The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place in the vast expanses of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.

By the 7th century East Slavic tribal unions settled in its expanses, the names and location of which are known to historians from the ancient Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" by St. Nestor (XI century). These are the meadows (along the western bank of the Dnieper), the Drevlyans (to the north-west of them), the Ilmen Slovenes (along the banks of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River), the Krivichi (in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the Volga and the Western Dvina), the Vyatichi (along the banks of the Oka), northerners (along the Desna), etc. The northern neighbors of the eastern Slavs were the Finns, the western ones were the Balts, and the southeastern ones were the Khazars. Of great importance in their early history were trade routes, one of which connected Scandinavia and Byzantium (the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" from the Gulf of Finland along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov, Lake Ilmen to the Dnieper and the Black Sea), and the other connected the Volga regions with the Caspian Sea and Persia.

Nestor cites a famous story about the calling of the Varangian (Scandinavian) princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor by the Ilmen Slovenes: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it: go reign and rule over us.” Rurik accepted the offer and in 862 he reigned in Novgorod (that is why the monument "Millennium of Russia" was erected in Novgorod in 1862). Many historians of the XVIII-XIX centuries. were inclined to understand these events as evidence that statehood was brought to Russia from outside and the Eastern Slavs could not create their own state on their own (Norman theory). Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable.

They pay attention to the following:

Nestor's story proves that among the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (the prince, the squad, the assembly of representatives of the tribes - the future veche);

The Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and is trying to resolve the contradictions between the individual tribes by calling the prince who stands above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state;

Large tribal super unions, which included several unions of tribes, formed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - in the formation of the Ancient Turkic state, external factors played an important role: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, the Khazar Khaganate) pushed for unity;

The Varangians, having given Russia a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated, merged with the local Slavic population;

As for the name "Rus", its origin continues to cause controversy. Some historians associate it with Scandinavia, others find its roots in the East Slavic environment (from the Ros tribe that lived along the Dnieper). There are other opinions on this matter as well.

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively going on. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kyiv, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), Volynians and Croats were subordinated, power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.) were part of the Old Russian state. The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kyiv princes was quite high.

For a long time, only the payment of tribute was an indicator of submission to the authorities of Kyiv. Until 945, it was carried out in the form of polyudya: from November to April, the prince and his squad traveled around the subject territories and collected tribute. The murder in 945 by the Drevlyans of Prince Igor, who tried to collect a second tribute that exceeded the traditional level, forced his wife, Princess Olga, to introduce lessons (the amount of tribute) and establish graveyards (places where tribute was to be brought). This was the first example known to historians of how the princely government approves new norms that are obligatory for ancient Russian society.

Important functions of the Old Russian state, which it began to perform from the moment of its inception, were also protecting the territory from military raids (in the 9th - early 11th centuries, these were mainly raids by the Khazars and Pechenegs) and conducting an active foreign policy (campaigns against Byzantium in 907, 911, 944, 970, Russian-Byzantine treaties of 911 and 944, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in 964-965, etc.).

The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I of the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium, a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Russia, and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power finally took shape. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kyiv, planted his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important after Kyiv - Novgorod - the reign was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes moved to more important thrones. During the life of the Kyiv prince, this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there was a more or less long period of struggle between his sons for the reign of Kiev.

The heyday of the Old Russian state falls on the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of Russian Pravda, the first monument of written law that has come down to us (“Russian Law”, information about which dates back to the reign of Oleg, was not preserved either in the original or in the lists). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the established system of state administration: the Kyiv prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a retinue, the top of which is called the boyars and with whom he confers on the most important issues (a duma, a permanent council under the prince).

Of the combatants, posadniks are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (managers of princely estates), etc. Russkaya Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. Its basis was the free rural and urban population (people). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (purchases, ryadovichi, serfs - historians do not have a single opinion about the situation of the latter).

Yaroslav the Wise pursued an energetic dynastic policy, linking his sons and daughters by marriage with the ruling families of Hungary, Poland, France, Germany, etc.

Yaroslav died in 1054, until 1074 his sons managed to coordinate their actions. At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. the power of the Kyiv princes weakened, individual principalities gained more and more independence, the rulers of which tried to agree with each other on cooperation in the fight against the new - Polovtsian - threat. Tendencies towards the fragmentation of a single state intensified as its individual regions grew richer and stronger. The last Kyiv prince who managed to stop the collapse of the Old Russian state was Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). After the death of the prince and the death of his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), the fragmentation of Russia became a fait accompli.

Political fragmentation in Russia. Russia specific (XII-XIII centuries).

In 1097, princes from different lands of Kievan Rus came to the city of Lyubech and proclaimed a new principle of relations among themselves: "Let everyone keep his fatherland." Its adoption meant that the princes abandoned the ladder system of succession to princely thrones (it went to the eldest in the entire grand ducal family) and switched to inheriting the throne from father to eldest son within individual lands. By the middle of the XII century. the political fragmentation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv was already a fait accompli. It is believed that the introduction of the principle adopted in Luba was a factor in the collapse of Kievan Rus. However, not the only and not the most important.

