Sections: History and social studies

Lesson type: combined lesson.

Lesson objectives:

• educational:

to repeat and generalize the knowledge of students about the events of the Time of Troubles, to identify the main consequences of the Troubles, the directions of their elimination, outlined by the government of Mikhail Fedorovich; characterize the process of formation and legalization of autocratic power in Russia in the 17th century.

developing:

develop skills in working with a historical map, the ability to work with documents, analyze ongoing events; skills in working with diagrams.

Basic concepts: autocracy, Sobornoye Ulozhenie, Zemsky Sobor, Boyar Duma.

Important dates:

• 1613 - Zemsky Sobor;
• 1613-1645 - the reign of Mikhail Romanov;
• 1617 - Stolbovskiy peace with Sweden;
• 1618 - Deulinskoe truce with the Commonwealth;
• 1649 - Cathedral Code.

Equipment: textbook § 21 (OV Volobuev, VA Klokov, MV Ponomarev, VA Rogozhin "Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the XIX century"), historical map, diagrams, fragments of historical sources, cards with tasks.

During the classes

I. Homework survey.

1. Chronological task.

Find the value of an expression:

(Date of entry of False Dmitry I to Moscow + date of issuance of the decree on fixed years + date of wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom - date of the Battle of the Ice + date of the battle on the Kalka River - date of the fall of the government of Vasily Shuisky - date of Grunwald battle): 2 + 758 = x

(1605 + 1597 + 1547 – 1242 + 1223 – 1610 – 1410): 2 + 758 = 1613

1613 - Zemsky Sobor, election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom.

2. Supplement the logical series: 1497, 1550 ...

3. Determine the sequence of events:

The appearance of False Dmitry II. Tushino camp;

The invasion of Polish troops, the beginning of the siege of Smolensk;

Wedding ceremony for the kingdom of False Dmitry I;

The second militia and the liberation of Moscow from the Poles;

Solemn entry into Moscow of False Dmitry I;

First Militia;

The fall of the government of Vasily Shuisky. Seven Boyarshina;

The uprising led by I.I.Bolotnikov and its defeat;

The uprising in Moscow, the murder of False Dmitry I;

The wedding to the kingdom of Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky.

4. Determine where the reasons that caused the Troubles in the Muscovite State are most correctly named:

Suppression of the Rurik dynasty;

The enslavement of the peasants paved the way for a popular uprising that triggered a government crisis;

The consequences of the reign of Ivan IV, the struggle for power between the nobility and the serving nobility, the discontent of the lower classes.

5. Text with errors (working with the concepts of "civil war", "intervention", "people's militia", "Time of Troubles"):

“At the beginning of the 17th century, a decree on the reserved years was issued, according to which every nobleman had to carry out compulsory military service for two years. This decree caused discontent among the nobles and landowners. They began to convene the people's militia. And the intervention began, i.e. war between citizens of one state ”.

6. Working with the map.

c) Find the following objects on the map:

8. Based on the facts, determine for what reasons the civil war began to develop into a national liberation war.

9. Compare the First and Second Militia. Why exactly the Second Militia was able to liberate Moscow?

10. What are the consequences of the Troubles?

II. Learning new material.

1. Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles.

2. Legislative formalization of autocracy.

1. Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles.

a) task: determine the consequences of the Troubles. Drawing up a table "Consequences of the Troubles and ways to solve them."

b) Zemsky Sobor 1613 Election of Mikhail Romanov.

In Moscow, cleared of the Poles by the militias, they were preparing for the electoral Zemsky Sobor. The election of a new tsar was to take place there. By February 1613, the number of participants in the meetings reached more than 700 people: among them were representatives of the clergy, and some boyars who did not stain themselves with ties with the Poles, and militias (including Cossacks), and elected from cities and counties (nobles, eminent merchants and even state peasants). Many began to nominate their claimants to the throne. Among them were named the noble princes F.I.Mstislavsky and V.V. Golitsyn, the leaders of the militias D.T. Trubetskoy and D.M. Pozharsky. There were supporters of both the Polish prince Vladislav and the Swedish prince - Karl-Philip, even there were those who were not averse to serving the young son of Marina Mnishek and False Dmitry II "Vorenka Ivan".

At the very first meetings, by decision of the majority of the members of the council, they agreed not to consider odious figures known for hostile actions towards the Russian state. Thus, foreign princes and "funnels" immediately disappeared. Noble princes also turned out to be unsuitable candidates: V. Golitsyn was in Polish captivity, F. Mstislavsky - old and childless. Representatives of the cities spoke out against D. Trubetskoy, who did not approve of his service to the second impostor and connections with the Cossacks. Representatives of the nobility did not want to see D Pozharsky on the throne, since for them he was too thin.

Then they remembered the Romanovs, the closest relatives of the extinct dynasty. Aged and sick Ivan Nikitich was not suitable for the role of a monarch. Mikhail seemed suitable in all respects: he was young, did not stain himself with any connections with the enemies of the Fatherland, all his life he suffered from the intrigues of power-lovers. In addition, his rights to the throne as a nephew (albeit a cousin) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich looked quite legitimate. For aristocrats, Mikhail was a convenient figure in all respects, since he was related to many along several lines: with the Mstislavsky, Shuisky, Katyrev-Rostovsky, Buinosovs, Repnins, Shestunovs, Sheremetevs, Lykovs, Troekurovs, Saltykovs, Morozovs, Cherkassky and even Godunovs (I.I. Godunov was married to one of the daughters of N.R. Yuriev). The Cossacks remembered that his father was the Tushino patriarch. Ordinary people treated him with great sympathy and sympathy, because he experienced suffering throughout his short life.

At the beginning of February 1613, the participants in the Zemsky Sobor came to a common opinion - to elect Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as the new Tsar and Grand Duke of All Russia.

Question: Why exactly was Mikhail Romanov elected to the throne?

After the Troubles, the treasury was empty, and a lot of money was required for restoration work and for the payment of salaries to servicemen. An attempt was made to rewrite all taxpayers in scribes so that rural and urban residents "pay in their own measure in fairness." Nevertheless, twice during the years of Mikhail Fedorovich's reign, the collection of "fifth money" was announced, that is, a fifth of the annual income from each taxpayer, and the richest, first of all, the Stroganov merchants, had to lend money, food and cloth for the wounded of people.

As a result, already in the fall of 1613, regiments were sent to Smolensk to fight the Poles, to Novgorod - against the Swedes, and in 1617 the Stolbovsky peace was signed with Sweden, in 1618 - the Deulinsky truce with Poland.

Assignment: Using the map, determine what territories Russia lost as a result of these treaties.

2. Legislative formalization of autocracy.

Group assignment:

Group 1 - Boyar Duma

“It was believed that the tsar ruled the country together with the Boyar Duma. It included representatives of four Duma ranks: boyars, okolnichy, Duma noblemen and Duma clerks. In the first rank, the most important and prestigious, the tsars appointed persons from representatives of the families of Rurikovich and Gediminovich, i.e. descendants of the ruling houses of Ancient Russia (Vorotynskie, Mstislavskie, etc.) and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Golitsyn, Kurakin, etc.), as well as old Moscow families (Romanovs, Morozovs, Saltykovs, Sheremetevs, Sheins, etc.). All of them came from nearly 60 of the most ancient and noble families.

In the XVII century. a considerable number of people became members of the Duma due to kinship with the tsars along the female line: the Streshnevs under Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, the Miloslavskys and Naryshkins under his son and grandchildren. The same role was played by the favor at court - this is how, for example, A.S. Matveev and A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin rose to prominence under Alexei Mikhailovich.

The number of members of the Boyar Duma changed. In the late 70s. XVII century it had 97 people: 42 boyars, 27 okolnichi, 19 Duma nobles and 9 Duma clerks. The aristocratic character of the Duma remained, but nevertheless did not remain unchanged - an increasing number of nobles and clerks got there.

The tsar met with the Duma in the palace or, in the case of his departure to the villages and monasteries near Moscow, outside the capital, since the Duma officials accompanied him. Usually the Duma did not meet with its full complement: someone served as a voivode in cities and regiments, someone went abroad as part of the embassy. Duma sitting began at sunrise (in summer) or before sunrise (in winter) of the sun and sometimes continued with interruptions until late in the evening. Usually, at the order of the king, the most important state affairs were discussed and decided: the declaration of war, the conclusion of peace, the collection of emergency taxes, the adoption of a new law, etc., controversial or complex issues on the provision of orders - ministries of the XVII century, on the complaints of individuals. The decision of the Duma became a law or an explanation of it.

The role of the Boyar Duma gradually diminished. Along with it, the so-called near or secret thought existed under the tsar. The tsar did not include all the boyars in it, but only some - at his discretion, sometimes not members of the “big” Duma.

