas and thoughts associated with the past and future (introvert).
Taking into account all the listed properties, Ya. Strelyau gives his psychological characteristics main classical types of temperament.
Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He responds vividly, excitedly to everything that attracts his attention, has lively facial expressions and expressive movements. For an insignificant reason he laughs, but an insignificant fact can make him angry. From his face it is easy to guess his mood, attitude towards an object or person. He has a high sensitivity threshold, so he
does not notice faint sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes on new work and can work without getting tired. He is able to concentrate quickly, is disciplined, and, if desired, can restrain the manifestations of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, fast pace of speech, quick inclusion in new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. A sanguine person easily gets along with people and quickly gets used to new requirements and surroundings. Without effort, he not only switches from one job to another, but also relearns, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds to a greater extent to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future ( extrovert).
For a sanguine person, feelings arise easily and are easily replaced. The ease with which new temporary connections are formed and remade in a sanguine person, the greater mobility of the stereotype is also reflected in the mental mobility of sanguine people, revealing a certain tendency towards instability.
Choleric. Like the sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, and quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than a sanguine person. Hence, greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater persistence, and possible difficulties in switching attention ( extrovert).
Phlegmatic person. It has high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sadden - when people laugh loudly around him, he can remain calm. In big troubles he remains calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, his movements are inexpressive and slow, just like his speech. He is not resourceful, has difficulty switching attention and adapting to a new environment, and slowly rebuilds skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Characterized by patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to get along with new people and responds poorly to external impressions ( introvert).
Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause him to cry, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is unsure of himself, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. A melancholic person is not energetic, unstable, gets tired easily and is not very productive. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes ( introvert).
TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER.
Temperament must be strictly distinguished from character. Temperament in no way characterizes the content side of a personality (worldview, views, beliefs, interests, etc.), does not determine the value of an individual or the limit of achievement for a given person. It relates only to the dynamic side of activity.
Although temperament cannot determine a person’s relationships, his aspirations, interests, ideals, i.e. all the wealth of content inner life of a person, however, the characteristics of the dynamic side are essential for understanding the complex pattern of behavior and character of a person. The extent to which a person shows balance in behavior, flexibility, dynamism and expansiveness in reactions indicates qualitative features personality and its capabilities, which in a certain way affect the individual’s work activity. Thus, temperament is not something external in a person’s character, but is organically included in his structure. Life impressions, upbringing and training on the natural basic fabric of temperament - the type of higher nervous activity - gradually weave patterns.
The attitude of the individual, his beliefs, aspirations, consciousness of necessity and duty allow him to overcome some impulses and train others in order to organize his behavior in accordance with social norms.
Temperament does not determine the path of development of specific character traits; temperament itself is transformed under the influence of character qualities. The development of character and temperament in this sense is an interdependent process.
Introduction……………………………………………………….3
General concept of temperament…………………………………3
Main components of temperament…………………………..4
Temperaments of feeling………………………...5
Temperaments of activity……………………………………………………….6
Psychological characteristics of temperament types……….7
Temperament and character……………………………………………………9
References………………………………………………………10
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook for higher education students. textbook establishments. In 3 books - Book 1. M.: VLADOS, 1997 - 688 p.
General psychology. / Comp. E.I. Rogov. M.: VLADOS, 1995.
Psychology of individual differences. /Ed. Yu.B. Gippenreider, V.Ya. Romanova. M.: Publishing house. – at Moscow State University, 1982.
Psychology for students. / Ed. E.N. Rogova. M.: MarT, 2004.