Political fragmentation was inevitable. What were her reasons? During the 11th century Russian lands developed in an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership increased, cities grew rich. They were less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by his guardianship. To maintain order within his "fatherland", the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to the internal ones. The Polovtsy raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands for the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galic, Volyn) outskirts. The princes of Kyiv were weakening in the military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs were falling.

The negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Russia are concentrated in the military-strategic area: weakened defense in the face of external threats, intensified inter-princely strife. But fragmentation also had positive aspects. The isolation of the lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of principles that united the Russian lands. The seniority of the Grand Prince of Kyiv was formally recognized; ecclesiastical and linguistic unity was preserved; the basis of the legislation of the destinies was the norms of Russian Truth. In the popular mind up to the XIII-XIV centuries. lived ideas about the unity of the lands that were part of Kievan Rus.

At the end of the XII century. There were 15 independent lands, essentially independent states. The largest were: in the south-west - the Galicia-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal principality; in the northwest - the Novgorod Republic.

The Galicia-Volyn principality (formed in 1199 as a result of the subordination of Galich to the Volyn princes) inherited the political system of Kievan Rus. The princes (Daniil Romanovich, the middle of the 13th century was the largest) when solving important issues, had to take into account the opinion of the boyar-druzhina nobility and city assemblies (veche). This feature reflected the peculiarity of the socio-economic development of the Galicia-Volyn land: boyar estates and cities were traditionally strong here. From the middle of the XIII century. the principality was weakening: internal unrest and constant wars with Hungary, Poland and Lithuania led to the fact that it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality separated from Kyiv under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). Its mass settlement took place in the XI-XII centuries. Settlers from the southern regions of Russia were attracted by the relative safety from raids (the region was covered with impenetrable forests), the fertile lands of the Russian opolye, navigable rivers, along which dozens of cities grew (Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Kostroma, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod ). There were no old boyar estates and strong traditions of city self-government here. The Vladimir-Suzdal princes were much freer in their decisions and relied not so much on the boyars and cities, but on the princely servants personally devoted to them (merciful, i.e., people dependent on the mercy of the prince).

Decisive in the process of the rise of princely power was the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky's son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). Under him, the capital of the principality was moved to Vladimir, and a new title of the ruler was established - "Tsar and Grand Duke." Andrei Bogolyubsky led an active foreign policy, fought for influence in Kyiv and Novgorod, organizing all-Russian campaigns against them. In 1174, he was killed by boyar conspirators. Under his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), the principality flourished, interrupted by civil strife that began after his death, and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in 1237-1238.

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality became the cradle of the formation of the Great Russian people and in the near future the center of rallying the Russian lands into a single Russian state.

A different type of state structure developed in Novgorod. One of the oldest Russian cities was at the same time one of the richest and most influential. The basis of its prosperity was not agriculture (Novgorod depended on the supply of bread from the neighboring Vladimir-Suzdal principality), but trade and craft. The local merchants were a full participant in trade operations in the north-west of Europe, they traded with the German Hansa (the representative office of this powerful trade union of German cities was in Novgorod), Sweden, Denmark, the countries of the East with cloth, salt, amber, weapons, jewelry, furs, wax. Power and influence were concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod veche.

Historians argue about its composition. Some believe that the entire urban population and even residents of nearby villages participated in it. Others argue that the so-called "five hundred golden belts" - people from large boyar families - were full participants in the veche. Be that as it may, the influential boyar and merchant families, as well as the clergy, played a decisive role. Officials were elected at the veche - the posadnik (governor of Novgorod), the thousand (leaders of the militia), the governor (maintaining law and order), the bishop (later the archbishop, the head of the Novgorod church), the archimandrite (the elder among the abbots of the Novgorod monasteries). The veche resolved the issue of inviting the prince, who, under the supervision of the council of gentlemen and the posadnik, performed the functions of a military leader. This order developed after 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod from the city.

Novgorod, thus, was an aristocratic (boyar) republic, the keeper of the veche traditions of Ancient Russia.

The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was natural result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.

The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.

The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, fragile. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy ( 6th century).

According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862 Prince Rurik and his two brother were called to Russia by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.

Norman theory of the origin of the statehood of Kievan Rus

Legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited to XVIII in. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding ones.

If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians testifies only to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.

date of formation The ancient Russian state is conditionally considered 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

Socio-economic development of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Agriculture Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The basis of the economy was arable farming:

in the south - by a plow, or a rake, with a double team;
in the north - a plow with an iron share drawn by horses.

Cultivated mainly cerealsry: rye, wheat, barley, spelt, oats. Millet, peas, lentils, and turnips were also common.

Crop rotations in Kievan Rus:

two-field (the entire mass of cultivated land was divided into two parts: one of them was used for growing bread, the second "rested" - was under fallow);
three-field (in addition to fallow and winter (sown in autumn) fields, there was also a spring field - sown in spring).

