18. Memory. Neurophysiological basis of memory. Classification of memory phenomena. Patterns of voluntary and involuntary memorization.
Memory- psycho. reflection of the results of a person’s past interaction with reality and their use in subsequent activities; this is a collection of psychos. models of reality constructed as a result of the experience of a given individual.
Memory is an integrative psyche. a process involving the results of sensation, perception and thinking. Information is sorted by the brain according to its significance for activity.
The accumulation of material in memory (archiving) is carried out in two blocks: in the episodic block and in the semantic (notional) memory block. Episodic memory - it stores various episodes from the life of an individual. Semantic memory targets categorical structures. All the historically formed rules of the logic of mental actions and the construction of language are stored here.
Neurophysiological basis of memory The physiological mechanism of memory is the formation, consolidation, excitation and inhibition of nerve connections. They correspond memory processes: imprinting, storing, reproducing and forgetting.
It has been established that a certain time is required (from 15 s to 30 min) for the newly formed traces to consolidate. Fresh traces that arose as a result of direct impressions are not recorded instantly, but over a certain period of time, which is necessary for biochemical processes.
The impact on the nerve cell causes a corresponding change in ribonucleic acid (RNA). This change creates the opportunity to respond to the stimulus that at one time caused this change. This ability of RNA to resonate to these influences without responding to others is what constitutes biochemical. memory mechanism.
Classification of memory phenomena and their brief characteristics
I.Depending on the purposefulness, memory processes (memorization, storage and reproduction) are divided into 2 forms:
Involuntary (unintentional)
Voluntary (intentional).
II. Depending on the type of analyzers, the signaling system or the participation of subcortical areas of the brain, it is different. types of memory:
1) figurative; 2) logical and 3) emotional.
Figurative memory - representations - is classified according to the types of analyzers (visual, auditory, tactile, motor).
III. Memory systems. In any type of activity, all memory processes are carried out, but different levels of activity are associated with the functioning of mechanisms - memory systems.
There are 4 interconnected memory systems: 1. Iconic memory - a direct imprint of sensory influence. 2. Short-term memory. 3. RAM. 4. Long-term.
Iconic memory - this is the preservation of visual images in the form of a clear, complete imprint of the sensory influences of reality for a very short period of time (0.25 s). These are the so-called afterimages. They are not associated with the consolidation of traces and quickly disappear. It ensures continuity and integrity of perception of dynamic, rapidly changing phenomena.
Short-term memory- this is the fixation of objects that fall into the field of perception. Its operation time is short (from several seconds to several minutes). The capacity of short-term memory is limited to 5-7 objects. However, when playing short-term memory images, additional information can be extracted from them. information.
RAM- selective preservation and updating of the information that is necessary only to achieve the goal of this activity. Its duration is limited by the time of the relevant activity. (remember the conditions of the problem we are solving).
Long-term memory- long-term memorization of content that is of great significance. The selection of information is associated with a probabilistic assessment of its future applicability.
Memory capacity depends on the relevance of the information, i.e. on what meaning it has for a given individual.
Depending on the individual gender characteristics, they vary types of memory. They are determined by the following qualities, found in various combinations: 1) volume and accuracy of memorization; 2) speed; 3) strength; 4) the leading role of the analyzer (visual, auditory or motor memory); 5) features of the interaction of the first and second signal systems (figurative, logical and average types).
An essential individual feature of memory is the focus on remembering certain material. (poor memory for people's names, but very accurate for economic material)
Some people remember material directly, while others always strive to use logical means.
Depending on the method of memorization and reproduction:
Immediate (direct)
Mediated_(indirect) memory.
Indirect is memorization and reproduction by association. There are 3 types of associations:
1.Association by_ adjacency. This is a type of communication without processing information (meeting a person you met in another city can evoke memories of that city).
2.Associations for contrast. This is a connection between two opposite phenomena (for example, having met a short person, you can remember a very tall person, etc.).
3.Associations similarity(for example, listening to one musician play, you can remember another performer).
Patterns of memory processes. Patterns of memory (conditions for successful memorization and reproduction) are associated with forms of memory.
1. Conditions for success involuntary memorization are:
Strong and significant physical stimuli (shot, bright light);
What causes increased orienting activity (cessation or resumption of an action, process, unusualness of the phenomenon, its contrast in relation to the background, etc.);
Stimuli that are most significant for a given individual (for example, professionally significant objects);
Stimuli that have a special emotional connotation;
What is most related to the needs of a given person;
Something that is the object of active activity.
( the conditions of a problem that we have been solving for a long time are involuntarily and firmly remembered).
2.Conditions for successful voluntary memorization are:
Understanding the significance and meaning of what is perceived;
Establishing a logical relationship between its elements;
Drawing up a text plan, highlighting key words;
- schematization of material.
Particularly firmly remembered is the material that is object of active mental activity, undergoes logical processing, generalization, systematization, etc. Memorization becomes more successful when associations are established. Makes it easier to memorize diagrams and tables.
When the material cannot be processed logically, special mnemonic techniques - artificial associations are created(a technique for remembering the sequence of colors of the spectrum - Every Hunter Wants to Know Where the Pheasants Sit).
Voluntary memorization can be mechanical, but its scope is quite limited. (3-4 isolated objects (with their simultaneous perception)). If the subject is given a row of 10 syllables, then the first and last ones are remembered more easily, but the middle ones worse, since the first ones do not experience proactive inhibition, and the last ones do not experience retroactive inhibition. Averages experience both. This pattern of memory (better memorization of extreme elements) is called "edge factor".
Proactive braking - inhibition from previous elements. R retroactive- subsequent ones.
When moving from memorizing one material to memorizing another, it is necessary to take breaks (at least 15 minutes), which prevent the negative induction of retroactive inhibition.
To expand the volume of mechanical voluntary memory, it is important to give the perceived material a certain structure and group it. A series of 16 isolated numbers: 1001110101110011 is easier to remember if you group it in the form of two-digit numbers: 10 01 11 ...In the form of four-digit numbers it is even easier: 1001 1101 0111 OOP. The consolidation of elements into groups reduces the number of those elements that cause pro- and retroactive inhibition.
Meaningful voluntary memory based on the establishment of semantic connections (axe-firewood, law-crime)
Memorizing a large volume of logical material is accompanied by the following actions:
1) the material is divided into semantic parts;
2) the structure of each part, the relationships between its elements are established, the content is briefly formulated;
3) a logical sequence of all parts is established. This sequence is formulated in the form of a system of reference words. (text of the report: introduction, significance of the problem, two facts, conclusion).
The main criterion for memorization is playback .
Reproduction associated with overcoming difficulties is called recollection.
Reproduction associated with the temporal and spatial localization of past events is called a memory.
Reproducible images of objects and phenomena are called. representations. They are divided into types corresponding to the types of perceptions (visual, auditory, etc.). Thus, artists usually have developed visual perceptions, musicians - auditory ones, and dancers - motor ones.
Along with memorization, preservation, and reproduction, the memory process is also forgetting. Physiological the basis of this process is the inhibition of temporary nerve connections (but they only fade away and do not disappear completely).
The process of forgetting is uneven. Forgetting occurs most intensively in the first time after memorization, and then it slows down somewhat (this pattern, depicted graphically, is called the Ebbinghaus curve).
Forgetting is an expedient process if it concerns material that is not essential.
Chapter 3. Psychology of cognitive processes
2. Patterns of memory
Memory is a form of mental reflection that consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.
Memory connects a subject’s past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.
Memory is the basis mental activity. Without it, it is impossible to understand the basics of the formation of behavior, thinking, consciousness, and subconsciousness. Therefore, to better understand a person, it is necessary to know as much as possible about our memory.
Images of objects or processes of real reality that we previously perceived and now mentally reproduce are called representations.
Memory representations are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses. Representations of the imagination are ideas about objects that we have never perceived in such combinations or in such a form. Representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter serve only as material from which we create new ideas with the help of imagination.
Memory is based on associations or connections. Objects or phenomena that are connected in reality are also connected in human memory. We can, having encountered one of these objects, by association remember another associated with it; to remember something means to connect what you want to remember with something already known, to form an association.
From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast. Association by contiguity combines two phenomena related in time or space. Such an association by contiguity is formed, for example, when memorizing the alphabet: when naming a letter, the one that follows it is remembered. Association by similarity connects two phenomena that have similar features: when one is mentioned, the other is remembered.
Association by contrast connects two opposite phenomena.
In addition to these types, there are complex associations - associations in meaning; they connect two phenomena that in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These connections, associations in meaning, are the basis of our knowledge.
To form a temporary connection, the repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required; to form an association, repetition is required. But repetitions alone are not enough. Sometimes many repetitions do not produce results, and sometimes, on the contrary, a connection occurs in one go, if a strong focus of excitation has arisen in the cerebral cortex, facilitating the formation of a temporary connection.
A more important condition for the formation of an association is business reinforcement, i.e. inclusion of what needs to be remembered in the actions of students, their application of knowledge in the process of assimilation.
The basic processes of memory are remembering, retention, recognition and recall.
Memorization is a process aimed at preserving received impressions in memory, a prerequisite for preservation.
preservation is a process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, and mastery of it.
reproduction and recognition are processes of restoration of what was previously perceived. The difference between them is that recognition takes place when the object is encountered again, when it is perceived again. reproduction occurs in the absence of the object.
Types of memory:
Impairment of immediate memory, or “Korsakov syndrome,” manifests itself in the fact that memory for current events is impaired, a person forgets what he just did, said, saw, so the accumulation of new experience and knowledge becomes impossible, although previous knowledge may be preserved.