Despite the weakening of the role of the Duma in the state in the second half of the 17th century, it still ruled the country together with the tsar. Its final fall dates back to the reign of Peter I. ” (2)

Group 2 - Zemsky Sobor

“The role of the Zemsky Sobor has changed even more. They became the organ of representation of the nobles and townspeople. At the beginning of the 17th century. in the context of social upheavals, foreign invasions, and the weakening of state power, their importance has greatly increased.

Both during the Time of Troubles and at the beginning of the reign of Tsar Mikhail, the central government was in dire need of the support of “all the earth”. Zemsky sobors, in fact, turned into an organ of administrative power, in which representatives of the nobility and townspeople played a large, even decisive role. The council fulfilled its functions, which are so important and necessary for the country, with the permission and instructions of the supreme power, which was very concerned with the fact that after the terrible devastation, "to arrange the earth" as soon as possible.

Zemsky councils during the reign of Tsar Mikhail were convened frequently, almost annually. At first, they expressed the will of “all the earth” in their own way. But later, when Patriarch Filaret, the Tsar's father, returned from captivity in Poland, when a permanent government was formed, the role of council deputies began to be reduced to initiating petitions before the supreme power, which made the appropriate decisions that became laws.

The Zemsky Sobor from the very beginning was doomed to the role of an obedient instrument in the hands of the autocracy. First, a large part of the population, primarily serfs, was excluded from representation at councils. Secondly, they were convened only when the supreme power needed them.

In the first half of the 17th century. Zemsky sobors considered issues of war and peace, collection of emergency taxes and relations with neighboring countries. After 1653, when the Zemsky Sobor made a decision on the acceptance of Little Russia into Russian citizenship, the activities of this estate-representative institution, in fact, ceased. The government sometimes convened only elected representatives from any one estate, and these commissions considered certain issues on its behalf. The emerging absolute monarchy no longer needed such a governing body. The same process of decline of representative bodies took place then in almost all European countries. The bureaucracy and the army were the main pillars of power. " (2)

Group 3 - central management

“In the area of ​​governance, the government followed the path of bureaucratic centralization. In the XVII century. the command system has become much more ramified and cumbersome than in the previous century. With the expansion of the territory, the complication and revitalization of state, economic life, the number of central departments grew rapidly. There were up to 80 orders, but there were half as many permanent orders; the rest arose as needed and, having existed for a year or two, disappeared.

There was no clear division of functions between orders. Some were in charge of any branch of government throughout the country. Others could do the same thing in a certain area. The confusion in the order management greatly interfered with the business.

The orders, on the one hand, were completely subordinate to the tsar and the Boyar Duma, did not have any independence in deciding matters, on the other hand, they pressed like a press on the local authorities, especially the elective government.

The first place among the orders belonged to the Rank order, or Rank. He “discharged”, “dressed up”, that is, distributed, appointed service people in the homeland - nobles - to serve in the military, civil and court departments. The category kept lists of all nobles in cities and counties, the so-called tithes.

The local order was in charge of the local and patrimonial lands of the center of European Russia, where the main land holdings of the feudal lords were located - the estates that they owned on conditional right (after the termination of service, this land returned to the royal treasury) and estates (unconditional, hereditary possessions). If the category determined the local "salary" of a nobleman - the size of his land ownership, then the Local Order allocated a real "dacha" from the available land fund.

Yamskaya order provided the organization of the Yamskaya chase - postal service for the needs of the state.

Three orders were in charge of finances. The order of the Big Parish collected customs revenues through its local representatives, monitored measures of length and weight. The order of the New Quarter, or the New Chet, was in charge of tavern fees in Moscow and southern cities, and fought against the illegal sale of wine and tobacco. The order of the Great Treasury had broad powers: it was subordinate to the state industry and trade, the merchants themselves - guests, the merchants of the Living Room and the Cloth of Hundreds; finally, the Monetary yard, i.e. coinage.

Some orders were in charge of court cases. The robber, who was involved in criminal proceedings, dealt with cases of murder, robbery, theft throughout the country, except for Moscow; Zemsky was in charge of criminal cases, and also carried out police functions in the capital.

Chiefs, clerks, clerks, watchmen of the orders themselves were tried in the petty order. The same order acted as the highest court of appeal in all other orders. The order seemed to stand above other institutions. The Order of Secret Affairs, which controlled the activities of all state institutions, ambassadors, and voivods, had similar, but broader functions. The entire household of the royal family was subordinate to him. It existed, however, not for long - from 1654 until the death of Alexei Mikhailovich (1676).

The competence of several orders was of a regional nature. The entire Volga region, the lands of the former Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were ruled by the Order of the Kazan Palace. He was in charge of the lands of Siberia. In 1637, a special Siberian order was established to govern Siberia. Yasak entered it.

There was no unity in the distribution of cases between orders. All this cumbersome colossus was difficult to control the supreme power. She looked for a way out in organizing orders placed above all other orders: Secret, Chelobitnoye, etc., in transferring control of a number of orders (for example, Posolsky and the institutions connected with him) into the hands of one chief, usually a boyar.

The dark sides of the order system - confusion in competence, petty trusteeship from above and the same petty pressure of the orders themselves on local government bodies, the famous Moscow red tape and bribery - aroused the discontent of the subjects, who often raised uprisings aimed, among other things, against abuses of the order. ”( 2)

Group 4 - local government

“The main territorial-administrative unit of Russia was the county. The formation of counties dates back to the times when separate principalities and their estates were included in a single state. Of these, counties grew, differing in size and population. They were divided into camps and volosts.

Back in the middle of the XVI century. in the districts, instead of governors and volostels, zemstvo huts appeared, headed by zemstvo elders. They were chosen by local peasants and townspeople from their midst. The elders managed the townships and volosts, collected taxes, and conducted a civil court. Criminal cases were considered by the laborers who were sitting in the labial huts, they were elected from among their midst by the local nobles.

But by the end of the 17th century. In a number of border towns and counties, where a strong power was required, voivods appeared, and not only in the role of military leaders, but also chief administrators and judges in both civil and criminal cases. The voivode was responsible for the receipt of all fees, the implementation of state services, all kinds of duties, had police functions. Since the beginning of the 17th century. the voivodship power gradually and rather quickly spreads throughout the country, subordinating and ousting the self-government bodies. ”(2)

Assignment: to compare the composition, formation procedure and functions of these public authorities; draw up diagrams.

Questions:

1) How and why did the role and significance of individual state bodies change over the course of the century?

2) draw up a diagram "State administration of Russia in the 17th century."

In the 17th century, the legalization of autocracy took place. In 1649 the Cathedral Code was adopted.

Working with the text of the Cathedral Code

Questions:

1) formulate: the essence of the crime, the form of punishment, who was punished

2) prove that serfdom took shape under Alexei Mikhailovich

3) formulate a conclusion about the nature of the tsar's power from the middle of the 17th century.

OUTPUT: Under Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, an estate-representative monarchy took shape, and during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the autocratic power of the tsar was strengthened.

Literature:

1.L.E. Morozova, A.V. Demkin. The history of Russia in persons. Statesmen of the 17th century - M., 2001

2. A. N. Sakharov, V. I. Buganov. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. - M., 2002

3. A. V. Ignatov. Methodological guide to the textbook OV Volobuev et al. "Russia and the world" - M., 2005

History and LED

The consequences of the Troubles were dire for the country. The arable land was abandoned, because peasants fled from devastated villages and villages. The estates and monastic households reeled. They brought less food to the market and consumed less, which reduced trade. Landowners' households fell into decay.

LECTURE 20. Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles. The first Romanovs.

The enslavement of the peasants.

The consequences of the Troubles were dire for the country. The arable land was abandoned, because peasants fled from devastated villages and villages. The estates and monastic households reeled. They brought less food to the market and consumed less, which reduced trade. Landowners' households fell into decay. The departure of even a small number of peasants from the landowner caused irreparable harm to the economy, weakened the army, since at the expense of peasant labor, the landlord equipped himself and his servants for military service.

The central, southern and southwestern cities fell into desolation. The troops of impostors passed through them, the Poles raged here. City auctions froze, production in handicraft workshops decreased.

During the Time of Troubles, the international, diplomatic and trade relations of Russia were disrupted. Foreign ships stopped coming to Russian ports.

In these conditions, the main thing was to create conditions for a return to a peaceful life. The government of the first Romanov achieved some success on this path.

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645)

The main directions of foreign policy:

1) Return of the lands lost during the Time of Troubles.

Russia leads Smolensk War 1632-1634biennium The Russian army laid siege to Smolensk. However, the siege ended in failure. According to the resultsPolyanovsky Peace Treatyfor the Commonwealth remained the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands. Vladislav, who took the throne of the Commonwealth, renounced his claims to the Russian throne, to which he was invited by the Seven Boyars and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as tsar.

2) Further expansion of the country's territory.

Azov capture (sitting) -1637-1642 In 1637, the Don Cossacks, on their own initiative, captured the Turkish fortress of Azov at the mouth of the Don. The Cossacks turned to the king with a request to take Azov under their rule. It was clear that Russia would have to wage a difficult war with Turkey and Crimea, but the forces were not there. The Cossacks were forced to leave Azov.