In the forested north, the amount of old arable land was not so significant, slash-and-burn agriculture remained the leading form of agriculture.

The Slavs kept a stable set of domestic animals. Bred cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry. Crafts played a rather significant role in the economy: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. With the development of foreign trade, the demand for furs increased.

Craft Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Trades and handicrafts, developing, are more and more separated from agriculture. Actually handicraft production already numbered more than a dozen types:

weapons,
jewelry,
blacksmith,
pottery,
weaving,
leather.

Russian craft in its technical and artistic level was not inferior to the craft of the advanced European countries. Jewelry, chain mail, blades, locks were famous.

Trade Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

Internal trade in the Old Russian state was poorly developed. The reason is the dominance of subsistence farming.

The expansion of foreign trade was associated with the formation of a state that ensured the security of trade routes and supported them with its authority in international markets.

In Byzantium and the countries of the East, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Russian princes was realized.

Products of crafts were exported from Russia: furs, honey, wax, products of artisans - gunsmiths and gold smiths, slaves.

To Kievan Rus mainly luxury items were imported: grape wines, silk fabrics, fragrant resins and spices, expensive weapons.

Craft and trade were concentrated in cities, the number of which grew. The Scandinavians who often visited Russia called our country Gardarika - the country of cities. In Russian chronicles at the beginning XIII in. more than 200 cities are mentioned. However, the inhabitants of the cities still retained close ties with agriculture and were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding.

The social system of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

The process of formation in Kievan Rus of the main classes of feudal society is poorly reflected in the sources, so the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable.

Most scientists support the idea of Academician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began to IX in. leading trend in the socio-economic development of ancient Russia.

Feudalism of Kievan Ruscharacterized by:

full ownership of the feudal lord on the land;
incomplete feudal property against the peasants, against whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion.

The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his own plot of land, which he received from the feudal lord or the feudal state, and is the owner of tools, housing, etc.

The beginning process of the transformation of tribal nobility into land owners in the first two centuries of the existence of the state in Russia can be traced, mainly, only on archaeological material. These are rich burials of boyars and combatants, the remains of fortified suburban estates (patrimonies) that belonged to senior combatants and boyars. The class of feudal lords also arose by singling out the most prosperous members of the community, who turned part of the communal arable land into property. The expansion of feudal landownership was also facilitated by direct seizures of communal lands by the tribal nobility. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of dependence of ordinary community members on landowners.

Categories of the population of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries:

people or stinks - free peasants dependent only on the stateand grand duke ;
purchases - people who received from the landowner kupu- assistance in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and an obligation to return or work out kupu with interest;
Ryadovichi- people who have concluded a certain agreement with the feudal lord - row and obliged to perform various works according to this row;
serfs or servants - slaves, first of all, captives, but temporary debt servitude, which ceased after payment of the debt, became widespread. Kholops were commonly used as household servants. In some estates there were also so-called plowed serfs, planted on the ground and having their own economy.

The main social unit of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - verv. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. The members of the vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerds-farmers, but also smerds-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the needs of the community in handicrafts and worked mainly to order.

A person who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called an outcast. .

Votchina in Kievan Rus X-XI centuries

The patrimony is the main cell of the feudal economy, which included:

princely or boyar estate and
Vervei communities dependent on it.

In the estate there was a yard and mansions of the owner, bins and barns with "abundance", i.e. stores, servants' dwellings and other buildings.

Special managers were in charge of various sectors of the economy - tiunas and keykeepers, at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was fireman.

As a rule, artisans serving the lordly household worked in the boyar or princely patrimony. Craftsmen could be serfs or be in some other form of dependence on the votchinnik. The patrimonial economy had a natural character and was focused on the internal consumption of the feudal lord himself and his servants. The sources do not allow us to unequivocally judge the dominant form of feudal exploitation in the patrimony. It is possible that some part of the dependent peasants cultivated corvee, another paid the landowner in kind.

The urban population also fell into dependence on the princely administration or the feudal elite. Near cities, large feudal lords often founded special settlements for artisans. In order to attract the population, the owners of the villages provided certain benefits, temporary tax exemptions, etc. As a result, such craft settlements were called freedoms or settlements.

The spread of economic dependence, increased exploitation caused resistance from the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of dependent people. This is also evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - turning into a complete, "whitewashed" serf. Data on various manifestations of the class struggle are contained in Russkaya Pravda. It refers to violations of the boundaries of land holdings, arson of side trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, and theft of property.

The heyday of the Old Russian state

In the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). the East Slavic lands on both sides of the Carpathians, the land of the Vyatichi, were annexed to the Old Russian state. The line of fortresses created in the south of the country provided more effective protection of the country from the Pecheneg nomads.

Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the East Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this association with religious unity, unifying the traditional pagan beliefs.

Of the numerous pagan gods, he chose six, which he proclaimed the supreme deities on the territory of his state. The figures of these gods (Dazhd-bog, Khors, Stribog, Semargl and Mokosh) he ordered to be placed next to his tower on a high Kiev hill. The pantheon was headed by Perun, the god of thunder, the patron of princes and combatants. The worship of other gods was severely persecuted.