Disturbances in the dynamics of mnestic activity may be observed (B.V. Zeigarnik): a person remembers well, but after a short time he cannot do it, for example, a person memorizes 10 words. And after the 3rd presentation, he remembered 6 words, and after the fifth, he could only say 3 words, after the sixth, again 6 words, i.e. fluctuations in mnestic activity occur. This memory impairment is often observed in patients with vascular diseases of the brain, as well as after brain injury, after intoxication as a manifestation of general mental exhaustion. Quite often, forgetfulness, inaccurate assimilation of information, and forgetting of intentions occur as a consequence of a person’s emotional instability.
There are also disorders of indirect memory, when indirect methods of memorization, for example, drawings, symbols associated with certain information, do not help, but complicate the functioning of memory, i.e. hints do not help in this case, but hinder.
If, with full functioning of memory, the “Zeigarnik effect” is observed, i.e. unfinished actions are remembered better, then with many memory disorders there is also a violation of the motivational components of memory, i.e. unfinished actions are forgotten.
Interesting facts about memory deceptions, which usually take the form of extremely one-sided selectivity of memories, false memories (confibulation) and memory distortions. They are usually caused by strong desires, unsatisfied needs and drives. The simplest case: a child is given candy, he quickly eats it, and then “forgets” about it and quite sincerely proves that he did not receive anything. It is practically impossible to convince him (like many adults) in such cases. Memory easily becomes a slave to human passions, prejudices and inclinations. That is why unbiased, objective memories of the past are very rare. Memory distortions are often associated with a weakening of the ability to distinguish between one’s own and someone else’s, between what a person actually experienced and what he heard or read about. With repeated repetition of such memories, their complete personification occurs, i.e. a person quite naturally and organically considers other people’s thoughts and ideas, which he himself sometimes rejected, to be his own, and recalls the details of events in which he never participated. This shows how closely memory is related to imagination, fantasy and what is sometimes called psychological reality.
It turned out that the same subcortical areas (primarily the limbic system) that are responsible for affective and motivational activation of the psyche play a major role in consolidating information.
It was found that damage to the occipital lobes of the brain causes visual impairment, the frontal lobes - emotions, destruction of the left hemisphere negatively affects speech, etc. But, to everyone’s surprise, until very recently it was necessary to acknowledge the fact that not only animals, but also people can endure extensive brain damage without obvious memory impairment. The only pattern discovered was of a very general nature: the more extensive the brain damage, the more serious its consequences for memory. This situation is called the law of mass action: memory is destroyed in proportion to the weight of the destroyed brain tissue. Even removing 20% of the brain (with surgical operations) does not lead to memory loss. Therefore, doubts arose about the existence of a localized memory center; a number of psychologists unequivocally argued that the entire brain should be considered a memory organ.
With direct influence on certain areas of the brain, complex chains of memories can emerge in consciousness, i.e. a person suddenly remembers something that he had long forgotten, and easily continues to remember what was “forgotten” after the operation. Secondly, if not a memory center, then at least a section was found that regulates the transfer of data from short-term memory to long-term memory, without which memorizing newly received new information is impossible. This center is called the hippocampus and is located in the temporal lobe of the brain. After bilateral hippocampal ablation, patients retained memory of what happened before surgery, but no new data were observed.
They also try to influence memory processes using pharmacological and physical factors. Many scientists believe that searches in the field of memory management should be aimed at creating biologically active compounds that selectively affect learning processes (for example, caffeine, biogenic amines), short-term or long-term memory (substances that inhibit the synthesis of DNA and RNA, affecting protein metabolism etc.), on the creation and formation of engrams - substances that influence the change in cell proteins (from protoplasm to soma).
Nowadays, the study of pharmacological agents that affect memory is proceeding rapidly. It has been established that long-known pituitary hormones can serve as memory stimulants. “Short” chains of amino acids - peptides, especially vasopressin and corticotropin, significantly improve short-term and long-term memory.
According to the hypothesis about the physical structure of memory, the basis of the memory phenomenon is the spatiotemporal pattern of bioelectrical activity of nerve populations - discrete and electrotonic. Therefore, to manage memory, it is more adequate to influence the brain and its subsystems by electrical and electromagnetic factors. Success can be achieved by influencing the brain with various physical factors - electrical and acoustic.
All this speaks to the real possibility of memory management.
Memory can be developed, trained, significantly improved, and its productivity increased. Memory productivity consists of the following parameters: volume, speed, accuracy, duration, readiness for memorization and reproduction. Memory productivity is influenced by subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include: a person’s interest in information, the chosen type of memorization, the memorization techniques used, innate abilities, the state of the body, previous experience, the person’s attitude. Objective factors influencing memory productivity include: the nature of the material, the amount of material, the clarity of the material, its rhythm, meaningfulness and intelligibility, its coherence and the particularity of the environment in which memorization occurs.
To summarize, we emphasize that memory ensures the integrity and development of a person’s personality and occupies a central position in the system of cognitive activity.
CONTROL QUESTIONS
- Is intelligent activity possible without attention? What types and qualities of attention do a person exhibit?
- What practically needs to be done to prevent forgetting important material? What factors influence forgetting?
- How does RAM differ from short-term memory? What types and processes of memory are you most effective at?
- What are mnemonics?
- How do memory disorders manifest themselves?
- Why is memory central to cognitive activity?
- What methods exist for influencing human memory?
LITERATURE
- Atkinson R. Human memory and the learning process. M., 1980
- Vein A.M., Kamenetskaya B.I. Human memory. M., 1973
- Atkinson R. Memory and care for it. Eagle, 1992
- Andreev O.A., Khromov L.N. Memory training technique. Ekaterinburg, 1992
- Baskakova I.L. preschooler's attention, development methods. M., 1993
- Golubeva E.A. Individual characteristics memory. M., 1980
- Godefroy J. What is psychology. M., 1994
- Leser F. Memory training. M., 1990
- Lapp D. Improving memory at any age. M., 1993
- Matyugin I.Yu., Chaekaberya E.I. Development of figurative memory. M., 1993
- Normand D. Memory and learning. M., 1985
- V.A. will post Memory. St. Petersburg, 1993
- Shabanov P.D., Borodkin Yu.S. Memory impairments and their correction. L., 1989
- Memory development. Riga, 1991
Memorization
Unintentional remembering
Brainstorm
If you want to think creatively, you must learn to give your thoughts complete freedom and not try to direct them in a certain direction. It is called free association. A person says whatever comes to his mind, no matter how absurd it may seem. Free association was originally used in psychotherapy, but is now also used for group problem solving and is called brainstorming .
Brainstorming is widely used to solve various industrial, administrative and other problems. The procedure is simple. A group of people gathers to freely associate on a given topic: how to speed up the sorting of correspondence, how to get money for the construction of a new center, or how to sell more prunes. Each participant offers whatever comes to his mind and sometimes does not seem relevant to the problem. Criticism is prohibited. The goal is to get as many new ideas as possible, because the more ideas that are proposed, the greater the chance of a truly good idea. Ideas are carefully written down and, at the end of the brainstorming session, critically evaluated, usually by another group of people.
Creative thinking in the group is based on the following psychological principles (Osborne, 1957):
1. The group situation stimulates the processes of developing new ideas, which is an example of a kind of social assistance. It has been found that a person of average ability can come up with almost twice as many solutions when he works in a group than when he works alone. In a group, he is influenced by many different decisions, the thought of one person can stimulate another, etc. At the same time, experiments show that the best results are obtained by optimal alternation of periods of individual and group thinking.
2. In addition, the group situation causes competition between group members. As long as this competition does not create critical and hostile attitudes, it helps to intensify the creative process, as each participant tries to outdo the other in putting forward new proposals.
3. As the number of ideas increases, their quality increases. The last 50 ideas tend to be more useful than the first 50. This is obviously due to the fact that the group becomes more and more interested in the task.
4. Brainstorming will be more effective if group members stay together for several days. The quality of the ideas they propose at the next meeting will be higher than at the first. Apparently, for some ideas to appear, a certain period of “maturation” is required.
5. It is psychologically correct that the evaluation of proposed ideas is carried out by other people, since usually the shortcomings of one’s own creativity are noticed with great difficulty.
32. Methods for studying thinking.
Until the 20th century, there was only the method of introspection.
Lushchikhina identifies the following methods:
1) Observation method. The emotional components of behavioral reactions are recorded.
2) Conversation method.
3) Questionnaire.
4) Laboratory experiment. Lots of shortcomings. It is necessary to create interference.
5) Testing. A sampling norm is always required. Thus, comparison is always necessary.
6) Self-observation.
7) Modeling of thought processes. Concrete modeling is very difficult. Usually mathematical, abstract modeling.
8) Psychophysiological methods. Indicators of complexity, degree of interest. Implantation of electrodes.
It is advisable to always use a battery of methods.
Specific methods almost always diagnose certain properties of thinking.
Examples of techniques: Lachins technique, “Verbal Labyrinth”, Vygotsky-Sakharov technique, Chain Associative Experiment.
33.Nature and types of imagination. Imagination and creativity
The process of reflecting actual reality beyond existing connections and relationships is called imagination. It is aimed at creating products that have no analogues in reality and replace it. Imagination is a special form human psyche, standing separately from other mental processes and at the same time occupying an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory. Specifics: imagination is probably characteristic only of humans and is in a certain way connected with the activities of the body, being at the same time the most “mental” of all mental processes and states.
Imagination is a process of cognition; it can predict trends in the development of reality, setting directions for this path. The degree of activity of the imagination determines its classification. There are two types of imagination. Passive imagination includes sleep, daydreams, daydreams, and active imagination includes reproductive and creative imagination.
Visions that appear to a person either in a dream or in delirium do not depend on his desires to see this particular image. Dreams imply the ability to evoke their content at your own discretion. Dreams are a more active version of dreams; they are an image of a desired future, more connected to reality than dreams. A person usually tries to turn them into reality.