1. Restoring statehood and streamlining the management system.

The new dynasty, being elective and not hereditary, enjoyed less prestige and needed the support of broad strata of society. This affectedincreasing the role of Zemsky sobors, which until the end of the reign of Mikhail Romanov met regularly and actively participated in solving the most important issues. Returning from Polish captivity, the leading role in the statehis father-patriarch Filaret (in the world - FN Romanov) begins to play. He essentially became the second ruler, combining ecclesiastical and secular power in his hands. As an experienced statesman, he delved into all the problems and often made decisions with which his son agreed. Until his death in 1633, Patriarch Filaret assisted in a well-thought-out domestic and foreign policy.

1. Overcoming economic ruin

The duties of the townspeople were clearly defined (the townspeople were the trade and artisan population of the cities). It was decided to impose taxes on the townspeople who moved to white settlements (i.e. suburban settlements belonging to large feudal lords and exempt from taxes) to tax them. This increased the flow of tax funds.

A law was issued according to which all the lands illegally seized during the Troubles were taken away. The landowners who served the state for a long time and well were allowed to transfer part of the land by inheritance. This decision strengthened the position of the nobility.

THIS WAY, towards the middle Xvii century, thanks to a reasonable internal policy, it was possible to overcome the devastation in the country. Politics Mikhail Fedorovich, aimed at strengthening the state, was continued by his son.

Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676).Received the nickname "Quiet" (was responsive and kind). The new tsar was a well-read man and was an exemplary family man. He tried to surround himself with smart and reliable people. During the years of his reign, a galaxy of talented statesmen emerged (F.M. Rtishchev, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin).

The main directions of domestic policy:

1) A course towards strengthening absolutism.

The main levers of control were gradually concentrated in the hands of the king. He less often began to convene Zemsky Sobors, and in the last years of his reign they did not gather at all.

There was a limitation of the power of the Boyar Duma. The Middle Duma emerged from its composition,

consisting of persons close to the king.

The number of orders has increased. The Order of Secret Affairs was created, which became a kind of personal office of the king. The order was subject only to the king and had broad powers.

2) Systematization (codification) of laws.

In 1649 the Zemsky Sobor was convened, which tooknew code of laws "Cathedral Code".

Cathedral Code:

Has formalized the estate structure of society and

Regulated the rights and obligations of all classes

Legislatively secured the formation of an absolute monarchy

Serfdom was established in the country.

 The main stages of enslavement of the Russian peasantry.

1581 year	Ivan IV decree "About reserved years"	The introduction of a temporary ban on peasant crossings on Yuryev Day.
1597 year	Fedor Ivanovich's decree "On class years"	Establishment of a 5-year term for detecting fugitive peasants.
1637 -1641	Mikhail Fedorovich's decrees	An increase in the period of investigation to 9, and then to 15 years.
1649 g.	"Cathedral Code" Alexey Mikhailovich	Establishing an unlimited search for fugitive peasants. Final (indefinite), complete (hereditary) enslavement of the peasants. Legal registration of serfdom.

Serfdom- the most severe form of dependence of the peasants on the landlords, whose power extended to the personality, labor and property of the peasants belonging to them. Serfs bore obligations:

Corvee - forced labor of a dependent peasant on the feudal lord's economy, for a piece of land received for use.

Rent - compulsory collection in kind or in cash.

Reasons for serfdom:

Reducing the cost of maintaining the army and the need to strengthen its basis, the service class (landowners-landowners).

The need to provide the ruling strata with free labor.

LECTURE 21. Church schism.

After the Time of Troubles, the role of the church has noticeably increased. This is due to the name of Patriarch Filaret, who concentrated secular and spiritual power in his hands and, in fact, ruled Russia for 14 years. To the middle Xvii century begins to change the relationship between church and state. The reason for this was the attempt of Patriarch Nikon to place spiritual authority above secular authority (“priesthood above kingdom”). The centralization of the Russian state required the unification of church rites. Already in Xvi century at the Stoglava Cathedral was established an all-Russian pantheon of saints. However, significant discrepancies persisted in the liturgical books, often caused by scribal errors. The proliferation of typography made it possible to establish uniformity of texts, but before that it was necessary to decide on which models to make corrections.

In the 1640s. a circle arose"zealots of ancient piety",which included future enemies Nikon and Habakkuk, there were disputes between them, according to which models to make changes - according to Greek or Old Russian. Political considerations played a decisive role in resolving this issue. The desire to make Moscow the center of world Orthodoxy demanded a rapprochement with Greek Orthodoxy. Meanwhile, the Greek Church since the introduction of Orthodoxy in Russia has gone through a series of reforms and significantly differed from the ancient Russian.

In 1652 Nikon became patriarch and, relying on the support of Alexei Mikhailovich, became with 1653 years to resolutely implement reforms. He began a reform to unify rituals. Greek rules and customs were taken as a model.

Reasons for Nikon's reform:

• The centralization of the state required unification (the establishment of uniformity of church rituals).
• The desire to make Russia the center of world Orthodoxy after the death of Byzantium (Alexei Mikhailovich's plans included the unification of the Orthodox churches of Ukraine and the Balkan countries with the Russian Church, and this requires a single ritual).
• Distortion of the texts of church books and church rites
• The need to restore order in church life

• A single worship service was established according to the Greek model
• The sign of the cross was introduced with three fingers
• Bows to the ground were replaced by waist bows
• During the procession, they moved towards the sun
• Hallelujah was recited three times, not twice
• Otherwise, they began to write the name of Christ-Jesus, instead of the old Jesus

Nikon, who considered spiritual power above secular, began to put himself above the monarch. This displeased Alexei Mikhailovich, who stopped inviting him to many important ceremonies. Nikon defiantly left Moscow and went to the New Jerusalem Monastery, expecting to be asked to return, but in 1666 the tsar assembled a church council, which defrocked him (this strengthened the position of secular power). At the same council, opponents of church reform were condemned.

1666 year - is considered the beginning of the schism in the Russian Orthodox Church. Archpriest Avvakum sharply opposed Nikon's reforms. With his sermons, he called on to fight the reform.

They tried to convince Avvakum, and failing to do so, they were anathematized. He and his supporters (schismatics, Old Believers) were repressed. In 1681 he was burned at the stake. The split became one of the forms of social protest of the masses, who linked the deterioration of their situation with the church reform. Old Believers fled from persecution to remote areas, where they founded their communities; when troops approached, they often burned themselves. The monks of the Solovetsky Monastery, who for 8 years withstood the siege of the tsarist troops, did not accept Nikon's reforms. Among the Old Believers there were also representatives of the ruling strata, for example, the noblewoman Morozova.

Reasons for the split:

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XVII century in Russia they call it "rebellious".

Time of Troubles - in Russia - the period from the end of the 16th century. until 1613 It is characterized by the aggravation of socio-economic and political contradictions, the involvement of various strata of the population in the socio-political struggle, interference in the internal affairs of foreign interventionists (Polish and Swedish). It was caused by economic chaos and ruin at the end of the 16th century. in connection with the Livonian War and the oprichnina, the abolition of the peasants' right to exit, the dynastic crisis after the death of Fyodor Ivanovich.

Dynasty(ruling) - a number of monarchs related to each other by kinship, who received power by the right of this kinship and inheritance.

1591 - Murder of Tsarevich Dmitry in Uglich.

1590-1595 - war with Sweden - Russia conquered Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye.

1598-1605 - the reign of B. Godunov.

1603 - Cotton uprising.

1606-1606 - False Dmitry I in Moscow: first, the strong support of the population, then - the uprising and murder.

1606-1610 - the reign of the boyar tsar V. Shuisky in Moscow.

1606 -1607 - the uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov (June - October 1607 - Bolotnikov with an army in the Tula Kremlin). Those besieged in the Kremlin were flooded, Bolotnikov was blinded, then drowned.

Foreign intervention.

1607 - news of the invasion of False Dmitry II (a toy in the hands of the Poles).

1607-1609 - False Dmitry invades through the Seversk Ukraine to connect with Bolotnikov at Volkhov. In June he approaches Moscow and sets up camp in Tushino.

1609-1612 - 2nd stage of the intervention.

1609 - False Dmitry fled, dressed in a woman's dress. Killed near Kaluga. “Seven Boyars” - the boyars invited Vladislav, the son of Sigismund III, to the Russian throne. The boyars secretly let the Poles into Moscow (September 21, 1610). The growth of the national struggle.

1st militia: Prokopy Lyapunov organizes in Ryazan. The militia moved towards Moscow, but among the militias there were disagreements between the noble and the Cossack-noble group. The militia broke up.