However, the pagan reform, called first religious reform did not satisfy Prince Vladimir. Carried out in a violent way and in the shortest possible time, it could not be successful. In addition, it had no effect on the international prestige of the Old Russian state. The Christian powers perceived pagan Russia as a barbarian state.

The long and strong ties between Russia and Byzantium ultimately led to the fact that Vladimir in 988. was taken Christianity in its Orthodox version.The adoption of Christianity equalized Kievan Rus with neighboring states, had a huge impact on the life and customs of Ancient Russia, political and legal relations.

One of the sons of Vladimir, Svyatopolk (1015-1019), seized power in Kyiv and declared himself a Grand Duke. By order of Svyatopolk, three of his brothers were killed - Boris of Rostov, Gleb of Murom and Svyatoslav Drevlyansky.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who occupied the throne in Novgorod, understood that he was also in danger. He decided to oppose Svyatopolk, who called on the help of the Pechenegs. Yaroslav's army consisted of Novgorodians and Varangian mercenaries. The internecine war between the brothers ended with the flight of Svyatopolk to Poland, where he soon died. Yaroslav Vladimirovich established himself as the Grand Duke of Kyiv (1019-1054).

In 1024, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky.

As a result of this strife in the horse As a result, the state was divided into two parts:

the area east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav Tmutarakan,
the territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav Vladimirovich, Grand Duke of Kyiv (1019-1054).

After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav (later - the Wise) became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

The time of Yaroslav the Wise is the time of the heyday of Kievan Rus, which has become one of the strongest states in Europe. The most powerful sovereigns at that time sought an alliance with Russia.

The first signs of fragmentation of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries.

In the Kievan state, each individual prince was considered only a temporary owner of the principality, which he got in turn of seniority. After the death of the Grand Duke, it was not his eldest son who "sat" in his place, but the eldest in the family between the princes. His vacated inheritance also went to the next in seniority among the rest of the princes. Thus, the princes moved from one area to another, from less to more rich and prestigious. As the princely family increased, the calculation of seniority became more and more difficult. The boyars of individual cities and lands intervened in the relations of the princes. Capable and gifted princes sought to rise above their elder relatives.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise Russia entered into period of princely strife. However, it is still impossible to speak of feudal fragmentation at this time. It comes when separate principalities are finally formed - lands with their capitals, and their princely dynasties are fixed on these lands. The struggle between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise was still a struggle aimed at maintaining the principle of tribal ownership of Russia.

Yaroslav the Wise before his death divided the Russian land between his sons - Izyaslav (1054-1073, 1076-1078), Svyatoslav (1073-1076) and Vsevolod (1078-1093). The reign of the last of the sons of Yaroslav, Vsevolod, was especially restless: the younger princes were fiercely at enmity over the destinies, the Polovtsy often attacked the Russian lands. The son of Svyatoslav, Prince Oleg, entered into allied relations with the Polovtsy and repeatedly brought them to Russia.

ON THE DISCIPLINE "NATIVE HISTORY"

ON THE THEME "KIEVAN RUSSIA IN THE IX - BEGINNING OF THE XII CENTURIES.

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY IN RUSSIA AND ITS

HISTORICAL MEANING"

PLAN

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ....
	Kievan Rus at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 12th century..................................................
	The heyday of Kievan Rus (the end of the 10th - the first half of the 11th century ..............
	Vladimir I ................................................ ............................................
	Yaroslav the Wise .................................................. .................................
	Acceptance of Baptism .................................................................. ...............................
	The Historical Significance of Christianity ..............................................................
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. .........

INTRODUCTION

“History in a sense is the sacred book of peoples: the main necessary, the mirror of their being and activity; tablets of revelations and rules; the covenant of ancestors to posterity; supplement, an explanation of the present and an example of the future.”

The adoption of Christianity (Orthodoxy) in Russia has always been regarded as an event that brought her a new historical destiny, allowing her to put an end to pagan barbarism and enter on an equal footing into the family of the Christian peoples of Europe. However, it was emphasized that the "baptism of Russia" was a long and complex process, accompanied by the preservation of a powerful layer of pagan beliefs.

With the strengthening of military-political integration between the principalities in Russia and the strengthening of the power of the Kyiv prince, the unity of the Old Russian state grew. In the context of the polytheism of the diversity of pagan cults, the question arose of which of the gods in pagan Russia should become the main one.

In the countries neighboring Russia, monotheistic religions have already established themselves: Islam - in the Volga Bulgaria, Judaism - in Khazaria, Christianity - in Byzantium. Christianity was adopted by such Slavic countries as Poland and the Czech Republic. The Old Russian state faced the problem of choosing a new faith.