Recreating images created by others is associated with the reproductive imagination. At the same time, not only the content is regulated, but also the brightness and liveliness of the images.
Creative imagination offers the greatest activity and subjectivity when the content of the product depends entirely on the author, on his thoughts, feelings, and experience.
In imagination (as in thinking) several operations are used: combination, agglutination, hyperbolization, typification. Agglutination is a special type of combination; it connects parts that are incompatible in reality.
The brightness and expressiveness of the image is increased by hyperbolization. She highlights only some of his individual features. Emphasis is associated with the deliberate strengthening of one feature of the image. Its peculiarity is that here a detail is highlighted that becomes dominant.
Imagination is also connected with such aspects of the psyche as thinking, emotions, and memory.
Strong emotions stimulate the imagination, but not only do feelings trigger the imagination, but the imagination also increases experiences.
Imagination in difficult situations when solving complex problems replaces thinking, helping to fill the missing imagination.
Functions of imagination: 1)representation of reality in images, as well as creating the opportunity to use them when solving problems; 2) regulation of emotional states; 3) voluntary regulation of cognitive processes and human states, in particular perception, attention, memory, speech, emotions; 4) formation internal plan actions - the ability to perform them internally, manipulating images; 5) planning and programming activities, drawing up programs, assessing their correctness, and the implementation process.
| Imagination and creativity |
The role of imagination in the creative process cannot be overestimated. Creativity is closely related to all mental processes, including imagination. The degree of development of imagination and its characteristics are no less important for creativity than, say, the degree of development of thinking.
The psychology of creativity manifests itself in all its specific types: inventive, scientific, literary, artistic, etc. What factors determine the possibility of creativity of a particular person? The possibility of creativity is largely provided by the knowledge a person has, which is supported by appropriate abilities, and is stimulated by a person’s determination. The most important condition for creativity is the presence of certain experiences that create the emotional tone of creative activity.
The problem of creativity has always been of interest not only to psychologists. The question of what allows one person to create, and deprives another of this opportunity, worried the minds of famous scientists. For a long time, the prevailing view was that it was impossible to algorithmize and teach the creative process, which was substantiated by the famous French psychologist T. Ribot. He wrote: “As for the “methods of invention”, about which many scientific discussions have been written, they actually do not exist, since otherwise it would be possible to fabricate inventors in the same way as mechanics and watchmakers are now fabricated " However, gradually this point of view began to be questioned. The hypothesis that the ability to be creative can be developed came first.
Thus, the English scientist G. Wallace made an attempt to study the creative process. As a result, he was able to identify four stages of the creative process:
1. Preparation (idea generation).
2. Maturation (concentration, “contraction” of knowledge directly and indirectly related to a given problem, obtaining missing information).
3. Insight (intuitive grasp of the desired result).
4. Check.
Another scientist, G.S. Altshuller, developed a whole theory of solving creative problems. He identified five levels of creativity. Problems of the first level are solved by using means specifically intended for these purposes. This requires a mental search of only a few generally accepted and obvious solution options. In this case, the object itself does not change. The means for solving such problems are within one narrow specialty. Second-level tasks require some modification of the object to obtain the desired effect. The selection of options in this case is measured in dozens. Moreover, the means for solving such problems belong to one branch of knowledge.
The correct solution to problems of the third level is hidden among hundreds of incorrect ones, since the object being improved must be seriously changed. Techniques for solving problems at this level must be sought in related fields of knowledge. When solving problems of the fourth level, the object being improved changes completely. The search for solutions is carried out, as a rule, in the field of science, among rarely encountered effects and phenomena. At the fifth level, problem solving is achieved by changing the entire system, which includes the object being improved. Here the number of trials and errors increases many times over, and the means for solving problems of this level may be beyond the capabilities of today's science. Therefore, you first need to make a discovery, and then, based on new scientific data, solve a creative problem.
According to Altshuller, one of the important techniques for solving creative problems is to transfer them from higher levels to lower ones. For example, if tasks of the fourth or fifth level are transferred to the first or second level using special techniques, then the usual enumeration of options will work. The problem comes down to learning how to quickly narrow the search field, turning a “difficult” task into an “easy” one.
Thus, despite the apparent ease, arbitrariness, and unpredictability of emerging images, the creative transformation of reality in the imagination is subject to its own laws and is carried out in certain ways. New ideas arise on the basis of what was already in consciousness, thanks to the operations of analysis and synthesis. Ultimately, the processes of imagination consist in the mental decomposition of initial ideas into their component parts (analysis) and their subsequent combination in new combinations (synthesis), i.e. they are analytical-synthetic in nature. Consequently, the creative process relies on the same mechanisms that are involved in the formation of ordinary images of the imagination.
Memorization: types, conditions for effective memorization
Memorization- This is the process of imprinting and subsequent storage of perceived information. Based on the degree of activity of this process, it is customary to distinguish two types of memorization: unintentional (or involuntary) and intentional (or voluntary).
Unintentional remembering- this is memorization without a predetermined goal, without using any techniques or demonstrating volitional efforts. This is a simple imprint of what affected a person and retained some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex.
In contrast to involuntary memorization, voluntary (or intentional) memorization is characterized by the fact that a person sets a specific goal - to remember certain information - and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a special and complex mental activity subordinate to the task of remembering. In addition, voluntary memorization includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve a goal. Such actions, or methods of memorizing material, include memorization, the essence of which is repeated repetition. educational material until it is completely and accurately memorized.
The main feature of intentional memorization– this is a manifestation of volitional efforts in the form of setting a memorization task. Repeated repetition allows you to reliably and firmly remember material that is many times greater than the capacity of individual short-term memory. Such activity, aimed at memorizing and then reproducing retained material, is called mnemonic activity.
Mnemonic activity is a specifically human phenomenon, since only in humans does memorization become special task, and memorizing the material, storing it in memory and remembering it - in a special form conscious activity. At the same time, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions. Therefore, mnemonic activity is always selective.
Another characteristic of the memorization process is the degree of comprehension of the memorized material. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between meaningful and mechanical memorization.
Memory productivity depends and on how memorization is carried out: in general or in parts. In psychology, there are three ways to memorize large amounts of material: holistic, partial and combined. The first method (holistic) is that the material (text, poem, etc.) is read from beginning to end several times until completely mastered. In the second method (partial), the material is divided into parts and each part is learned separately. First, one part is read several times, then the second, then the third, etc. The combined method is a combination of holistic and partial. The material is first read in its entirety one or several times depending on its volume and nature, then difficult parts are highlighted and memorized separately, after which the entire text is read in its entirety again. If the material, for example, a poetic text, is large in volume, then it is divided into stanzas, logically complete parts, and memorization occurs in this way: first, the text is read once or twice from beginning to end, its general meaning, then each part is memorized, after which the material is read in its entirety again.
Thus, for successful memorization it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the mechanisms of the memorization process and use a variety of mnemonic techniques.
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Introduction
Chapter 1. Review of psychological literature on the problem of memory
1.1 Views of famous psychologists on the nature of memory
1.2 Types of memory
1.3 Involuntary memorization and conditions for its productivity
Chapter 1 Conclusion
Chapter 2. Study of involuntary memorization and the conditions for its productivity
2.1 Organization of the Empirical Study
2.2 Data processing and analysis of empirical research results
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
INVeating
Memory is one of the most important properties of human life. After all, if there were no memory, everything that happens in our lives, all events, both good and bad, would pass through us, leaving no trace, and, therefore, not giving us experience. It is memory that allows us to develop; in a sense, memory is the basis of any cognitive process. A person who has lost his memory literally loses a part of himself, a part of his personality.
The problem of memory was discussed by the philosophers of Ancient Greece, for example, Plato, in his work “Theaetetus,” compared human memory to a wax tablet on which remains an imprint of everything that we feel, see, experience, of everything that we want to remember.
In the Middle Ages, the philosopher Augustine, in his “Confessions,” compared memory with the chambers of a palace filled with treasures of memories, and called the sense organs (nose, mouth, eyes, etc.) the doors of this palace, through which treasures enter their chambers, where stored, sometimes unconsciously, until one day you want to look at them.
In the 20th century, Sigmund Freud compared memory to an “eternal notepad,” a device that at that time became a kind of novelty, but today it is more like a children’s toy, where you can write any information with a stick and then easily erase it. The surface is clean again and ready to accept new information, but the inside of the notebook remains imprinted with what was written.
The founder of scientific psychological analysis G. Ebbinghaus is considered to have memory problems. He was the first to set the task of an experimental study of memory, developed methods for measuring mnemonic processes, and in the course of his experimental work established the laws that govern the processes of memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.
G. Ebbinghaus took the position of associationism; he understood memory as the formation of associations. P. Janet put forward a hypothesis about the social nature of human memory, believing that memory could only arise in human society. Studies of human memory from the point of view of the ontogenetic approach were carried out by Soviet scientists P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev and others. Another group of works consisted of fundamental studies of the patterns of involuntary memorization, which were carried out by such scientists as P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov.
The problem of memory has not yet been fully studied, and, undoubtedly, remains relevant in our time. For me personally, involuntary memorization is of particular interest; in my opinion, the study of this type of memory has received undeservedly little attention, compared to other types of memory.
Purpose: to study the conditions for the productivity of involuntary memorization.
Object: Memory and its types.
Subject: conditions for the productivity of involuntary memorization.
1. Analyze the main scientific approaches and directions in the field of development of memory problems.
2. Consider and characterize the main types of memory.
3. Identify the conditions for the productivity of involuntary memorization.
memory involuntary memorization productivity
Chapter 1.Review of psychological literature on the problem of memory
1.1 Views of famous psychologists on the nature of memory
Pacrush-- one of the mental functions and types of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store information about events in the surrounding world and the body’s reactions for a long time and repeatedly use it in the sphere of consciousness to organize subsequent activities.