2nd militia formed in Nizhny Novgorod on the initiative of the Novgorod head Kuzma Minin. Prince D. Pozharsky led the militia. In the spring of 1612 the militia moved towards Moscow. On October 27, 1612, the Poles surrendered (the Kremlin was besieged by militias, and famine began). February 1613 g... - the Zemsky Sobor was convened. Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.

On February 21, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, at which the tsar read Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, 16-year-old grand-nephew of the first wife of Ivan the Terrible, Anastasia Romanova. On July 11, Mikhail Fedorovich was married to the kingdom. Soon, his father, the patriarch, took the leading place in governing the country. Filaret, who "owned all the affairs of the king and the war." Power was restored in the form of an autocratic monarchy. The leaders of the struggle against the interventionists received modest appointments. Dmitry Pozharsky was sent by the governor to Mozhaisk, and Kozma Minin became the Duma governor.

The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult the task is to eliminate the consequences of the intervention. The detachments of the Cossacks who roamed the country and did not recognize the new tsar posed a great danger to him. The Swedes were another danger. In 1617 he was concluded with them Pillar world(in the village of Stolbovo, not far from Tikhvin). Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation.

In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618, Deulinskoe truce with the Commonwealth, for which the Smolensk and Chernigov lands remained. There was an exchange of prisoners. Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne.

Thus, the main consequence events of Troubles in foreign policy was the restoration of the territorial unity of Russia, although part of the Russian lands remained in the Commonwealth and Sweden.

Socio-economic development of Russia c. Xvii v. To the middle of the XVII century. the devastation and devastation of the Time of Troubles was overcome. The economy was recovering slowly in conditions.

Agriculture remained the leading branch of the economy. Height production volumes were achieved due to the involvement of new lands in the economic turnover: Black earth, Middle Volga, Siberia.

In the XVII century. further growth of feudal land ownership, redistribution of land within the ruling class. The new dynasty of the Romanovs, strengthening their position, widely used the distribution of land to the nobles. In the central regions of the country, landownership of black-moored peasants practically disappeared. The desolation of the central counties as a result of a long crisis and the outflow of the population to the outskirts was one of the reasons strengthening serfdom.

In the XVIII century. the development of handicrafts into small-scale production was observed. By the end of the 17th century. in Russia, there were at least 300 cities, the main areas of handicraft production were formed. The centers of metallurgy and metalworking, textiles, salt production, and jewelry were further developed.

The development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence manufactories. Manufactory is a large enterprise based on division of labor and handicraft techniques. In the XVII century. there were approximately 30 manufactories in Russia. The first state-owned manufactories appeared in the 16th century. (Pushkarsky Dvor, Mint). The first private-owned manufactory is considered to be the Nitsa copper smelter in the Urals, built in 1631.

Since there were no free workers in the country, the state began to ascribe, and later (1721) allowed factories to buy peasants. The registered peasants had to work off their taxes to the state at a factory or plant at a certain rate. The state provided assistance to the owners of enterprises with land, timber, and money. The factories founded with the support of the state were later named "Possessional"(from the Latin word "possession" - possession). But until the 90s. XVII century metallurgy remained the only industry where manufactories operated.

Role and importance increase merchants in the life of the country. Of great importance were the constantly gathering fairs: Makarievskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (in the region of Bryansk), Irbitskaya (in Siberia), in Arkhangelsk, etc., where merchants conducted large-scale wholesale and retail trade at that time.

Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. Until the middle of the century, foreign merchants derived huge benefits from foreign trade, exporting timber, furs, hemp, etc. from Russia. The English fleet was built from Russian wood, and the ropes for its ships were made of Russian hemp. Arkhangelsk was the center of Russian trade with Western Europe. There were English and Dutch trading yards here. Close ties were established through Astrakhan with the countries of the East.

The Russian government's support for the growing merchant class is evidenced by the publication of the New Trade Regulations, which increased duties on foreign goods. Politics mercantilism 1 was also expressed in the fact that foreign merchants had the right to conduct wholesale trade only in border shopping centers.

In the XVII century. the exchange of goods between individual regions of the country expanded significantly, which indicated the beginning folding of the all-Russian market. The merging of separate lands into a single economic system began.

The development of the country's economy was accompanied by large social movements. The 17th century is not accidentally named "Rebellious century". It was during this period that two peasant “troubles” took place (the uprising of I. Bolotnikov and the Peasant War led by S. Razin) and a number of urban uprisings in the middle of the century, as well as the Solovetsky revolt and two strelets uprisings in the last quarter of the century.

The history of urban uprisings opens Salt riot 1648 in Moscow. Various strata of the capital's population took part in it: the townspeople, archers, nobles, dissatisfied with the policy of B.I. Morozov. 2 Decree of February 7, 1646 introduced a high tax on salt. And salt was the product that the people of the 17th century abandoned. could not in any way. It was not possible to prepare food for future use without salt. In 1646-1648. salt prices have grown 3-4 times. The people began to starve, while thousands of poods of cheap fish rotted on the Volga: because of the high cost of salt, the fish producers were unable to salt it. Everyone was unhappy. Less expensive salt was sold than before, and the treasury suffered significant losses. At the end of 1647, the salt tax was abolished, but it was too late ...

The Moscow Salt Riot responded with the uprisings of 1648-1650. in other cities. The most stubborn and prolonged uprisings in 1650 were in Pskov and Novgorod. They were caused by a sharp increase in the price of bread as a result of the government's commitment to supply grain to Sweden.

In 1662, the so-called Copper riot caused by the protracted Russian-Polish war and the financial crisis. The monetary reform (minting of depreciated copper money) led to a sharp drop in the ruble exchange rate, which primarily affected the salaries of soldiers and archers, as well as artisans and small traders. Loyal to the tsar, the riflemen and the "foreign system" regiments suppressed the revolt. As a result of the brutal massacre, several hundred people were killed, and 18 were publicly hanged.

Mid-century urban uprisings proved to be a prelude to the Peasant War led by S. T. Razina 1670-1671 This movement originated in the villages of the Don Cossacks. The Don freemen attracted fugitives from the southern and central regions of the Russian state. Here they were protected by the action of the unwritten law - "there is no extradition from the Don." The government, in need of the services of the Cossacks for the defense of the southern borders, paid them a salary and put up with the self-government that existed there.

Stepan Timofeevich Razin, raising the people against the "traitor boyars", spoke on behalf of Alexei (the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich), who had already died by that time. The peasant war engulfed vast areas of the Don, the Volga region, the Urals, and found a response in the Ukraine. The rebels managed to capture Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara and other cities. However, near Simbirsk Razin was defeated, and then betrayed by the "homely" Cossacks and executed.

The social crisis was accompanied by an ideological crisis. Let's take the fact that religious struggle grows into a social one. Solovetsky uprising 1668-1676 It began with the fact that the brethren of the Solovetsky Monastery flatly refused to accept the revised liturgical books. The government decided to tame the rebellious monks by blockading the monastery and confiscating its land holdings. High thick walls, rich food supplies extended the siege of the monastery for several years. The Razins who were exiled to Solovki also joined the ranks of the rebels. Only as a result of betrayal, the monastery was captured, out of 500 of its defenders, only 60 survived.

In general, the popular uprisings of the 17th century. had a dual meaning for the development of the country. First, they partly played the role of limiting exploitation and abuse of power. And secondly, they pushed the centralization and strengthening of the state apparatus even more.

The evolution of the state and political system. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty was the heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Under the young king Mikhail Fedorovich(1613-1645) the Boyar Duma seized power into its own hands, in which the relatives of the new tsar - the Romanovs, Cherkasskys, Saltykovs - played a significant role.

However, to strengthen the centralized power in the state, the constant support of the nobility and the top of the urban settlement was required. Therefore, the Zemsky Sobor from 1613 to 1619 met almost continuously. The role and competence of Zemsky Sobors undoubtedly increased (under Tsar Mikhail, the sobor met at least 10 times), the elective element gained a numerical predominance over the official. And nevertheless, the cathedrals did not have an independent political significance, therefore, to assert that Russia had a classical estate-representative monarchy of the Western model is hardly appropriate even in relation to the 17th century, but we can talk about the elements of estate representation: Zemsky Cathedral and Boyar Duma.

The point is that active work Zemsky Cathedrals was due to the temporary need of the new government to overcome the consequences of the Troubles. The elected at the council were ordered, as a rule, only to express their opinion on this or that issue; it was the prerogative of the supreme power to decide. The composition of the cathedral was changeable, lacking a stable organization, therefore it cannot be called an all-estates body. Gradually by the end of the 17th century. congregational activity ceased.

In 1619, the father of Tsar Mikhail returns from Polish captivity Filaret (Fedor Nikitovich Romanov), at one time really claimed the royal throne. In Moscow, he takes the patriarchal dignity with the title of "great sovereign" and becomes the de facto ruler of the state until his death in 1633.

The new Moscow government, in which the tsar's father, Patriarch Filaret, played the primary role in restoring the state after the Troubles, was guided by the principle: everything should be the same as of old. The ideas of an electoral and limited monarchy, matured in the era of turmoil, did not take deep roots.