1 KIEVAN RUSSIA AT THE END IX - BEGINNING XII CENTURY

From the end of the 9th to about the second third of the 12th century, Kievan Rus was a state consisting of volosts ruled by representatives of the Rurik dynasty. At the head of the princely hierarchy was the prince of Kyiv. Now the titles "Kagan" and "Grand Duke" have ceased to be used, since the need for them has disappeared. The entire East Slavic territory was under the direct rule of one princely family. The supreme ruler was the one who was the oldest in the family and reigned in Kyiv. The princes - the rulers of the volosts were his vassals. The volosts were formed on the basis of the territories of the former unions of tribal principalities, but their borders changed as a result of the activities of the princes, internecine wars, divisions and divisions of the territory.

With the folding of the structure of a single state by the end of the 10th century, a centralized and branched administration apparatus was formed. Representatives of the retinue nobility act as officials of the state administration. Under the princes, there is a council (duma), which is a meeting of the prince with the top of the squad. Princes from among the combatants appoint posadniks - governors in cities; governor - leaders of military detachments of various numbers and purposes; thousand - senior officials in the so-called decimal system of division of society; collectors of land taxes - tributaries; court officials - swordsmen, etc.

2 THE FLOWERING OF KIEVAN RUSSIA (END OF X - FIRST HALF 11th century)

2.1 Vladimir I

After the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk (972 - 980) became the great prince of Kyiv. His brother Oleg received the Drevlyane land. The third son of Svyatoslav Vladimir, born from his slave Malusha, the housekeeper of Princess Olga (Dobrynya's sister), received Novgorod. In the civil strife that began five years later between the brothers, Yaropolk defeated the Drevlyansk squads of Oleg. Oleg himself died in battle.

Vladimir, together with Dobrynya, fled "overseas", from where he returned two years later with a hired Varangian squad. Yaropolk was killed. Vladimir occupied the grand-ducal throne.

Under Vladimir I (980 - 1015), all the lands of the Eastern Slavs united as part of Kievan Rus. The Vyatichi, lands on both sides of the Carpathians, Chervlensky cities were finally annexed. There was a further strengthening of the state apparatus. The princely sons and senior warriors received the largest centers in control. One of the most important tasks of that time was solved: ensuring the protection of Russian lands from the raids of numerous Pecheneg tribes. For this, a number of fortresses were built along the rivers Desna, Osetra, Sula, Stugna. Apparently, here, on the border with the steppe, there were “heroic outposts” that protected Russia from raids, where the legendary Ilya Muromets and other epic heroes stood for their native land.

The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980 - 1015) was a period of political stability in Kievan Rus, when the structure of a single early feudal state was formed, the onslaught of the Pechenegs on the southern borders was neutralized.

During the reign of Vladimir I, the subordination of Slavic tribes to Kyiv continued. So, in 984, Vladimir conquered the Radimichi, and even before that, in 981-982, he twice went on a campaign against the recalcitrant Vyatichi and imposed tribute on them.

The Kyiv prince undertook frequent attacks on the lands of neighboring peoples. In 981 he took Przemysl and other Cherven cities from the Poles, in 983 he successfully fought against the Yotvingians (an ancient Lithuanian tribe), in 985 he went to the Bulgarians. However, the main concern was still the fight against the nomads. The continuous attacks of the Pechenegs required the strengthening of the southeastern border. Vladimir created a solid defensive line south of Kyiv by building a number of fortresses on the Stugna, Sula, Desna and other rivers. Of these, Pereyaslavl and Belgorod stood out especially. The garrisons of the new border fortresses were recruited from the warriors of the distant northern lands (Krivichi, Vyatichi and Slovenia) in order to attract all the forces of the new power to the defense of the state. Relying on these lines, Vladimir protected Russia from new raids. In addition, he opposed the surprise of the attack not only by the large number of his squads, but also by the good service of long-range reconnaissance, warning, and communications. Mighty knights, bogatyrs became the heroes of Russian epics, the folk epic sang in the epics and the prince himself "Vladimir the Red Sun".

Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the Eastern Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this unification with religious unity by reforming traditional pagan beliefs. Of the numerous pagan gods, he chose six, which he proclaimed the supreme deities on the territory of his state. The figures of these gods (Dazhd - god, Khors, Stribog, Semargl and Mokosh) he ordered to be placed next to his tower on a high Kiev hill. The pantheon was headed by Perun, the god of thunder, the patron of princes and combatants. The worship of other gods was severely persecuted. Non-canonical idols were destroyed. Paganism seemed to be on the rise; human sacrifices were made to idols, the prince and a significant number of townspeople perceived these bloody rituals with obvious approval, which, apparently, were almost forgotten in the previous decades (at least in Kyiv). However, the pagan reform did not satisfy Prince Vladimir. The artificial revival of the religion of the ancestors turned out to be a hopeless affair. Vladimir himself felt this very soon. In addition, it had no effect on the international prestige of the Old Russian state. The Christian powers perceived pagan Russia as a barbarian state.

A few years after the reign in Kyiv, Vladimir abandoned his former commitment to paganism. What made Vladimir accept Christianity? Is it only an understanding of the state benefit of Christianity?