The Soviet psychologist S.L. Rubinstein spoke very accurately, but at the same time very poetically about memory: “Without memory, we would be creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it passes, would irrevocably disappear into the past. There would be no knowledge or skills based on the past. There would be no mental activity, closing in the unity of personal consciousness, and the fact of essentially continuous learning, passing through our entire life and making us what we are, would be impossible.”
Modern research in the field of memory examines it from different points of view and based on different approaches. The most widely used associative theories of memory. According to these theories, objects and phenomena are captured and reproduced not in isolation from each other, but in connection with each other, as expressed by the Russian scientist I.M. Sechenov “in groups or rows”. The reproduction of some of them entails the reproduction of others, which is explained by the objective real connections of phenomena and objects. Under their influence, temporary connections appear in the cerebral cortex, which serve as the physiological basis for memorization and reproduction. In psychological science, such connections were considered as associations. Some of the associations are a reflection of spatio-temporal reflections of objects and phenomena (for example, associations by contiguity), others reflect their similarity (by similarity), others reflect the opposite (by contrast), and others reflect cause-and-effect relationships (associations by causality) . A truly scientific justification for the principle of associations was first given by I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov. According to I.P. Pavlov, associations are nothing more than a temporary connection that arises as a result of the simultaneous or sequential action of two or more stimuli.
Analyzing memory processes, W. James also noted their associative nature. By memory, W. James understands knowledge about a past mental state after it has ceased to be directly conscious of us, i.e. memory is knowledge about an event or fact that a person is not thinking about at the moment and which he is aware of as a phenomenon of the past. The reason for memorization and recollection, according to W. James, is the law of habituation in the nervous system, which plays the same role as in the association of ideas. Based on the same associative theory, W. James explains the conditions for the development of good memory, associating with it the ability to form numerous and diverse associations with any fact that a person wants to retain in memory.
W. James’s thoughts on the development of human memory have not lost their relevance in our time. His thoughts on preparing for exams are especially interesting. He notes that the “memorization method” does not justify itself, because with its help, strong associations with other objects are not created in the human mind. Thoughts and knowledge acquired through simple rote learning are inevitably forgotten. According to his recommendations, the mental material that is acquired by memory should be collected in connection with various contexts, illuminated from different points of view and associated with other external events, while being repeatedly discussed. Only in this way will the perceived material be able to form a system within which it will enter into connection with other elements of the intellect and will remain in memory for a long time.
Memory research within neural and biochemical theories. The most common hypothesis about the physiological processes underlying memorization was the hypothesis of D.O. Hebb (1949). His hypothesis was based on two memory processes - short-term and long-term. It was believed that the mechanism of short-term memory is the reverberation (circulation) of electrical impulse activity in closed circuits of neurons. Long-term storage is based on stable morphofunctional changes in synaptic conductivity. Thus, memory passes from short-term to long-term form through the process of consolidation, which develops when nerve impulses repeatedly pass through the same synapses. Therefore, a short-term process that lasts at least a few tens of seconds of reverberation is assumed to be necessary for long-term storage.
In 1964, G. Hiden put forward a hypothesis about the role of RNA in memory processes. Since DNA contains the genetic memory for each individual organism, Hiden proposed the theory that it or RNA could also transmit acquired experience. It has now been proven that learning does have an effect on RNA.
Another group of memory studies is socio-genetic. Thus, P. Janet, in his work “The Evolution of Memory and the Concept of Time” (1928), examines the psychological mechanisms of memory and identifies a number of genetic forms, the manifestation of which was socially determined by the situation of cooperation. Janet identifies such forms of memory as expectation, search ( initial forms), preservation, assignment (delayed actions), telling a story by heart, describing and narrating, retelling to oneself (the highest levels of human memory). Each of the forms of memory noted by P. Janet arises from the needs of communication and cooperation of people; it is to this circumstance that he attaches the main role in the emergence and development of human memory, which, in his opinion, is necessary only for a social person.
The social theory of memory was adopted by Soviet psychologists. The idea of the social nature of memory was further developed in the works of L.S. Vygodsky and A.R. Luria. In 1930, these scientists published the work “Etudes on the History of Behavior,” in which the authors analyzed the evolution of archaic memory and compared data on the phylo- and ontogenesis of memory. Vygodsky and Luria point to the following features of the memory of primitive man: its extraordinary literalness, photographic nature, complex nature, etc. However, the authors made general conclusions that archaic man uses memory, but does not dominate it; primitive memory is spontaneous and uncontrollable. Scientists have also identified the most important moment, which determined a radical change in its functioning. The basis of this change is the transition from the use and use of objects as means of memory to the creation and use of artificial knowledge as tools of memorization.
Also interesting is A.R. Luria’s work “A Little Book about Big Memory,” where the author examines the basic forms and techniques of memory. The author wrote this book based on 30 years of observation of a man with a phenomenal memory. Analyzing the processes of reproducing what was remembered by the test subject, A.R. Luria argues that, perhaps, the process of retaining material was not exhausted by the simple preservation of immediate visual traces that interfere with it additional elements, which speak of his high development of synesthesia. The significance of such synesthetic abilities in the processes of memorization and reproduction is concluded by A.R. Luria, is that they created a kind of background for each memorization, while carrying “redundant” information and ensuring accuracy of memorization.
A.N. Leontyev in his book “Development of Memory” (1931) analyzes the nature of the highest form of memory in connection with historical development human activity. The scientist warns against a naturalistic approach to the problem of memory; he says that memorization cannot be based on the same processes that form the mechanisms of skills and references to the general physiological nature of higher memory will not help in explaining.
Interesting are the views on the nature of memory, its processes and properties of the Austrian doctor and psychologist, the founder of psychoanalysis, S. Freud. He considered and analyzed memory problems using his extensive empirical material taken from everyday life, Everyday life. He placed all these observations in his work “Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1904). Interesting are Freud's views on such a property of human memory as forgetting. According to Z. Freud, forgetting is a spontaneous process that can be considered to occur over a certain period of time. Based on his data, he gives many examples of various types of forgetting - forgetting impressions, intentions, knowledge. So, for example, talking about forgetting some painful thoughts and impressions, he notes that even in healthy people who are not susceptible to neurosis, memories of painful thoughts encounter a certain obstacle.
Work by V.Ya. Lyaudis “Memory in the process of development” is devoted to the comparative genetic study of developed and elementary forms of human memory. The scientist clarifies the functions of human memory forms using specific experimental material and reveals the conditions for the development of processes of voluntary memorization and recollection.
Within the framework of this work, of course, it is impossible to analyze the views of all famous scientists on the problem of memory, however, those views that are presented here can, in my opinion, reveal its main characteristics and shed light on the functioning of its basic processes.
1.2 Types of memory
Since memory is included in all the diversity of human life and activity, the forms of its manifestation, its types are extremely diverse. Different forms of manifestation of mnemonic activity are distinguished in accordance with three main criteria.
1. According to the nature of the activity predominant in the activity, memory is divided into:
· motor,
· emotional,
· figurative
· verbal-logical
Motor memory is associated with memorizing and reproducing movements, with the formation of motor skills in gaming, work, sports and other types of human activity.
Figurative memory is associated with memorizing and reproducing sensory images of objects and phenomena, their properties and visual connections and relationships between them. Memory images can be of varying degrees of complexity: images of individual objects and generalized representations, in which certain abstract content can be fixed. Figurative memory differs depending on which analyzer is most productive when a person remembers various impressions. There are visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory types of memory. If visual and auditory memory are usually well developed in all people, then the other three types of memory are more likely to be professional types.
2. Based on the nature of the goals of the activity, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary.
Involuntary (passive) memorization is a process that occurs naturally, without a predetermined goal, without the participation of consciousness, without application special methods memorization and intellectual effort.
Voluntary (active) memorization is a process that occurs through willpower, with a specific purpose, consciously, using special memorization methods.
3. Based on the time of consolidation and retention of material, short-term and long-term memory are distinguished.
Short-term memory is based on the autonomous decay of traces. Long-term memory is based on irreversible, non-decayable traces, which are characterized by associativity and sensitivity to interference (i.e. mixing of traces). The development of memory theory and the requirements of practice led to the formulation of the problem of operative memory, which serves actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person.
Different types of memory, allocated in accordance with different criteria, are in organic unity. For example, verbal-logical memory in each specific case can be either involuntary or voluntary; at the same time it is necessarily either short-term or long-term. Different kinds memories allocated according to the same criterion are also interrelated. Short-term and long-term memory are, by and large, two stages of a single process that always begins with short-term memory.
1.3 Involuntary memorization and conditions for its productivity
The initial form of memorization is the so-called unintentional or involuntary memorization, that is, memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques. This is a simple imprint of what was affected, the preservation of some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. Every process that occurs in the cerebral cortex leaves traces behind, although the degree of their strength varies.
Much of what a person encounters in life is involuntarily remembered: phenomena, surrounding objects, events of everyday life, people’s actions, the content of movies, books read without any educational purpose, and the like, although not all of them are remembered equally well. What is remembered best is what is vitally important for a person: everything that is connected with his needs and interests, with the goals and objectives of his activities.
INVOLUTIONARY MEMORY involuntary memorizing) -- process memorization, taking place against the background (in the context) of activities aimed at solving non-memic problems. It is a product and condition of cognitive and practical actions. This is not a random, but a natural process, interdependent by the characteristics of the activity.
subject. The productivity of involuntary memorization depends on the goal of the object of human activity, on the means by which this goal is achieved and by what motives
she is encouraged. Based on the results of the study P .
AND .