Measures are being taken to strengthen the autocracy. Large secular and spiritual landowners are transferred to huge lands and entire cities. Most of the estates of the middle nobility are transferred to the category of estates, new land plots are "complaining" for "service" to the new dynasty.

Appearance and meaning are changing Boyar Duma. At the expense of the Duma nobles and clerks, its number increases from 35 people in the 30s. to 94 by the end of the century. Power is concentrated in the hands of the so-called Near Duma, which at that time consisted of four boyars who were related to the tsar by kinship (I. N. Romanov, I. B. Cherkassky, M. B. Shein, B. M. Lykov). In 1625, a new state seal was introduced, and the word "autocrat" was included in the royal title.

With the limitation of the powers of the Boyar Duma, the importance of orders - their number grew steadily and at times reached fifty. The most important of them were Local, Posolsky, Razryadny, the order of the Big Treasury, etc. The practice of subordinating several orders to one government person in the state is gradually established - in fact head of government. So, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the orders of the Big Treasury, Streletsky, Inozemny and Aptekarsky were in charge of the boyar I.B. Cherkassky, and from 1642 he was replaced by a relative of Romanov, F.I.Sheremetyev. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, these orders were ruled first by BI Morozov, then by ID Miloslavsky, the Tsar's father-in-law.

V local the same management changes took place, which testified to the strengthening of the centralizing principle: the zemstvo elective bodies, which appeared in the middle of the 16th century, began to gradually be replaced by stricter management from the center through governor. On the whole, a rather contradictory picture was formed: at a time when the zemstvo electives were called upon from the counties to resolve issues of supreme governance alongside the boyars and the capital's nobles, the district electors were given the power of these boyars and nobles (voivods) (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Under Filaret, she restored her shaky position church. With a special letter, the tsar handed over to the patriarch the trial of the clergy and monastery peasants. The land holdings of the monasteries expanded. Patriarchal judicial and administrative-financial orders appeared. The Patriarchal Court was modeled after the royal court.

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov died in June 1645. The Zemsky Sobor had to decide the issue of succession to the throne, because in 1613 it was not the Romanov dynasty that was elected to the kingdom, but Mikhail personally. According to the old Moscow tradition, the crown was received by the son of Mikhail Fedorovich, Alexei, who was 16 years old at the time. The Zemsky Sobor took him to the kingdom. Unlike his father, Alexei did not undertake any written obligations to the boyars, and formally nothing limited his power.

Into Russian history Aleksey Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) entered as Ageksey the Quiet. Grigory Kotoshikhln called Alexei "much quiet", and the foreigner Augustin Mayerberg was surprised that the tsar, "having unlimited power over the people accustomed to complete slavery, did not encroach on anyone's honor and property."

The point, of course, was not only the balanced character of Alexei Tishaishiy. By the middle of the XV11 century. the centralization of the Russian state has increased markedly. After the shocks of the Time of Troubles, central and local authorities have already recovered, and extreme measures were not required to govern the country.

The internal policy of Alexei Mikhailovich reflected the ambivalent nature of his time. The quietest tsar wanted to observe the customs of old Moscow Russia. But, seeing the successes of Western European countries, he simultaneously strove to adopt their achievements. Russia was balancing between paternal antiquity and European innovations. Unlike his resolute son, Peter the Great, Aleksey Tishaishy did not carry out reforms that would break "Moscow piety" in the name of Europeanization. Descendants and historians assessed this in different ways: some were indignant at the "weak Alexei", ​​others saw in that "the true wisdom of the ruler."

Tsar Alexei encouraged reformers in every possible way, such as A.P. Ordin-Nashchokin, F.M. Rtishchev, Patriarch Nikon, A.S. Matveev and etc.

In the early years of Alexei's reign, the Tsar's educator enjoyed particular influence. Boris Ivanovich Morozov. A domineering and intelligent man, Morozov contributed to the penetration of European achievements into Russia, in every possible way promoted the printing of translations, European books, invited foreign doctors and masters to the Moscow service, loved theatrical performances. Not without his participation, the reorganization of the Russian army began. The noble cavalry and the people's militia were gradually replaced regiments of the new order- a regular army trained and equipped in a European manner.

One of the main achievements of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption Cathedral Code(1649). This grandiose one for the 17th century. for a long time the code of laws played the role of the All-Russian Legal Code. Attempts to adopt the new Code were shared under Peter I and Catherine II, but both times were unsuccessful.

Compared to its predecessor, the Code of Laws of Ivan the Terrible (1550), the Cathedral Code, in addition to criminal law, also includes state and civil law, therefore it is thus not

It is surprising not only the completeness, but also the speed of adoption of the code. All this extensive vault in the project was developed by a commission of the prince specially created by the tsar's decree Nikita Ivanovich Odoevsky, then discussed at a specially convened Zemsky Sobor in 1648, corrected in many articles, and on January 29 was already adopted. So all discussion and acceptance

The code of almost 1000 articles took only a little more than six months - the term is unprecedentedly short even for a modern parliament!

The reasons for such a rapid adoption of new laws were as follows.

First, the Zemsky Sobor was in a hurry because of the very disturbing atmosphere of that time of Russian life. Popular demonstrations in 1648 in Moscow and other cities forced the government and elected officials to improve the affairs of the court and legislation.

Secondly, since the time of the Code of Laws in 1550, many private decrees have been adopted on various cases. Decrees were collected in orders, in each according to its type of activity, and then recorded in the Decrees Books. These last clerks were guided along with the Code of Laws in administrative and judicial matters.

Over a hundred years, a great many legal provisions have accumulated, scattered according to different orders, sometimes contradicting each other. This made it difficult for the order administration and gave rise to a mass of abuses from which the petitioners suffered. It was required, according to the apt formulation of S. F. Platonov, "instead of a mass of separate laws to have one code." Thus, the reason that stimulated legislative activity was the need to systematize and codify laws.

Thirdly, too much has changed, moved out of place in Russian society after the Troubles. Therefore, not a simple update was required, but reform of legislation, bringing it into line with new living conditions.

Cathedral Code considered civil service and public life in the following main areas:

interpreted the royal power as the power of the anointed of God;

first introduced the concept of "state crime". All acts directed against the tsar and his family, criticism of the government were declared as such. The death penalty was imposed for a crime against the state (the theft of the sovereign's goods was just as severely punished);

provided for punishment for crimes against the church and the patriarch;

regulated relations between the population and local authorities in many articles. Disobedience to the authorities was punished, but also punishments were imposed on governors and other officials for extortion, bribes and other abuses;

attached townspeople to the settlement; ,

imposed tax on the "White Lands" - residents of settlements belonging to monasteries and private individuals;

defended the interests of the rich townspeople - merchants, guests (merchants) - by the fact that severe punishments were announced for encroachment on their good, honor and life;

announced "indefinite" search for peasants and their return to the estates. Thus, the last step was taken - serfdom became complete. True, there was still a custom - “there is no extradition from the Don”. It was possible to hide in Siberia, from where neither the government nor the owners had the opportunity to return the fugitive.

A legislative monument that surpassed the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in completeness and legal elaboration - the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 15 volumes - appeared only in 1832 under Nicholas I. And before that, the Code had remained a code of Russian laws for almost two centuries.

The monarchy of Alexei Mikhailovich still retained the features of the estate-representative, but the autocratic power of the tsar increased. After the council of 1654, which decided the issue of reunification with Ukraine, Zemsky councils did not gather until the end of Alexei's reign. The system of government bodies with orders and the Boyar Duma, which took shape under the last Rurikovichs, remained unshakable. But there were partial changes in it, which contributed to greater centralization and the creation of a complex state-administrative apparatus with a huge number of officials - clerks and clerks.

Separated from the Boyar Duma Middle Duma and The massacre chamber, deciding current judicial and administrative cases.

Not wishing to completely depend on the Boyar Duma and the leadership of the orders, Alexey Mikhailovich created a kind of personal office - Order of secret affairs(he stood above everyone else, as he could interfere in the affairs of all government institutions).

Localism was gradually becoming a thing of the past. Increasingly, “thin people” were appointed to important government posts.

Thus, in the second half of the 17th century. the formation of the main elements begins absolute monarchy. Absolutism- such a form of government when the legislative, executive and judicial power is completely concentrated in the hands of the monarch, and the latter relies on the ramified bureaucratic-bureaucratic apparatus appointed and controlled exclusively by him. An absolute monarchy presupposes the centralization and regulation of state and local government, the presence of a standing army and security service, a developed financial system controlled by the monarch.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, his eldest son became tsar Fedor- a sickly boy of 14 years old. In fact, power was seized by his maternal relatives Miloslavsky and sister Sophia, characterized by strong will and energy. The ruling circle under the princess was headed by an intelligent and talented prince V. V. Golitsyn - the favorite of the princess. The course was continued to raise the nobility, to create conditions for the merger of the nobility and the boyars into a single estate. A strong blow to the estate privileges of the aristocracy, in order to weaken its influence, was dealt in 1682 with the abolition of parochialism. Now, in office appointments, the principle of personal merit was brought to the fore.