A psychologically reliable description of the reasons that prompted Vladimir to be baptized was left by the famous Russian theologian of the first half of the 19th century, Archbishop Filaret (Gumilevsky):

“Terrible fratricide, victories bought with the blood of strangers and our own, rude voluptuousness could not help but burden the conscience of even a pagan. Vladimir thought to relieve his soul by putting new idols on the banks of the Dnieper and Volkhov, decorating them with silver and gold, and making “sacrifices before them. Moreover, he even shed the blood of two Christians on the altar of idols. But all this, as he felt, did not bring peace to the soul - the soul was looking for light and peace.

2.2 Yaroslav the Wise

Twelve sons of Vladimir I from several marriages ruled the largest volosts of Russia. After his death, the throne of Kyiv passed to the eldest in the family Svyatopolk (1015 - 1019). In the civil strife that broke out, on the orders of the new Grand Duke, the brothers, the favorite of Vladimir and his squad, Boris Rostovsky and Gleb Muromsky, were innocently killed. Boris and Gleb were canonized by the Russian Church as saints. Svyatopolk was nicknamed the Accursed for his crime.

Kievan Rus in the 11th century

With their sword, the first Kyiv princes outlined a fairly wide range of lands, the political center of which was Kyiv. The population of this territory was rather motley; it gradually included not only all the eastern Slavic tribes, but also some of the Finnish ones: the Baltic Chud, the entire Belozersky, the Rostov Merya and the Muroma along the lower Oka. Among these foreign tribes, Russian cities appeared early. Thus, among the Baltic Chud under Yaroslav, Yuryev (Derpt), named after the Christian name of Yaroslav, arose; even earlier, there are Russian government centers among the Finnish tribes in the east, among the Murom, Mori and Vesi, Murom, Rostov and Belozersk. Yaroslav built a city on the banks of the Volga, named after his princely name Yaroslavl. Russian territory thus stretched from Lake Ladoga to the mouths of the Ros River, the right tributary of the Dnieper, and the Vorskla, or Psla, left tributaries; from east to west, it went from the mouth of the Klyazma, on which, under Vladimir Monomakh, the city of Vladimir (Zalessky) arose, to the region of the upper reaches of the Western But, where even earlier, under Vladimir the Holy, another city of Vladimir (Volynsky) arose. The country of the ancient Croats, Galicia was in the X and XI centuries. a disputed region that passed between Poland and Russia from hand to hand. The lower reaches of the Oka River, which was the eastern border of Russia, and the lower reaches of the southern rivers of the Dnieper, the Eastern Bug and the Dniester were, apparently, outside the control of the Kievan prince. Aside, Russia still held the old colony of Tmutorokan, with which communication was maintained by waterways along the left tributaries of the Dnieper and the rivers of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov.

The diverse population, which occupied this entire territory, became part of the Grand Duchy of Kyiv, or the Russian state. But this Russian state was not yet the state of the Russian people, because this people itself did not yet exist: by the middle of the 11th century. only ethnographic elements were ready, from which the Russian nationality would then be developed by a long and difficult process. All these heterogeneous elements have so far been connected purely mechanically; moral connection, Christianity spread slowly and had not yet managed to capture even all the Slavic tribes of the Russian land: for example, the Vyatichi were not Christians at the beginning of the 12th century.

The main mechanical connection between parts of the population of the Russian land was the princely administration with its posadniks, tributes and duties. This administration was headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv. We already know the nature of his power, as well as its origin: he came from among those Varangian Vikings, leaders of military-industrial companies, who began to appear in Russia in the 9th century; it was originally a hired armed watchman of Russia and its trade, its steppe trade routes and overseas markets, for which he received food from the population. Conquests and clashes with alien political forms put borrowed features on the power of these hired military watchmen and complicated it, giving it the nature of the supreme state power: for example, in the 10th century. our princes, under the influence of the Khazars, liked to be called "Kagans".