Zinchenko
(1961), for the productivity of involuntary memorization it is important that place, which this material occupies in the activity. If it is included in the content of the main goal of the activity, then it is remembered better than in the case when it is included in the conditions and methods of achieving this goal. The material that takes the place of the main goal in the activity is remembered as much better as more meaningful connections are established in it. Finally, material that is significant for the subject, arousing emotions and interest, is involuntarily remembered. With a high degree of intellectual activity in the process of performing an activity, which results in involuntary memorization, it can provide a broader imprint of the material and more lasting retention
him in memory
compared to voluntary memorization. Involuntary memorization is an early genetic form of memory, in which the selectivity of memory is determined by the very course of activity, and not by the active use of the methods and means included in it; it precedes the formation of voluntary memory.
The operational composition of involuntary memorization has not been sufficiently studied. Research by G. K. Sereda, based on educational material
activities
primary school students, made it possible to establish a system of operations, the implementation of which leads to the formation of an involuntary mnemonic effect. The author showed that it is necessary to form not separate, isolated actions, but to create a certain system these actions. The main condition of such a system is the inclusion of the result of a previous action in a subsequent one as a way to achieve the goal of the latter.
We can also observe patterns of involuntary memorization when our activity is unexpectedly interrupted. If a person is completely absorbed in a decision specific task, then when his activity is interrupted, there is a high probability that this activity will be involuntarily remembered, and better than the activity that was completed. Any action must be caused by a specific human need. A person’s action is caused by some tension, and the person strives to bring this action to completion. This tension corresponds to the actualization of a certain need (quasi-need). When a person completes an action, the tension is released and the person stops striving to complete the action. However, if the action is not completed and the tension is not discharged, then the tendency to perform the action remains. And if the trend continues, then the action must be stored in the person’s memory. Obviously, tendency in some sense is one of the mechanisms of memory. It is this that prevents the action from being forgotten. Thus, demand stress affects memory functioning. This phenomenon was studied by B.V. Zeigarnik and G.V. Birenbaum within the framework of the theoretical direction of K. Levin’s school.
The main methodological technique for studying involuntary memorization is that the subject is asked to perform some activity, and then, after a certain pause, he is asked about what remains in his memory from the work done or impressions received. (T. P. Zinchenko.)
This is how the famous Soviet scientist P.I. spoke about the importance of involuntary attention. Zinchenko: “In foreign psychology, such memorization was called “random”... the big mistake of many foreign psychologists was that they tried to exhaust all involuntary memorization with such random memorization. In this regard, it received a predominantly negative description. But random memorization is only one, and not the main, form of involuntary memorization. Purposeful activity occupies the main place in a person’s life... therefore, involuntary memorization, which is a product of such activity, is its main, most vital form.”
Conclusions on the first chapter
Let's try to summarize the main results of the first chapter of this work. The problem of memory in our time is considered within the framework of various psychological theories and approaches. The most widespread got association theories memory, according to which objects and phenomena are imprinted and reproduced in memory not separately from each other, but in connection with each other. In line with biochemical and neural processes, the most common hypothesis was D.O. Hebb on short-term and long-term memory processes. Within the framework of social genetic theory, the psychological mechanisms of memory are studied in the context of their social conditioning by the situation of cooperation. In the Soviet psychological school, the problem of memory was the subject of research by such famous scientists as L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev, A.R. Luria, etc. The works of these and other scientists are still relevant today, and the results of their research can become the basis for new psychological research on memory issues.
In modern psychological research, memory is considered as a complex mental activity, as one of the cognitive processes, which consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing a person’s experience. The classification of memory is based on the following criteria - the object of memorization, the degree of volitional regulation of memory and the duration of storing information in memory. The main types of memory that are allocated based on these criteria are presented in the appendix.
Chapter 2. Study of involuntary memorization and the conditions for its productivity
2.1 Organization of the Empirical Study
A number of specific techniques are used to study the characteristics of involuntary memorization. For example, A.A. Smirnov, when studying the role of activity in involuntary memorization, offered subjects pairs of phrases in which they had to derive certain spelling rules, and then come up with examples of these rules. The next day, the subjects were asked to reproduce the phrases they had used the day before. Experiments showed that one’s own phrases were remembered much better than those proposed by the experimenter.
Methodology I.P. Zinchenko is aimed at studying the influence of activity orientation on memorization productivity. To do this, he proposed a method for classifying objects and compiling a number series. In both of these tasks, number items were remembered involuntarily. When objects and numbers were the object of the subjects' activity (classifying objects in the first experiment and compiling a number series in the second), they were remembered more productively than when they served as background stimuli. However, even in this case (when the objects acted as a background stimulus), memorization was the result of the manifestation of some activity on the part of the subjects in relation to these objects, although it manifested itself only in the form of random indicative reactions.
A group of 2nd year students (15 people), aged 18 to 23 years, 70% girls, 30% young people, took part in this study. The study was conducted in group form, in daytime, during the school day, in the classroom. The health status of all subjects was normal. The subjects were positive, enthusiastic and interested.
Since involuntary memorization is a memorization process that occurs against the background of activity aimed at solving non-mnemonic problems, then before conducting a study of involuntary memorization itself, it is necessary to conduct some kind of experiment aimed at solving non-mnemonic problems. In this work, the “Information Reception” technique was used as such.
Experiment 1 “Receiving information”
Procedure: Test subjects are given pieces of paper. The experimenter gives the following instructions: “Now you will be read words that need to be distributed into 5 columns: chemical elements, human feelings, furniture, trees, animal world. Be careful, act quickly and clearly." Next, the experimenter reads 32 words at a fast pace:
Sodium Cat Sofa Willow Anxiety Hydrogen Ferret Armchair Delight Bird Cherry Spruce Silver Sideboard Lynx Love Helium Bear Lion Table Poplar Fatigue Oak Chestnut Argon Sparrow Iron Maple Copper Carp Birch Sable Radium
The subjects (the whole group) must classify these words and write them down in the correct column.
After completing the task, subjects count the number of words they managed to write down.
Interpretation of results:
If the number of words is:
· 32 - information reception is effective,
· 31-29 - mediocre reception,
· below 28 - receiving information is difficult, a person cannot keep up with the average pace of information delivery.
Upon completion of this work, the experimenter collects the results of the work, distracts the subjects’ attention by discussing a problem for 5-10 minutes (in this case, it was discussed what problems the subjects encountered while completing the task, what was the main problem, having time to find their bearings or having time to write a word).
Progress: After a short pause (5-10 minutes), subjects are asked to remember and write down in any order the words that they classified. 5-7 minutes are allotted for recollection, then the results of the work are collected, the number of reproduced words (P) is counted, their correctness is checked, the number of fantasized words (M) is determined and the involuntary memory indicator is calculated:
NP=(P-M):32Х100%
Interpretation of results :
NP=70% - very high level of involuntary memorization
NP=51 - 69% - high, above average level of development of involuntary memorization
NP=41 - 50% - good, average norm for an adult
NP=31-40% - mediocre norm for an adult
NP=15 - 30% - low level involuntary memorization, below average
NP=10% and below - memory defect
2.2 Data processing and analysis of empirical research results
1) The results of the study were processed using the “Information Reception” method and the following data were obtained.
Of the 15 people who took part in the study:
· 8 of the subjects wrote down 32 words
· 4 of the subjects wrote down 31-29 words
· 3 of the subjects wrote down 28 or fewer words
Thus, we can conclude that in 53% of subjects the reception of information is effective, in 27% - the reception of information is at an average level, and in 20% - the reception of information is difficult.
It can also be assumed that in the educational process, test takers with low scores find it difficult to navigate the material they are reading; they often ask again and clarify with the teacher about what has just been dictated. Perhaps, to optimize the educational process, it would be advisable in this group to reduce the pace of reading the material.
2) The results of the study using the “Involuntary Memory” method are presented in Table 1, where P is the number of words reproduced, M is the number of invented words, NP is an indicator of involuntary memory.
Table 1
|
NP=(P-M):32Х100% |
||||
From the data presented in Table 1 of the table, it is clear that:
· 5 of the subjects (33%) showed a level of development of involuntary attention above average
· 3 of the subjects (20%) - good, average norm for an adult
· 7 of the subjects (47%) - the average norm for an adult
Conclusion: the effectiveness of involuntary memorization increases if a person intensively works on information (comprehends, analyzes, classifies, writes, etc.), although he does not specifically memorize it, but the information is remembered by itself due to the active activity of the person
Conclusion
In conclusion, we summarize the main conclusions.
1. Memory has been considered and analyzed within various directions and within the framework of various scientific theories. Among the main ones we can note the associative approach, the social approach, the physiological approach, the genetic approach and many others. Without a doubt, within each theory there were many practical and undoubtedly valuable developments.
Many famous psychologists have considered memory problems. The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus is considered the founder of experimental memory research. You can also note the names of A. Bergson, P. Janet, F. Buttlet, Soviet scientists P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, who made a significant contribution to the development of theory and practical research on memory.
2. In modern psychology, memory is understood as a form of mental reflection of reality, the action of which is to consolidate, preserve and subsequently reproduce a person’s experience. The classification of its types is based on the nature of the mental activity of the individual, the nature of the goals of the activity, as well as the time of consolidation and preservation of the material. Based on these criteria, scientists distinguish such types of memory as motor and figurative, voluntary and involuntary, short-term, long-term, operational, etc.
3. Involuntary memory
All types of memory are subject to scientific analysis and research. To study memory, a number of techniques are used that are aimed at studying the processes of memorization, storage factors, reasons for forgetting information and the possibility of reproducing it.
Memory is one of the main mental cognitive processes of the human personality. She is the pillar of his life. It is thanks to it that a person can develop as a person; it is the basis of all cognitive processes. Subject psychological research human memory is undoubtedly interesting and relevant and can be a subject for further research.
