In 1928, that coordinate system, that code of Stalinist history, was set, which lasted at least another twenty-five years - until the death of the leader.

Economy without reserves

During the years of NEP, after the Civil War and “war communism”, a compromise developed in Soviet Russia between the government and owners (primarily medium and small in the countryside and town). However, the new contradiction between the needs of industrial modernization and the interests, which are very heterogeneous, of millions of private owners has become a source of serious political and social shifts. Market disproportions, the growing tension could be smoothed out for some time at the expense of state reserves of gold and currency. It is no coincidence that the password for economic policy was "an economy with reserves" (Nikolai Bukharin).

At the same time, Joseph Stalin, referring to the example of Peter I, dreamed of the idea of ​​​​forced development of the country. The immoderate industrial impulse very quickly exhausted the accumulated resources, and hence the limited margin of safety of the entire NEP system.

* In the period from July 1927 to January 1928, 2 thousand tons less was harvested than in the corresponding period of 1926–1927

The grain procurement crisis of 1927–1928*, provoked by the exaggerated ambitions of the authorities, put them (these ambitions) in jeopardy. The Kremlin was confused and, hoping to fulfill the frustrated export plan - the source of the currency - responded with repressions against the holders of marketable grain, and was drawn into the "emergency".

At the same time, it turned out that there were practically no levers for adjusting the main exchange rate.

Two socialisms

"Political NEP" never came. Party and state merged. The mechanism of factional compromises - this surrogate of a multi-party system within the party itself - was dilapidated after the crushing defeat of the "left" opposition. A deep crack arose in the Stalin-Bukharin duumvirate that had taken shape in the course of this struggle.

Now only the spontaneous resistance of the owners could stop the autonomous navigation of power along the waves of political voluntarism. The outburst of indignation in response to the extraordinary policy at first gave hope that the authorities would make concessions. Throughout the pivotal year of 1928, social confrontation was observed, which was accompanied by complex political maneuvering and a viscous struggle at the top. The country faced a fork in the road: it was possible to move both towards “state socialism”, functioning in a market environment and not denying a mixed economy, and towards extreme “state socialism” with a “disconnected” market. NEP, Stalin argued, had two aspects: the controlling role of the state and the freedom of private trade. The first regulator was, in his opinion, more important than the second.

Stalin's entourage really never trusted the private sector of the economy, they were inclined towards forceful pressure, strict regulation, and ultimately the redistribution of property in favor of the public sector. True, in order to change the structure of the NEP society, it was necessary to build up political muscles, to form a new, young activist column, free from the inertia of the NEP. Without it, it was impossible to ensure a turn. The Chekist apparatus worked well in a calm environment, but it was not able to cope with possible chaos.

Leader's traps

Bukharin's group openly declared that emergency measures would inevitably lead to civil war. Speaking for their abolition, Nikolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov and Mikhail Tomsky proposed a program of concessions to the peasantry: an increase in purchase prices, an increase in manufactured goods for the village, a differentiated tax, the abolition of cards, the contracting of crops, etc.

As it soon became clear, the first and second waves of emergency measures (January-April, April-June 1928) failed. It seemed that "neonep" was returning in triumph.

The duumvirate of Stalin and Bukharin was short-lived.
Supporters of the leader soon called performances
Bukharin's group "howl of jackals" Photo: ITAR-TASS

Stalin, in order to maintain his influence, took a centrist position: between supporters of the continuation of extraordinary, forceful pressure on the upper layer of the village, on the Nepmen, and those who called for a return to the market, where the state was only one of the players, albeit the largest. However, the political behavior of the party leader, who for a time turned out to be an intermediary between the one and the other, able to reconcile, "play back" to the left or right, both sides predicted erroneously.

Stalin prepared for political improvisations and waited. Political intrigue, the desire for a thorough knowledge of the technology of power became the meaning of his life. He seemed to understand that social crises do not fit well into the system of good intentions of the leadership and develop according to their own laws, weakly succumbing to the stabilizing efforts of the state. The apparatus power that Stalin gained through suffering became a more effective instrument of political survival than following one course or another. In the course of one year in 1928, the Secretary General managed to rebuild the grassroots apparatus, and to pass all the main middle-level cadres through his "Special Sector". Both capitals of the country, the main public organizations and the media were taken under the control of the Stalinists. This was the part of the work that none of the main opponents paid attention to.