Together with Christianity, a stream of new political concepts and relations began to penetrate into Russia. The newcomer clergy transferred the Byzantine concept of a sovereign appointed by God not only for the external protection of the country, but also for establishing and maintaining internal social order to the prince of Kyiv. The upper class of this Russian society, with which the prince shared the labors of managing and protecting the land, was the prince's squad. It was divided into higher and lower: the first consisted of princely husbands, or boyars, the second of children, or youths; the most ancient collective name of the junior squad is grid or gridba (Scandinavian grid yard servant) was later replaced by the word yard or servants. This squad, together with its prince, came, as we know, from among the armed merchants of large cities. In the XI century. it still did not differ from this merchant class in sharp features, either political or economic. The squad of the principality was, in fact, a military class; but the large trading cities were arranged in a military way, formed each integral organized regiment, called a thousand, which was subdivided into hundreds and tens (battalions and companies). A thousand were commanded by a thousand, who was chosen by the city, and then appointed by the prince, hundreds and dozens were also elected sotsky and tenth. These elected commanders made up the military administration of the city and the region that belonged to it, the military-government foreman, who is called in the annals "the elders of the city." City regiments, more precisely, armed cities took a constant part in the prince's campaigns along with his squad. On the other hand, the retinue served the prince as an instrument of government: the members of the senior retinue, the boyars, constituted the duma of the prince, his state council. But in this retinue or boyar duma there were also "old men of the city", i.e. elected military authorities of the city of Kyiv, maybe other cities, thousand and sotsky. So the very question of accepting Christianity was decided by the prince on the advice of the boyars and the "old men of the city." These elders, or elders of the city, are hand in hand with the prince, together with the boyars, in matters of administration, as in all court celebrations, forming, as it were, a zemstvo aristocracy next to the princely service. At the prince's feast on the occasion of the consecration of the church in Vasilevo in 996, along with the boyars and posadniks, "the elders from all over the city" were called. In the same way, by order of Vladimir, it was supposed to come to his Sunday feasts in Kyiv boyars, gridi, sotsky, tenth and all deliberate men. But constituting the military-government class, the princely team at the same time remained at the head of the Russian blacksmithing, from which it stood out, took an active part in overseas trade. This Russian merchant class is about half of the 10th century. far from being Slavic Russian.

The initial basis for the class division of Russian society, perhaps even before the princes, was, apparently, slavery. In some articles of Russian Pravda, a privileged class is mentioned, bearing the ancient name of ognischan, which in other articles is replaced by the later term princes men "", the murder of an ognischan, like the prince of her husband, is paid with double vira. In the ancient monuments of Slavic-Russian writing, the word fire is with the meaning of servants; therefore, the firemen were slave owners. It can be thought that this was the name before the princes of the upper class of the population in the large trading cities of Russia, which traded mainly in slaves. But if the princely squad in the XI century. has not yet managed to sharply separate itself from the urban merchants either politically or economically, one can notice a tribal difference between them.

In such terms, the state of the Russian land appears to us about the middle of the 11th century. From that time until the end of the 12th century, i.e. until the end of the first period of our history, the political and civil order, the foundations of which were laid by the old volost cities and then by the first Kyiv princes, is further developed.

Conclusion

The development of social relations among the Eastern Slavs led to the formation of new social organisms: the union was formed by tribes that themselves were already part of the tribal union. The political organization of such super-unions ("unions of unions", "super-unions") already contained the sprouts of statehood to a much greater extent than the previous tribal unions. One of these early unions, which included Lemens of different ethnicities, arose in the northwest of Eastern Europe. Modern scientific data show that ignoring the activities of the Varangian detachments in Russia is just as wrong as exaggerating their significance. Having had a significant influence on the formation of princely power, the development of culture, the Varangians did not bring statehood to Russia, which was born in the depths of ancient Russian society and went a long way of development.

Another superunion was formed in the Middle Dnieper. At the head of it were glades, while the territorial core was the "Russian Land" - a triangle bounded by Kyiv, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl. The reason for the formation of this superunion, as well as other superunions, was an external danger, the need to fight external enemies - the Khazars, the Pechenegs, the Vikings. The process of uniting tribal unions in the Dnieper region began even before the arrival of foreign princes. However, the appearance here in 882 of a relative of Rurik, Prince Oleg, became an additional incentive for the development of this pre-state formation.

The strengthening of the super union led to the intensification of foreign policy and trade. Russian trading posts appear on the territory of the powerful Byzantine Empire. But the matter was not limited to trade - Oleg had already made a trip to the distant Tsargrad, alluring with his riches, and achieved his goal - he took the great city. Igor's campaign was less successful. Olga also visited Byzantium with a "friendly visit". However, her son Svyatoslav waged a tense struggle with a strong neighbor. Military campaigns occupied all the time of this warlike prince. He defeated the Khazar Khaganate, inflicted a defeat on the peoples of the North Caucasus ("yasov victorious and Kasogs"), and then went to the Danube, where he entered into a struggle with Byzantium. But Byzantium, a master of diplomatic intrigues, managed to use nomadic Pechenegs against Russia, who were first mentioned in the Russian chronicle under 915. Returning home, Svyatoslav fell at the hands of the Pechenegs.

In order to understand the essence of the shifts that begin at this time in ancient Russian society, one must pay attention to such an interesting phenomenon as the ancient Russian city.

Cities arise in the VIII-IX centuries. as centers of tribes and tribal unions that performed various social functions. They were the centers of crafts and trade, but still the most important were the political and defensive functions, they were the main religious shrines and cemeteries ("temples" and "temples"). The social structure of cities was based on the community. The most ancient cities arose as a result of communal synoykism - the merger of several communal settlements. Already from the most ancient period, we have received information about the high status of the city, about the governmental functions of Russian cities - Kyiv, Chernigov, Novgorod, Polotsk, etc. In the 9th-10th centuries. The urban community was still tribal, since the society itself was going through the highest stage in the development of the tribal system. At the end of the X-beginning of the XI centuries. there is a restructuring of society on a territorial basis, the tribal community is replaced by a territorial one. This process was also reflected in the history of the urban community, which itself becomes territorial, and the Konchan-hundred system is being formed.