Bibliography
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Application
The initial form of memorization is the so-called unintentional or involuntary memorization, i.e. memorization without a predetermined goal, without using any techniques. This is a simple imprint of what was affected, the preservation of some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. Every process that occurs in the cerebral cortex leaves traces behind, although the degree of their strength varies.
Much of what a person encounters in life is involuntarily remembered: surrounding objects, phenomena, events of everyday life, people’s actions, the content of movies, books read without any educational purpose, etc. , although not all of them are remembered equally well. What is remembered best is what is of vital importance to a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activities. Even involuntary memorization is selective in nature, determined by the attitude towards the environment.
It is necessary to distinguish from involuntary memorization voluntary memorization, characterized by the fact that a person sets a specific goal - to remember what is intended, and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a special and complex mental activity subordinate to the task of remembering and includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve this goal.
During the learning process, voluntary memorization often takes the form of memorization, i.e. repeated repetition of educational material until it is completely and error-freely memorized. For example, by memorizing poems, definitions, laws, formulas, historical dates, etc. The goal set - to remember - plays an important role, determining the entire activity of memorization. All other things being equal, voluntary memorization is noticeably more productive than involuntary memorization.
Much of what is perceived in life a large number of times is not remembered by us if the task is not to remember. And at the same time, if you set this task for yourself and do everything necessary to implement the action, memorization proceeds with relatively great success and turns out to be quite durable. In this case, staging is of great importance not only common task(remember what is perceived), but also more private, special tasks. In some cases, for example, the task is to remember only the basics, the main thoughts, the most significant facts, in others - to remember verbatim, in others - to accurately remember the sequence of facts, etc.
Setting special tasks has a significant impact on memorization; under its influence, the process itself changes. However, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, the question of the dependence of memorization on the nature of the activity during which it is carried out becomes of primary importance. He believes that in the problem of memorization there is no clear relationship between voluntary and involuntary memorization. And the advantages of voluntary memorization are clearly evident only at first glance.
P.I. Zinchenko’s research has convincingly proven that the orientation towards memorization, which makes it the direct goal of the subject’s action, is not in itself decisive for the effectiveness of this process; involuntary memorization may be more effective than voluntary. In Zinchenko’s experiments, involuntary memorization of pictures during an activity whose purpose was their classification (without the task of remembering) turned out to be definitely higher than in the case when the subject was given the task of remembering the pictures.
A study by A.A. Smirnov, devoted to the same problem, confirmed that involuntary memorization can be more productive than voluntary: what the subjects memorized involuntarily, along the way in the process of activity, the purpose of which was not memorization, was remembered more firmly than what they tried to remember specially. Analysis of the specific conditions under which involuntary memorization, i.e., essentially, memorization included in some activity, turns out to be most effective, reveals the nature of the dependence of memorization on the activity during which it occurs.
What is remembered, as well as realized, first of all, is what constitutes the goal of our action. However, what is not included in the target content of the action during which involuntary memorization occurs is remembered worse than during voluntary memorization aimed specifically at this material. At the same time, it is still necessary to take into account that the overwhelming majority of our systematic knowledge arises as a result of special activity, the purpose of which is to remember the relevant material in order to retain it in memory. Such activity aimed at remembering and reproducing retained material is called mnemonic activity. In mnemonic activity, a person is given the task of selectively remembering the material offered to him. In all cases, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions and, when recalling, limit himself to it. Therefore, mnemonic activity is always selective.
Mnemonic activity is a specifically human education, because only in humans does memorization become a special task, and memorizing material, storing it in memory and consciously turning to the past in order to recall the memorized material is a special form of conscious activity.
The problem of measuring memory capacity in its purest form was solved by the famous German psychologist Ebbinghaus. To study memory capacity, he presented the subject with a series of meaningless syllables, which provided the least opportunity for comprehension. Inviting the subject to remember 10 - 12 syllables and noting the number of retained members of the series, Ebbinghaus took this number as the amount of “pure” memory. The first and main result of this study was to establish the average memory capacity that characterized a person. It turned out that on average a person easily remembers 5 to 7 separate elements after the first reading: this number fluctuates significantly, and if people with bad memory retain only 4 - 5 isolated elements, then people with good memory are able to retain 7 - 8 isolated and meaningless elements immediately after the first reading.
In general, it should be noted that the volume of memory and the strength of memorization depend on many conditions. Thus, the success of memorization depends on the extent to which the material is comprehended by a person. With mechanical memorization, words, objects, events, movements are remembered exactly in the order in which they were perceived, without any transformations. Rote relies on the spatial and temporal proximity of objects of memorization. Meaningful Memorization based on understanding the internal logical connections between parts of the material. It relies mainly on the generalized connections of the second signaling system. It has been proven that meaningful memorization is many times more productive than mechanical memorization. Rote memorization is wasteful and requires many repetitions. A person cannot always remember what he has learned mechanically in place and time. Meaningful memorization requires significantly less effort and time from a person and is more effective.
Special studies of direct and indirect memorization in childhood conducted by A.N. Leontiev. He experimentally showed how one mnemonic process - direct memorization - is gradually replaced with age by another, mediated one. This occurs due to the child’s assimilation of more advanced stimuli-means of memorizing and reproducing material. The role of mnemonic means in improving memory, according to A.N. Leontyev, is that “by turning to the use of auxiliary means, we thereby change the fundamental structure of our act of memorization, our previously direct, immediate memorization becomes mediated.”
In the formation of internal means, speech plays a central role. “It can be assumed,” notes A.N. Leontiev, “that the very transition that takes place from externally mediated memorization to internally mediated memorization is closely connected with the transformation of speech from a purely external function to an internal function.”
Based on experiments conducted with children of different ages and with students as test subjects, A.N. Leontyev derived a development curve for direct and indirect memorization (Fig. 1). This curve, called the “parallelogram of memory development,” shows that preschoolers improve their immediate memorization with age, and its development is underway faster than the development of indirect memorization. In parallel with this, the gap in the productivity of these types of memorization in favor of the first is increasing.
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The concept of memory and memorization mechanism. Methods for studying memorization. Study of involuntary memorization and the conditions for its productivity. Study of the dynamics of the learning process. Direct and indirect memorization.
course work, added 09/19/2003
Fundamentals of the activity approach in psychology. "Traces" of research by P.I. Zinchenko. Laws of development of involuntary memory in relationships with voluntary memory. Methodology for the dependence of the productivity of involuntary memorization on the nature of human activity.
presentation, added 03/21/2012
Analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature in the field of experimental memory research. The problem of memorization as an integral part of the study of the psychology of memory. Features and structure of voluntary and involuntary memorization in adolescents aged 10-11 years.
course work, added 02/25/2010
Indicators of interaction between memory processes. Physiological basis of memory processes. Experimental study features of voluntary meaningful memorization and the overall productivity of students’ memory in the process educational activities, its correction.
thesis, added 07/01/2011
Teaching memorization using mnemonic means. The importance of games in memory development. An experimental study of the dependence of memory productivity on the content of the memorized material and the child’s level of development of memorization techniques.
course work, added 09/03/2012
Memory and its definitions. Memory development of a preschooler. Dominance of involuntary memory in childhood. Development of involuntary memory. Stages of mastering arbitrary forms of memory. Methodology for studying memory development.
course work, added 05/06/2004
General concept memory and its types. Characteristics of its main processes. Features of memory development in preschool children. Analysis of the process of memorizing information in children. Exercises aimed at developing memory. The essence of mechanical and semantic memorization.
thesis, added 01/03/2012
Memorizing material, its storage and subsequent reproduction is one of the amazing properties of the brain. The mechanism of action of human memory. The main types of memory, deviations in its functioning and pathologies. Methods for improving information memorization.
There are different typologies of memory:
by sensory modality - visual (visual) memory, motor (kinesthetic) memory, sound (auditory) memory, taste memory, pain memory;
according to the organization of memorization - episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory;
according to temporal characteristics - long-term (declarative) memory, short-term memory, ultra-short-term memory;
according to physiological principles - determined by the structure of connections of nerve cells (also long-term) and determined by the current flow of electrical activity of the nerve pathways (also short-term)
according to the presence of a goal - voluntary and involuntary;
according to the availability of funds - indirect and non-mediated;
by level of development - motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical.
Patterns of memory. Conditions for successful voluntary and involuntary memorization
Patterns of memory(conditions for successful memorization and reproduction) are associated with forms of memory.
The conditions for successful involuntary memorization are: 1) strong and significant physical stimuli (the sound of a gunshot, a bright spotlight); 2) something that causes increased orienting activity (cessation or resumption of an action, process, unusualness of the phenomenon, its contrast in relation to the background, etc.); 3) stimuli that are most significant for a given individual (for example, professionally significant objects); 4) stimuli that have a special emotional connotation; 5) what is most related to the needs of a given person; 6) something that is the object of vigorous activity. Thus, the conditions of a problem that we have been solving for a long time are remembered involuntarily and firmly.
But in human activity, more often there is a need to specifically remember something and reproduce it under appropriate conditions. This is voluntary memorization, in which the task is always set to remember, i.e., special mnemonic activity is carried out.
In the process of human development, voluntary memorization is formed relatively late (mainly during the period of schooling). This type of memorization develops intensively in learning and work.
The conditions for successful voluntary memorization are: 1) awareness of the significance and meaning of the memorized material; 2) identification of its structure, logical relationship of parts and elements, semantic and spatial grouping of material; 3) identifying the plan in verbal-textual material, supporting words in the content of each part of it, presenting the material in the form of a diagram, table, diagram, drawing, visual image; 4) the content and accessibility of the memorized material, its correlation with the experience and orientation of the subject of memorization; 5) emotional and aesthetic richness of the material; 6) the possibility of using this material in the subject’s professional activities; 7) setting the need to reproduce this material under certain conditions; 8) material that acts as a means of achieving significant goals, plays a significant role in solving life problems, and acts as an object of active mental activity.