With the death of the childless Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, the question arose about the heir to the throne. Of his two brothers, the feeble-minded Ivan could not occupy the throne, but Peter- the son from the second marriage - 10 years old. At court, a struggle broke out between the relatives of the princes along the line of their mothers.

Behind Ivan stood Miloslavsky led by Princess Sophia, followed by Peter - Naryshkins, supported by Patriarch Jokim, who replaced Nikon. At a meeting of the Consecrated Cathedral and the Boyar Duma, Peter was proclaimed tsar. However, on May 15, 1682, the archers revolted in Moscow, incited by the head of the Streletsky order, Prince I.A.Khovansky. All prominent supporters of the Naryshkins were killed. At the request of the archers, both princes were seated on the throne, and Princess Sophia became their ruler. With the onset of Peter's majority in the summer of 1689, Sophia's regency lost its foundation. Not wanting to voluntarily surrender power, Sophia, relying on her protege, the head of the Streletsky order F. Shaklovity, was waiting for support from the archers, but her hopes were not justified, the palace coup failed. Sophia was stripped of power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent, her closest supporters were executed or exiled.

In general, at the end of the 17th century. the country was on the verge of decisive changes, already prepared by the previous development. The overdue reforms could be carried out by reducing state pressure on society while encouraging private initiative and gradually weakening the class lack of freedom. This path would be a continuation of the reform activities of A.P. Ordin-Nashchokin and V.V. Golitsyn. Another path presupposed an even greater tightening of the regime, an extreme degree of concentration of power, an increase in serfdom and, as a result of an unreasonable exertion of forces, a reformation spurt. The traditions of despotic state power in Russia and the character of the reformer who appeared at the end of the century made the second option more likely.

Foreign policy of Russia. Development of Siberia and the Far East. Russia's foreign policy during the 17th century was aimed at solving the following tasks:

reaching the outlet to the Baltic Sea;

ensuring the security of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khanate;

the return of the territories seized off during the Time of Troubles;

development of Siberia and the Far East.

In 1648, the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish lords began under the leadership of B. Khmelnitsky. Zemsky Sobor in 1653 decides on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In turn Pereyaslavl Rada in 1654 unanimously spoke in favor of Ukraine joining Russia. The outbreak of war with the Commonwealth lasted 13 years, from 1654 to 1667, and ended with the signing Andrusov armistice(1667), the terms of which were fixed in 1686 "The war world". Smolensk region, Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev were ceded to Russia. Belarus remained part of Poland. In addition, the treaty provided for joint actions by Russia and Poland against a possible Turkish-Crimean aggression.

From 1656 to 1658 was war between Russia and Sweden. Russia's attempt to seize the coast of the Gulf of Finland ended in failure. In 1661 was signed Kardassian world along which the entire coast remained with Sweden.

Thus, Russia was never able to get access to the seas, and in this its foreign policy tasks remained the same. The Crimean campaigns did not bring Russia any major military successes or territorial transformations. However, the main task "Holy League"(Austria, Poland, Russia - 1684) was executed - Russian troops blocked the forces of the Crimean Khan, who could not provide assistance to the Turkish troops, who were defeated by the Austrians and Venetians. In addition, the inclusion of Russia for the first time in the European military alliance has significantly raised its international prestige.

Among the successes of Russian foreign policy - development of Siberia and the Far East. In the XVI century. Russian people conquered Western Siberia, and by the middle of the XVI1 century. conquered a significant part of Eastern Siberia. The gigantic space from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk was "traversed" by the pioneering Cossacks in 20 years.

From the interfluve of the Ob and Yenisei rivers, Russian explorers moved southeast in the Baikal region, to the Amur and the southern Far Eastern lands, and also to the east and northeast to the Lena River basin - to Yakutia, Chukotka and Kamchatka.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. church, relying on the state, she suppressed numerous heresies that penetrated the upper layers of the administrative apparatus and had a fairly wide social base. In historical scholarship, this struggle was seen as the suppression of free-thinking, currents of social thought, analogous to the Western reformation. Church history interprets the defeat of heresies as a defense of the faith, the Orthodox identity of the Russian people and Russian statehood, and the scope and cruelty of the struggle against heresies in Russia surpassed the activities of the Inquisition or Protestant churches.

The church and monasteries possessed significant economic power, developed and efficient economy, and were cultural centers. Monasteries were often built in strategically important places and were of great importance in the defense of the country. The church was able to exhibit up to 20 thousand. warriors. These circumstances created the material basis for the authority of the church (a kind of state within the state), which, nevertheless, was not used in opposition to secular power.

The consecrated cathedral, as an organ of church administration, took an active part in the work of the Zemsky sobor. During the Time of Troubles, the Patriarchate (established in 1589), despite some hesitation, played a large role in the fight against impostors and the Polish-Swedish intervention (the tragic fate of Patriarch Hermogenes, the death of monks while protecting Orthodox shrines, material support for the militia, etc.). ). Patriarch Filaret actually ruled Russia, being a co-ruler of Tsar Mikhail Romanovich, strengthening the autocracy and the new dynasty, on the one hand, and the role of the church, on the other.

In the middle of the 17th century. begins a reorientation in the relationship between church and state. Researchers assess its causes in different ways. In historical literature, the prevailing point of view is that the process of the formation of absolutism inevitably led to the deprivation of the church of its feudal privileges and subordination to the state. The reason for this was an attempt by Patriarch Nikon to place spiritual authority above secular authority. Church historians deny this position of the patriarch, considering Nikon a consistent ideologist. "Symphonies of power" 3 ... They see the initiative in rejecting this theory in the activities of the tsarist administration and the influence of Protestant ideas.

An important fact of Russian history of the 17th century. was church schism, resulting church reform Patriarch Nikon.

There are two main traditions in understanding schism in literature. Some scientists - A.P. Shchapov, N.A. Aristov, V. B. Andreev, N. I. Kostomarov - tend to see in him social and political movement in a religious form.

Other researchers see in schism and Old Believers primarily religious-ecclesiastical phenomenon. Among historians, such an understanding of the split is typical for S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky, E.E. Golubinsky, A.V. Kartashev, among Russian thinkers - for V.S.Soloviev, V.V. Rozanov, N. A. Berdyaev, Archpriest Georgy Florovsky. Modern researchers A.P. Bogdanov, V.I.Buganov, S.V.Bushuev do not deny socio-political aspirations, but consider them not the main and determining ones, but subordinate to the topic of the split.

Reasons for church reform:

Church reform was dictated by the need to strengthen discipline, order, and the moral foundations of the clergy;

The introduction of the same church rituals throughout the Orthodox world was required;

The spread of book printing opened up the possibility of unifying church books.

In the late 40s. XVII century in Moscow, a Circle of Zealots of Ancient Piety was formed. It included prominent church leaders: the tsar's confessor Stefan Vonifatiev, the rector of the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square, John, the tsar's bed-room F. Rtishchev, prominent church figures from Nizhny Novgorod Nikon and Avvakum, and others.

Son of a Mordovian peasant Nikon(in the world Nikita Minov) made a fast-paced career. Taking monastic vows on the Solovetsky Islands, Nikon soon became hegumen (head) of the Kozheozersky monastery (Kargopol region). Nikon was linked by acquaintance and friendship with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, whose support he enjoyed for a long time. Nikon becomes archimandrite of the Moscow Novospassky monastery - the ancestral burial vault of the Romanovs. After a short stay as Metropolitan of Novgorod (just during the Novgorod uprising of 1650) Nikon was elected Moscow Patriarch in 1652.

It was Patriarch Nikon who began the reform to unify rituals and establish the uniformity of church services. Greek rules and customs were taken as a model.

The most significant of the innovations adopted by Patriarch Nikon and the church council in 1654 were the replacement of baptism with two fingers with three fingers, pronouncing the praise of God "Hallelujah" not twice, but thrice, movement around the analogue in the church not in the direction of the Sun, but against it.

Then the patriarch attacked the icon painters who began to use Western European painting techniques. In addition, following the example of the Eastern clergy, the churches began to read sermons of their own composition. Here the patriarch himself set the tone. Russian handwritten and printed liturgical books were ordered to be taken to Moscow for viewing. If there was a discrepancy with the Greek, then the books were destroyed, printed instead and sent out new ones. And although all the changes were purely external and did not affect the Orthodox faith, they were perceived as an encroachment on the faith itself, because they violated traditions (the faith of the fathers and their ancestors).

Nikon fought against innovations, but it was his reforms that a part of the Moscow people perceived as innovations encroaching on faith. The church split into Nikonians(the church hierarchy and most of the believers accustomed to obeying) and Old Believers.