Kievan Rus under the Yaroslavichs. Confrontation and strife of princes. Wars with the Polovtsy. Who won the series of wars and conflicts for primacy among equals?

Kievan Rus under the Yaroslavichs

Shortly before his death in 1054, Yaroslav the Wise made a will, according to which the Kievan state was divided among his five sons: Izyaslav received Kyiv, Novgorod and Turov, Svyatoslav - Chernigov, Ryazan, Murom and Tmutarakan, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl and Rostov-Suzdal land, Vyacheslav - Smolensk, and Igor - Volyn. Izyaslav (1054-1078) became the Grand Prince of Kyiv.

Rice. 1. Yaroslavichi ()

After the death of Vyacheslav (1057) and Igor (1060), real power was concentrated in the hands of the “triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs”, who, remembering the testament of their father, at first did not quarrel with each other and acted together. In 1060 they successfully repulsed the Torque invasion of Kyiv, in 1065 they acted as a united front against their nephew, the outcast prince Rostislav Vladimirovich, who captured Tmutarakan, and in 1067 they defeated the Polotsk prince Vseslav Bryachislavich, who captured Novgorod. But 1068 became a serious test for the Yaroslavichs: after the defeat of the Polovtsian horde of Khan Sherukan and the subsequent uprising of the Kyivans, Izyaslav fled to Poland and only a year later, with the support of his father-in-law, the Polish king Boleslav II, regained the Kyiv throne.

In 1070/1072. Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod met at the princely residence in Vyshgorod, during which new articles were adopted for the Russkaya Pravda, called the Pravda of the Yaroslavichs. But already in 1073, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod, suspecting their elder brother of usurping power, expelled him from Kyiv, and the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav (1073-1076) occupied the grand throne. In 1078, a new princely strife flared up, the result of which was the death of Izyaslav in the battle on Nezhatina Niva and the reign of Pereyaslav prince Vsevolod in Kyiv (1078-1093).

Rice. 2. The death of Izyaslav ()

Kievan Rus under Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh

After the death of Vsevolod, the throne of Kyiv went to Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113), who, together with Prince Vladimir Monomakh of Pereyaslavl (1094-1113), defeated the Polovtsian hordes of the khans Itlar and Kitan, who made a devastating raid on the southern borders of Russia. In 1096, Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh proposed to their cousin, the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, to join forces in the fight against the Polovtsian threat and make a joint campaign in the Polovtsian steppe. However, Oleg rejected their proposal and unleashed a new internecine war, during which the Murom prince Izyaslav died. Vladimir Monomakh tried to reason with his warlike brother by sending him a letter with a proposal for a meeting, but Oleg rejected him and began to prepare for a campaign against Novgorod. Then the whole family of Monomashichs rose up against the Chernigov prince, and Oleg was defeated in the battle of Murom. He asked for peace and vowed to come to the general princely congress to resolve the most acute all-Russian affairs.

In 1097, the Lyubech Congress of the Princes of the Rurik House took place, which was attended by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, Davyd Igorevich, Oleg Svyatoslavich, Davyd Svyatoslavich and Vasilko Rostislavich. At this congress, two important decisions were made:

1) from now on, every prince "keeps his fatherland";

2) the throne of Kyiv is occupied strictly by seniority.

However, a new civil strife soon broke out. Vladimir Monomakh, who was more aware of the danger of these strife in the face of a sharp aggravation of Russian-Polovtsian relations, initiated the convocation of the Vitichevsky (1100), Sakov (1102) and Dolobsky (1103) congresses of Russian princes, at which decisions were made on the cessation of strife and the organization of an all-Russian campaign against the Polovtsy.

Rice. 3. Monomakh on the hunt. Tormosov M. ()

In 1103-1111. under the leadership of Vladimir Monomakh, several successful all-Russian campaigns took place in the Polovtsian steppe, during which the Polovtsian hordes of Bonyak, Sharukan, Urusoba and Sugra suffered a crushing defeat in the battles of Suten, Khorol and Solnitsa.

In 1113, the Grand Duke Svyatopolk died, whose death caused a powerful uprising of the people of Kiev, during which the yards of the thousand Putyata and Jewish usurers close to the prince, who received from Svyatopolk a monopoly on the salt trade, were plundered. In this critical situation, on the initiative of Metropolitan Nikifor and part of the boyars, in violation of the ancestral principle of succession to the throne, the Kiev veche called the Pereyaslav prince Vladimir Monomakh to the grand throne.

During the years of his short reign, Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125), by the power of his authority, united under his imperious hand all the lands of the decaying Kyiv state, published new articles of Russkaya Pravda, which went down in history as the “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh”, and vigilantly guarded the borders of their state from uninvited guests along the entire perimeter of the borders - from the Polovtsian steppe to the Baltic coast and Volga Bulgaria.

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The World History ().
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