Relationship between thinking and speech
The main function of speech is that it is an instrument of thinking. In speech we formulate a thought, but by formulating it, we form it, that is, by creating a speech form, thinking itself is formed. Thinking and speech, without being identified, are included in the unity of one process. Thinking is not only expressed in speech, but for the most part it is accomplished in speech. Thus, between speech and thinking there is not identity, but unity; in the unity of thinking and speech, thinking, not speech, is leading; speech and thinking arise in a person in unity on the basis of social practice.
Human thinking is organically connected with language, and it is necessary to distinguish language from speech. Language is the same for all people who use it, speech is individual.
Language- this is a system of conventional symbols with the help of which a combination of sounds is transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people.
Speech- this is a set of pronounced or perceived sounds that have the same meaning and the same meaning as the corresponding system of written signs.
Speech without language acquisition is impossible, while language can exist and develop independently of a specific person, according to laws not related to either his psychology or his behavior. The connecting link between language and speech is the meaning of a word, since it is expressed both in units of language and in units of speech.
Psychological characteristics of speech. Physiological foundations of speech.(
Speech is the process of a person’s practical use of language in order to communicate with other people.
Unlike speech, language is a means of communication between people.
In the process of communication, people express thoughts and feelings using language, achieve mutual understanding in order to implement joint activities. Language and speech, like thinking, arise and develop in the process and under the influence of work. They are the property of only humans: animals have neither language nor speech.
Content of speech. The sounds that make up the words of oral speech have a complex physical structure; they distinguish between the frequency, amplitude and vibration shape of air sound waves.
Of special importance in speech sounds is their timbre, which is based on overtones that accompany and complement the main tone of the speech sound. The overtones (“harmonics”) included in the speech sound are always found in the number of vibrations of the sound wave in a multiple ratio to the fundamental tone. All vowels and consonants of speech have harmonics characteristic of them, which allows us to perceive them very differently.
Speech sounds (vowels and consonants) differ from each other in the form of sound and are called phonemes. In the formation of phonemic features of speech sounds, articulation plays an important role, i.e., a very differentiated change in the position of the tongue, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate when exhaled air passes through the oral cavity. The result is guttural (“g”), labial (“b”), nasal (“n”), hissing (“sh”) and other sounds. Phonemes occupy one of the important places in oral speech and its understanding by other people. Being included in the sound composition of various words, they make it possible to very subtly differentiate their semantic meaning. It is enough to change at least one sound from the components of a word so that it immediately acquires a different meaning. This function is performed by both vowels (compare, for example, “par” and “pir”) and consonant phonemes (“par”, “ball”).
Properties of speech. Speech has the following properties:
content, which is determined by the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and correspondence to reality;
clarity, which is achieved by syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words using logical stress;
expressiveness, which is associated with its emotional richness (in its expressiveness it can be bright, energetic or, conversely, sluggish, pale);
inaction, which lies in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.
Functions of speech. Speech performs certain functions:
the function of expression is that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expands the possibilities of communication;
the function of influence is a person’s ability to motivate people to action through speech;
the function of designation is the ability of a person to give objects and phenomena through speech surrounding reality names unique to them;
The function of a message is the exchange of thoughts between people through words and phrases.
Types of speech. According to its many functions, speech is a polymorphic activity, that is, in its various functional purposes presented in different forms and types.
1) External speech is a system of sound signals, written signs and symbols used by a person to transmit information, the process of materialization of thoughts. It can be oral and written.
2) Oral speech - verbal (verbal) communication through linguistic means perceived by ear.
3) Monologue speech is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts over a relatively long time, or a consistent coherent presentation by one person of a system of knowledge.
Monologue speech is characterized by consistency and evidence, which are ensured by coherence of thought, grammatically correct design and expressiveness of vocal means. During preparation, such a speech is spoken out repeatedly, the necessary words and sentences are selected, and the plan for the speech is often recorded in writing. Monologue speech has greater compositional complexity, requires completeness of thought, stricter adherence to grammatical rules, strict logic and consistency in the presentation of what the speaker of the monologue wants to say.
4) Dialogical speech is speech in which all its participants are equally active. Dialogical speech is psychologically the simplest and most natural form of speech. It occurs during direct communication between two or more interlocutors. It is characterized by remarks exchanged between speakers, repetitions of phrases and individual words after the interlocutor, questions, additions, and explanations.
5) Written speech is speech through written signs (letter, notes, scientific treatise). It is addressed to a wide range of readers, is not situational and requires in-depth skills of sound-letter analysis, the ability to logically and grammatically correctly convey one’s thoughts, analyze what is written and improve the form of expression. Use in writing creates the need to achieve the most correct formulations, strictly adhere to the rules of logic and grammar, and think more deeply about the content and way of expressing thoughts.
6) Inner speech is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the thinking process of a particular person. With the help of internal speech, the process of transforming thoughts into speech and preparing a speech utterance is carried out. Inner speech is a person’s conversation with himself, which expresses thinking, motives of behavior, planning and managing activities. The following properties of speech are distinguished: content, understandability, expressiveness, and effectiveness.
Forms of passive and active imagination
Active Imagination is a specific method of using the power of imagination developed by Jung at the beginning of this century.
Active imagination should be distinguished from a dream, which is invented by the patient himself and resides on the surface of personal and everyday experience. Active imagination is the exact opposite of lucid dreaming. The drama being staged attempts to encourage active participation by the observer. A new situation is created in which unconscious material is openly presented to the waking consciousness. In this Jung saw a manifestation of the activity of the transcendental function, that is, the integral influence of conscious and unconscious factors.
This method was first proposed by C. G. Jung in 1935, when he lectured at one of the London clinics and talked about different types of imagination: dreams, reveries, fantasies, etc. Active imagination differs from ordinary dreams, which are familiar to every person. The main difference is that active imagination combines the work of consciousness and the unconscious. Therefore, active imagination differs from both aimless fantasies and conscious fiction. The psychotherapist asks his patient to focus on something specific - an event that has excited him, or on his feelings, or on a picture that interests him, or the plot of a work of art... One of the important advantages of this method is that the “starting point” for active imagination can be anything, you just need to be attentive to your experiences and make the right choice. The patient then talks about all the fantasies, images and feelings that arise when he is focused on the chosen topic. These images take on their own life, line up into a certain plot with their own internal logic. Fictions and fantasies, previously unrelated, suddenly reveal unexpected similarities and become more distinct. So, in this experience, a person becomes acquainted with the previously hidden parts of his soul, which in analytical psychology are called the shadow, anima, animus, as well as with the world of his archetypes.
It is very important that this new knowledge, gained in the experience of active imagination, does not disappear without a trace, so that a person can remember it well and thereby expand his real capabilities. To do this, at the end of such work, the psychotherapist usually invites his patient to draw a picture, write a poem or a short story about this new experience in order to better remember and comprehend it. Moreover, even if this work is not interpreted in any way, it still has a special “healing” power for the patient. After all, it becomes a special kind of symbol, reminding him of this meeting with previously unknown internal characters, a kind of “door” to this new experience.
The active imagination method includes two stages. At first, the person seems to be “daydreaming,” telling the psychotherapist about all his visions and experiences, and then they discuss this experience together. At the first stage, according to C. G. Jung, “a new situation is created in which unconscious contents are visible in the waking state” of the patient. This is different from ordinary dreams. And then the patient reflects on these images, what they can mean, why they appeared in his today's experience. For example, in the active imagination, a person tells his fantasy about a brave hunter who fearlessly fights wild animals. Such a plot, of course, is archetypal, so you can recall myths and fairy tales on this topic in order to better understand what the images of a hunter, wild animals, and so on mean in a certain culture, in the collective unconscious of all humanity. But in addition, this plot also relates to the patient’s purely personal experiences, speaks about his difficulties and problems, and also indicates possible ways to solve them. Talking with a psychotherapist, he discovers the relationship between these images and this plot with his own life conflicts, he himself evaluates their significance and finds in them his own, unique meaning.
C. G. Jung used active imagination as a rule at the final stage of his work with the patient, when he was already quite familiar with the world of his images from working with his dreams. Active imagination has proven to be an effective method in the treatment of neuroses, but only in combination with conscious interpretations and conversations. It does not imply the uncontrolled splashing out of all the images of the unconscious, but also the active and creative work of consciousness.
The active imagination method also has its limitations, since it contains some pitfalls. One of the dangers is to “follow the lead” of the unconscious and watch the play of images, often with a very fascinating plot and beautiful pictures. However, the meaning of everything that is happening remains unclear, the problem remains unsolved, although there is a deceptive impression of the work done. Another danger is the hidden, unexpressed parts of the patient's personality. They may have too much strength, a “reserve of energy” and then, once free, they completely take possession of the patient, he loses control over himself and finds himself on the verge of a mental breakdown.
Active imagination is an interesting and beautiful method of working with psychological problems. However, it contains a number of hidden dangers and therefore its use can only be done by a specialist; it should not be perceived as a fun parlor entertainment.
The process of imagination and creation of new images characterizes the activity of the human psyche. But sometimes imagination acts as a “substitute” for active activity. This form of imagination is called passive imagination. So, a dream - the creation of images of what is desired - can be active and passive. (Manilovism is a typical example of a passive dream.) Passive imagination is a method of pseudo-adaptation. Images of passive imagination - daydreams, unrealistic dreams - mental replacement for the active life of the individual.