Archpriest becomes an active opponent of Nikon and one of the founders of the Old Believer movement. Habakkuk- one of the most prominent personalities in Russian history. A man of enormous strength of mind, fully manifested during his persecutions, from childhood he was accustomed to asceticism and mortification of the flesh. He considered aversion from the world and a striving for holiness to be so natural for man that he could not get along in any parish because of his relentless pursuit of worldly pleasures and deviations from the customs of the church. Many considered him a saint and miracle worker. He participated with Nikon in correcting the liturgical books, but was soon dismissed due to his ignorance of the Greek language.

The adherents of the old faith - the Old Believers - saved and hid the "wrong" liturgical books. The secular and spiritual authorities persecuted them. From persecution, the zealots of the old faith fled to the forests, united in communities, founded sketes in the wilderness. The Solovetsky Monastery, which did not recognize Nikonianism, sat under siege from 1668 to 1676, until the governor Meshcheryakov took it and hanged all the rebels (out of 600 people, 50 survived).

The leaders of the Old Believers protopope Habakkuk and Daniel wrote petitions to the tsar, but seeing that Alexei did not defend the "old days", announced the imminent arrival of the end of the world, because the Antichrist had come to Russia. The Tsar and the Patriarch are “his two horns”. Only the martyrs, the defenders of the old faith, will be saved. The sermon of "cleansing by fire" was born. The schismatics locked themselves in churches and burned themselves alive.

Old Believers did not disagree with the Orthodox Church in any dogma(the main provision of the doctrine), but only in some rites that Nikon abolished, so they were not heretics, but only schismatics.

The schism brought together a variety of social forces that advocated keeping the traditions of Russian culture intact. There were princes and boirs, such as the noblewoman F.P. Morozova and the princess E.P. Urusova, monks and white clergy, who refused to perform new rituals. But there were especially many ordinary people: townspeople, archers, peasants, who saw in the preservation of old rituals a way of fighting for the ancient popular ideals of "pride" and "will". The most radical step of the Old Believers was the decision taken in 1674 to stop praying for the health of the tsar. This meant a complete rupture of the Old Believers with the existing society, the beginning of the struggle to preserve the ideal of "truth" within their communities.

Sacred Cathedral 1666-1667 he gave the schismatics a curse for their disobedience. The zealots of the old faith have ceased to recognize the church that excommunicated them. The split has not been overcome to this day.

The forerunners of the Old Believers Avvakum and his associates were exiled and Pustoozersk, in the lower reaches of the Pechora, and spent 14 years in an earthen prison, after which they were burned alive. Since then, the Old Believers have often subjected themselves to "baptism of fire" - self-immolation.

The fate of the main enemy of the Old Believers, Patriarch Nikon, was also tragic. Having achieved the title of "great sovereign", the holy patriarch clearly overestimated his strength. In 1658, he demonstratively left the capital, declaring that he did not want to be patriarch in Moscow, but would remain patriarch of Russia.

In 1666, a church council with the participation of the Alexandrian and Antiochian patriarchs, who had powers from two other Orthodox patriarchs, the Constantinople and Jerusalem ones, removed Nikon from the post of patriarch. The place of his exile was the famous Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich Nikon returned from exile and died (1681) near Yaroslavl. He was buried in the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow (Istra).

Thus, the church reform and schism were a major social and spiritual revolution, which not only reflected the tendencies towards centralization and a certain unification of church life, but also entailed significant socio-cultural consequences. He stirred up the consciousness of millions of people, making them doubt the legitimacy of the existing world order, created a split between the official secular and spiritual authorities and a significant part of society. Having violated some of the traditional foundations of spiritual life, the schism gave impetus to public thought and paved the way for future transformations.

In addition, the church schism that weakened the church in the 15th century served as a prerequisite for the subsequent subordination of the church to state power, turning it into an ideological appendage of absolutism.

In the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. there are four main directions: south-west, north-west, south and east.

Russia's actions in the southwestern direction in the first half of the 17th century were conditioned by an attempt to return the Russian lands (primarily Smolensk), seized by Poland during the Time of Troubles. In 1632-1634. Russia waged an unsuccessful war for itself with Poland for Smolensk. In June 1634. The Polyanovsky Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Poland retained the Smolensk lands, and the Poles renounced their claims to the Moscow throne and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as the legitimate king. During the Smolensk War, waves of Crimean raids hit the southern and even central districts of the country. From the second half of the 1630s. the government began to restore and build new fortified lines - notch lines. The creation of the Belgorod and Zakamsk zasechnye lines was accompanied by the construction of new cities and forts (more than 40 cities) and led to a gradual displacement of the southern borders to the south; huge tracts of black earth lands were included in the economic life of the country. Russian explorers in the 1620s and 40s passed through the whole of Western and Eastern Siberia, and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

In the middle of the 17th century. Russian-Polish relations determined the events in Ukraine. The Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples living on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth experienced the most severe oppression in social, national and religious relations. The war of liberation against Polish rule unfolded in 1648. The Cossacks, led by Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitsky, raised an uprising, in which Ukrainian and Belarusian peasants took part. B. Khmelnitsky, realizing that the Cossacks could not cope with Poland on their own, turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine into it. October 1, 1653 . The Zemsky Sobor decided to include Ukraine in Russia and declare war on Poland. January 8, 1654 . In the city of Pereyaslavl, a council (Rada) gathered, at which elected representatives from all classes of the Ukrainian population unanimously spoke in favor of Ukraine's joining Russia. The annexation of Ukraine to Russia entailed a grueling and protracted war with Poland (1654-1667).

According to the Andrusov armistice in January 1667. between Russia and Poland, Russia received Smolensk and the lands lost during the Time of Troubles, as well as the Left-Bank Ukraine with Kiev. After the death of B. Khmelnitsky (1657), Ukrainian hetmans tried to achieve independence from Russia, focusing on either Poland or Turkey (the Ottoman Empire). However, in 1686. Eternal Peace was concluded between Russia and Poland, which meant a transition from confrontation to peaceful and cooperative relations. "Eternal Peace" secured the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev to Russia. Right-bank Ukraine remained under Polish rule.

The main event of Russian foreign policy in the northwest was the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661. Russia sought to gain access to the Baltic Sea and to stop the Swedish expansion in Poland, Lithuania and Ukraine. In 1656. Russian troops successfully attacked the Swedes and won a number of significant victories. The next two years of the war were unsuccessful: the Russian army failed to take Riga, it was defeated in Karelia and Livonia. In 1658. an armistice was signed for 3 years. In 1661. the Kardis Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia renounced all the lands conquered in the Baltic States.

The southern direction of foreign policy was determined by the struggle with Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, who repeatedly raided the southern borders of the Russian state. Because of their threat, the territory adjacent to the Crimean Khanate was poorly populated and received the name "wild field". Among the foreign policy tasks of the Russian state were the protection of its southern borders and the economic development of the fertile lands of the "wild field".

In 1637, without the knowledge of the Russian government, the Don Cossacks captured the stronghold of the Turkish possessions, the Azov fortress. In 1641. the Turkish sultan sent a huge army of 250,000 men to Azov. Five thousand Cossacks rejected the offer of the Turks to surrender the fortress and heroically defended it. The Turks were forced to lift the siege. However, the Zemsky Sobor in January 1642, fearing a war with Turkey, refused to accept Azov into Russian citizenship. And after five years of "sitting" (defense) Azov was returned to her.

The Russian-Turkish war took place much later than the Azov siege "sitting" in 1677-1681. In 1676 Russian troops captured the Chigirin fortress. In the summer of 1677, a small Russian-Ukrainian garrison staunchly defended the fortress from the 100,000-strong Turkish army. In August of the same year, the Russian-Ukrainian army defeated the Turks in the battles on the Dnieper. In the summer of 1678, the Turks still managed to capture Chigirin. From 1679, hostilities ceased and peace negotiations began. In January 1681 the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty was concluded. Under its terms, Turkey and Crimea recognized the entry of the Left-Bank Ukraine together with Kiev into Russia, while the Right-Bank Ukraine remained with the Ottoman Empire.

The eastern direction of foreign policy is, first of all, the advancement to the Siberian lands. The development of Siberia for a long time was not accompanied by conflicts with any foreign states. The conquest of Siberia was accompanied by the imposition of yasak on the indigenous peoples, that is, a tribute collected mainly by furs. In the XVII century. In Siberia, Russian fortified settlements (fortresses) arise: Yenisei (1618), Krasnoyarsk (1628), Ilimsky (1630) Yakutsk (1632), Irkutsk (1652), etc. During this period, endless Siberian expanses were traversed and explored by Russian explorers and navigators. The arrival of the Russians in the Far East led to a conflict with China, which was settled by signing in 1689. Treaty of Nerchinsk. Following the pioneers, representatives of the tsarist administration came to Siberia. In 1637. the management of its vast territories was transferred to a specially created Siberian order. Siberia was divided into 19 counties ruled by voivods appointed from Moscow

In 1613. after repeated attempts by Russian society to overcome the Troubles, the Romanov boyars ended up on the Russian throne. The historical merit of the Romanov boyars lies in the fact that they were able to rise above their narrowly egoistic interests of understanding national tasks. They were able to see the main internal and external problems of Russia and solve them. Thanks to their efforts, by the end of the seventeenth century. Russia has achieved political stability, a certain economic well-being. The first Romanovs were able to gain a foothold on the throne and laid the foundation for the second ruling dynasty in Russia - the Romanov dynasty.