Passive imagination can be unintentional or intentional. Unintentional passive imagination occurs with weakening of consciousness, psychosis, disorganization of mental activity, in a semi-drowsy and sleepy state. (Sleep is not a complete disconnection from mental activity. It alternates two phases - “slow” and “fast” (paradoxical). Each phase has a duration of 60-90 minutes. In the phase of “slow” sleep, deep inhibition occurs. In the phase of “fast” sleep "dreams arise during sleep, with their characteristic unusual chaotic complexes of elements of reality, fantastic images; the functional essence of these phenomena has not yet been studied. However, it is assumed that in a dream a certain completion and consolidation of images formed in the waking state occurs.)
With deliberate passive imagination, a person arbitrarily forms images of escapism from reality - dreams. The unreal world created by a person is an attempt to replace unfulfilled hopes, make up for heavy losses, and alleviate mental trauma. This type of imagination indicates a deep intrapersonal conflict.
PASSIVE IMAGINATION- characterized by the creation of images that are not brought to life; programs that are not executed or cannot be executed at all. In this case, imagination acts as a substitute for activity, its surrogate, because of which a person refuses the need to act. Passive imagination can be:
1) intentional - creates images (dreams) that are not associated with the will, which could contribute to their implementation; the predominance of dreams in the processes of imagination indicates certain defects in personality development;
2) unintentional - observed when the activity of consciousness weakens, with its disorders, in a half-asleep state, in a dream.
Human psyche and its foundations. Functions
One of the central places in psychology is the understanding of the psyche. In the most general terms psyche- this is the inner spiritual world of a person: his needs and interests, desires and drives, attitudes and value judgments, relationships, experiences, goals, knowledge, skills, behavior and activities, etc. The human psyche is manifested in his statements, emotional states, facial expressions, pantomimes, behavior and activities, their results and other externally expressed reactions.
Basic functions of the psyche. From the point of view of influence on human activity and behavior, two interrelated regulatory functions of the psyche are distinguished: motives(need-motivational sphere of the psyche) and execution(knowledge, abilities, skills, habits, abilities of a person). Other functions of the human psyche include: the function of reflection, image formation, the function of meaning formation and understanding, the function of attitude, goal setting, accumulation of experience, and self-knowledge.
The psychic has a twofold form of existence. First, objective, the form of existence of the mental is expressed in life and activity: this is the primary form of its existence. Second, subjective, the form of existence of the mental is reflection, introspection, self-awareness, reflection of the mental in itself: this is a secondary, genetically later form that manifests itself in humans.
Mental reality is complex, but it can be divided into: exopsyche(part of the human psyche, reflecting the reality external to the body), endopsyche(part of mental reality, reflecting the state of the human body) and intropsyche(part of the psyche, which includes thoughts, volitional efforts, fantasies, dreams).
The relationship between three levels of human mental activity: unconscious, subconscious and conscious
A person’s mental activity and psyche function simultaneously at three interconnected levels: unconscious, subconscious and conscious.
The unconscious level of mental activity is an innate instinctive-reflex activity. Behavioral acts at the unconscious level are regulated by unconscious biological mechanisms. They are aimed at satisfying biological needs - self-preservation of the organism and the species (procreation). However, the genetically determined program of human behavior is not autonomous; it is under the control of higher and later formed brain structures. And only in certain critical situations for the individual (for example, in a state of passion) can this sphere of the human psyche go into the mode of autonomous self-regulation. This innate emotional-impulsive sphere of the individual is structurally localized in the thalamus and hypothalamus.
The subconscious level of mental activity is generalized, automated in the experience of a given individual stereotypes of his behavior - ability, skills, habits, intuition. This is the behavioral core of an individual, formed in the early stages of his development. This also includes the impulsive-emotional sphere, structurally localized in the limbic (subcortical) system of the brain. Here the unconscious aspirations of the individual, his attractions, passions, and attitudes are formed. This is an involuntary sphere of personality, “a person’s second nature,” the “center” of individual behavioral patterns and manners.
The subconscious itself obviously has a multi-level structure: automatisms and their complexes at the lower level and intuition at the highest.
Automatisms of the subconscious level are complexes of stereotypically performed actions in typical situations, dynamic stereotypes– chain sequences of reactions in a familiar environment (habitual control of equipment, performance of habitual duties, manner of handling familiar objects, speech and facial expressions). All this forms a set of ready-made behavioral blocks that the individual uses when regulating his activities. These behavioral automatisms relieve consciousness for more qualified activities. Consciousness is freed from constant repeated solutions to standardized problems.
Various complexes are also repressed into the subconscious - unfulfilled desires, suppressed aspirations, various fears and worries, ambitions and inflated claims (Napoleon complex, narcissism, inferiority, shyness, etc.). These complexes tend to overcompensate, drawing great energy potential from the subconscious, they form a stable subconscious direction of the individual’s behavior.
Subconscious manifestations are always present in the processes of consciousness; they are responsible for processing subthreshold (unconscious) influences, form unconscious impulses, and emotionally orient consciousness towards the most significant aspects of activity. The subconscious is the sphere of inspired states and attitudes, including attitudes of a higher, moral level. Sensory, perceptual processes are also associated with the subconscious, with the “conclusions of the eye,” as Helmholtz said. The subconscious is actively activated in all cases when the possibilities of conscious activity are exhausted (during emotions, stressful conditions, in situations of extreme mental overstrain). If in an experiment subjects are asked to distribute photographs of people offered to them according to the following characteristics: “good”, “evil”, “cunning”, “simple-minded”, etc., then, while correctly completing the task, the subjects cannot accurately determine what, what they were guided by sensory data. There are many facts indicating the high creative productivity of a person in a state of non-activated consciousness (Kekule’s sudden discovery of the structure of the benzene molecule, Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements in a dream, etc.).
The highest sphere of the subconscious - intuition (sometimes even called superconsciousness) - is a process of instant insights, comprehensive coverage of a situation by a problem, the emergence of unexpected solutions, unconscious anticipation of the development of events based on a spontaneous generalization of previous experience. However, intuitive decisions do not arise only in the subconscious. Intuition satisfies the request of consciousness for a certain complex block of previously received information.
The unconscious sphere of the human psyche is the deepest sphere of his psyche, a conglomerate of archetypes, formed to a large extent in the process of human evolution. Dreams, intuition, affect, panic, hypnosis - this is not a complete list of unconscious and subconscious phenomena.
Consciousness is armed with concepts, the subconscious is armed with emotions and feelings. At the subconscious level, an instant assessment of the perceived object or phenomenon and its compliance with the norms recorded in the subconscious occurs.
Along with the subconscious 3. Freud also distinguishes between the superconscious - the “super-ego” - the fundamental essential mechanisms of the human psyche, such as a person’s ability for social assistance and moral self-control. The entire spiritual sphere of man is the sphere of superconsciousness, opposing the egoistic limitations of the individual, the sphere of his ideological sublimity and moral perfection.
The sphere of consciousness is the sphere of knowledge, cultural socialization of the individual. It largely controls and inhibits instinctive drives and habits. However, this control is limited. The voluntary activity of a person, the conscious programs of his behavior interact with other spheres of the psyche - genetically inherited and formed in the early stages of his ontogenetic (lifetime) formation. The selection of information for conscious self-regulation passes through subjective emotional filters.
The famous Georgian psychologist D. N. Uznadze (1886–1950) and his followers (A. S. Prangishvili, I. T. Bzhalava, V. G. Norakidze, Sh. A. Nadirashvili) identified the principle of attitude as the central explanatory principle of psychology as a holistic modification of the subject, his readiness to perceive reality and act in a certain way. According to Uznadze, the attitude combines the conscious and extraconscious spheres of the psyche. Each behavioral situation causes the functioning of previously formed behavioral complexes.
So, the mental self-organization of an individual, his adaptation to the external environment is carried out by three types of relatively autonomous behavioral programs: 1) evolutionarily formed unconscious-instinctive ones; 2) subconscious subjective-emotional and 3) conscious, arbitrary, logical-semantic programs. Conscious behavioral programs for a socialized personality are dominant behavioral patterns. However, two other areas mental life of a person always play a background role in his behavior. In extreme situations and in conditions of desocialization of the individual, they can switch to an autonomous mode of functioning.
The presence of consciousness, subconscious and the sphere of the unconscious in the human psyche determines the relative independence of the following types of human reactions and actions:
1) unconscious-instinctive, innate reactions;
2) impulsive-reactive, little-conscious emotional reactions; habitually automated subconscious actions; actions-skills;
3) conscious-volitional actions; these actions are leading in the interaction of a person with the environment.
Human consciousness is a mechanism for the conceptual regulation of his activities and behavior. Activity is a specifically human form of activity. This human activity differs from the behavior of animals in its creative productivity and structural differentiation - awareness of the motives and goals of activity, the use of tools and means created in the process of cultural and historical development of mankind, and the use of skills acquired in the process of socialization.
Consciousness and the human psyche are formed and manifested in his activity, being its motivational and orientation component.
In the activity, its object and result, the embodiment of a previously formed mental image, an ideal model of objective activity, occurs. The very mental reflection of objects of reality depends on their place in the structure of activity. The activity coverage of objects ensures the adequacy of their mental reflection. (Already in the process of phylogenesis, living organisms began to identify the key, most biologically significant aspects of objects.) Human activity is associated with clarifying the meanings of objects, and the tools used in it carry a historically developed scheme of human action.
The concept of ability, types of abilities
CAPABILITIES- individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another, determining the success of implementation activities or a series of activities that cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills And skills, but stipulating the ease and speed of learning new ways and techniques of activity ( B.M.Teplov).Abilities are manifested in activity, formed in activity, and exist in relation to a specific activity. There are general and specific abilities. Are common And private are divided into elementary And complex. ARE COMMON the basic forms of mental reflection inherent in all people are the abilities to: feel perceive remember experience think to a greater or lesser extent the abilities inherent in all people for universal human activities play learning labor communication PRIVATE abilities not inherent in all people: ear for music accurate eye perseverance semantic memory abilities not inherent in all people: professional specific special.