Lecture: Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles. The first Romanovs

Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles by Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov

The events of the Time of Troubles have become an important historical lesson for the Russians. The national identity and unity of the country have been strengthened. The Russian state defended its independence in the fight against the Polish-Swedish intervention. The positions of the church were strengthened. The administrative role of the Zemsky Sobors has increased.

But at the same time, the consequences of the Troubles were colossal and very difficult for the country:

huge human losses;

impoverishment of the state treasury;

territorial losses (the coast of the Baltic Sea, Smolensk, Chernigov and Northern lands);

economic ruin and devastation of the land;

fading of trade and handicraft production.

The Troubles led to impoverishment and population decline. Even after a quarter of a century, the population did not reach 1600. The size of cultivated land has decreased by almost 20 times.

16 year old king Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov understood what a heavy burden falls on his shoulders and was not delighted with the decision of the Zemsky Sobor. He could not resist and in 1613 began to exercise his royal powers. At the beginning of his reign, young Mikhail Fedorovich mainly relied on the decisions of the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor, which met almost constantly. This approach made it possible to create a sense of harmony and unity around the sovereign. He also relied on the church, led by his father, Metropolitan Philaret. Filaret in every possible way contributed to the rule of his son and until his death ruled the country on an equal basis with him.

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, continuing the war with Poland and Sweden, began to fight robbers and impostors. The forces opposing Mikhail Romanov gathered around Ivan Zarutsky, who became the patron saint of Marina Mnishek and entered into an agreement with her against the tsar. Marina Mnishek gave birth to a son from False Dmitry II and called him Tsarevich Ivan Dmitrievich. Zarutsky and his supporters everywhere sent letters that declared Ivan Dmitrievich's right to the throne. In Moscow, Ivan was named Vorenok. In retaliation, letters from the Moscow government and the church to the Cossacks, in which the atrocities of Zarutsky and Mnishek were vilified. The church called on the Cossacks to go into the service of the tsar and receive a salary for this. To suppress Zarutsky, a well-trained army headed by Prince I.N. Odoevsky. As a result of a two-day battle between the Cossacks of Zarutsky and Odoyevsky's army, the latter had to retreat. After some time, Moscow messengers came to the camp of the tsarist army with an important message. They brought with them documents revealing Zarutsky's connections with the Polish king. And then the governors decided to make a split between the Cossacks. And the Cossacks became aware of Zarutsky's correspondence with the Poles, which was perceived as a crime. A split occurred, and half of the Cossack army went over to the side of the tsarist army. As a result, Zarutsky's strength was significantly weakened. In the following battles, victories were won by the tsarist army. Zarutsky fled to Astrakhan, and then to Yaik, but was captured and captured. Together with him, they captured Marina Mnishek and her son. Zarutsky was executed. The same fate awaited Ivan Vorenok. Marina was put in a dungeon, in which she was killed a year later, having spread the rumor that she had died "out of anguish."

The Moscow government was forced to fight for several years with other violent Cossack gangs, which robbed and tortured people, did not allow the tsarist collectors to collect money for the treasury. To pacify them, the Zemsky Sobor sent boyars and officials with calls to stop the atrocities and go to the tsarist service against the Swedes. Those who agreed were forgiven for crimes, and received salaries for the service.

The war with the Swedes and Poles, as well as the fight against domestic robberies, required a lot of money. The practice of collecting arrears - tax arrears - began to be practiced. Another measure to replenish the treasury was to borrow money from anyone, even from foreigners. Scribes and patrolmen were sent to different cities and districts from Moscow. To collect arrears, they kept scribes. They produced land inventories that influenced the size of taxes. This is how the fiscal system began to be streamlined. But in some cases, this policy led to abuses by the tsarist bureaucrats.

The stabilization of international relations with the Swedes took place in 1617. The Eternal (Stolbovsky) Peace was concluded with Sweden, according to which the Muscovy lost access to the Baltic Sea. And in 1618, the Deulinskoe truce was concluded with the Commonwealth. As a result, the country lost the Smolensk and Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands.

Under the terms of the truce, a mutual exchange of prisoners took place. Finally, in June 1619, the freed tsar's father returned to Moscow. Filaret... He was a captive of the Poles since 1611. Filaret was ordained Patriarch of Moscow and began active centralization of the tsarist power. After Filaret's return, the Zemsky Sobor decided to carry out a new census as a measure to combat the abuse of bureaucrats. Therefore, in 1620, they began to write new scribes and sentinel books.

Mikhail Romanov restored the ordering system. State affairs were decided by numerous orders, at the head of which clerks were appointed. Some orders were permanent, others were created temporarily to solve a specific goal. The principles of division of orders' functions were not perfect. For example, a peasant had to apply to several orders to solve one case. Therefore, this system caused discontent among the peasants. In addition, the orders exerted constant pressure on the local government. The governorship was replaced by the provincial administration. The governor was appointed from the center. Clerks and governors were not averse to taking bribes. The Moscow government took various measures against this: it established an Investigative Order, issued a letter prohibiting the giving of bribes. But these measures did not work. And in 1627 it was decided to remove the provincial administration. At the place of the governor, elected from the local lip chiefs began to appear.

Measures were taken to improve the organization of the troops. The king wanted to create a regular army. Were introduced "Regiments of the new order" otherwise "Regiments of the foreign order". Modeled after the Western European army. They included the children of boyars and free people. They received a salary for their service. And the officers in these regiments were foreigners. New Charter adopted. To protect and defend the external borders during the Russian-Polish war of 1632-1634, Mikhail Romanov introduced dragoon cavalry regiments. During this war, an attempt was made to return Smolensk, but it was unsuccessful. The war ended with the conclusion of the Polyanovsky peace, which preserved the territorial borders of Russia and the Commonwealth under the terms of the Deulinsky armistice. But on a positive note, King Vladislav refused to claim the Russian throne. He recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as the true king of all Russia and withdrew his troops outside the country.

Thus, the reasonable economic and social policy of Mikhail Romanov allowed Russia to get out of the critical situation. But this only happened by the middle of the 17th century. The reforms carried out strengthened the state. The country's international ties have expanded throughout the world.

Board of Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov died in 1645. His policy aimed at strengthening and developing the Russian kingdom was continued by his son Alexey Mikhailovich (reigned 1645-1676). Raised by the boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov, the 16-year-old Tsar Alexei was well-educated and well-read. For the king to be considered an adult, he had to marry immediately. His choice fell on Maria Miloslavskaya, who gave birth to 13 children to the tsar. And Morozov married his sister Maria and thereby became related to the tsar.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, social unrest did not stop. At the very beginning of the reign, the Salt Riot took place, followed by others. You will learn more about this when studying the topic "". Unlike his father Mikhail, Alexei was less guided by the help of Zemsky Sobors, showing autocracy. He modernized the orders. He created an order of Secret Affairs, which obeyed only him and controlled the activities of all other orders. Alexey Mikhailovich divided the Boyar Duma into: the Near Chamber and the Disaster Chamber. He reformed localism. Under him, a new collection of laws was adopted - the Cathedral Code in 1649, which legislatively consolidated the power of the tsar, as given by God. Criticism of the church was forbidden and punished, but land ownership of the latter was also limited.

Alexei Mikhailovich's foreign policy began with the Russian-Polish war of 1654. It lasted until 1667. The reason for the war was the fact that Aleksey Mikhailovich took under his protection the Hetmanate - part of the Cossack lands on the territory of Ukraine, which was part of Poland. In 1648, the Ukrainian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky began a war against the Polish government. The hetman repeatedly asked Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich for protection and patronage, but did not receive an answer. Romanov understood that this would become a pretext for a war with Poland. But in 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to take the left-bank territories of the Dnieper under the patronage of the Muscovy. The corresponding message was sent to Khmelnytsky. Bogdan called the Pereyaslav Rada. There, the foremen of the Ukrainian Cossacks swear allegiance to the Russian Tsar, while maintaining their autonomy. In general, Ukraine retained the choice of the hetman, courts and other forms of Cossack power, had all the rights to participate in international relations with all countries, except for the Ottoman Empire and the Commonwealth. Thanks to the common efforts with Bogdan Khmelnitsky, Aleksey Mikhailovich regained the Smolensk and Chernigov lands. He also fought with Turkey, the Crimean Khanate and Sweden. But he could not return access to the Baltic Sea.