** In May 1928, in the city of Shakhty, a trial was held over specialists "pests" accused of deliberately disrupting coal mining
*** We are talking about the trials of representatives of the party and state apparatus, accused of "disruption of work", "collective drinking", "bow with the kulaks", "financial embezzlement", "moral decay"

Neither the bogey of "rebirth" and corruption, nor the bogey of the so-called right-wing deviation were taken seriously at first. It was easy to fall into these traps skillfully set by Stalin. Millions of angry people were very far from complex doctrines. They needed a direct answer to simple questions: who is to blame for the crisis, who is hindering progress? The search for "enemies" is a kind of valve through which discontent can be released. The mechanisms that formalized the issue that was ripening among the millions of the masses were the “Shakhty case” about pests in the Donbass **, the bloat of which was obvious, the campaign against corruption - the “Smolensk abscess”, the Sochi and Astrakhan trials ***.

These "deeds" were needed to purge the cadres who resisted the plan of frenzied industrialization and pressure on the kulak. The search for real and imaginary "enemies" very soon captured the whole society. The process of stratification of the elite into supporters of NEP reformism and apologists for the leap began. What has become relevant is not the fundamental orientation in the world of big politics, but which horse you should bet on in your personal political game.

Against the "right bias"

Until now, the question is being discussed whether the events of 1928 were a conspiracy of the state elite. Leon Trotsky had absolutely no doubt about this: the officials launched a struggle with the new owners for the main share of the national income. Later historian Steven Cohen remarked, not without irony, on this extreme simplification of the real picture: the existence of a “conspiracy of bureaucrats” would mean that this “new class” decided to commit collective suicide. And is it true that a comfortable life in a NEP society suited the bureaucrats less than a dictatorship full of tensions, and even serious dangers? Moreover, the crisis, the growing inertia of the economic breakthrough and emergency measures turned violence into a "crutch" of politics. Leaders of a very specific type were pushed to the surface. Behind them stood the "anti-bourgeois", lumpen and economically weak strata prone to extremism, throwing sidelong glances at their growing rich neighbors. Poor people became not only the mainstay of the attack on non-state ways, but also the catalyst for a new course. And the ideology of "assault and onslaught", demonstrative anti-speculatory actions of the authorities, "cases" against corrupt officials and wreckers, which switched discontent towards the search for enemies, consolidated a different alignment of forces. It was only necessary to take the last step - to indicate who these "right-wingers" were.

About the "right" danger, Stalin sounded the alarm all year. However, the anonymity of the accusations led people to perceive these enemies as something invented in the Kremlin. Therefore, calls to fight them at first did not give the expected effect. “The right bias has been sucked out of your finger,” said the engineers of one Saratov plant. In Tula, they generally adopted a resolution in defense of these elusive "enemies". It seemed that the last of them had already been expelled from Moscow or the USSR. For more than a year, the question of new enemies and their center hung in the air.

By the end of 1928, when it became clear that the NeoNEP program was not working (or was not having time to work), that the Stalinist environment was not going to slow down the pace of industrialization, and there was a new crisis, an increase in speculation, a campaign against the "right" began under Stalin's leadership. . First, Lazar Kaganovich declared that Bukharin's group had joined the "right deviation." That is, after the "right deviation" was discredited, including by the hands of Bukharin and his like-minded people, they were directly connected with this deviation (the Bukharinites still refused to recognize themselves as "right"). The choir of leading "whistleblowers" included Yemelyan Yaroslavsky, Petr Postyshev, Andrey Zhdanov and others. Karl Bauman went the furthest when he described the performances of Bukharin's group as the "howl of jackals" (compare with the current "jackals at the embassies"). This was followed by the cutting off of the Bukharin group from the leadership of the party and the state. The way to the final repressive blows on the system of market relations was opened.

But even in conditions when the "revolution from above" became inevitable, a tendency to adapt to the new course emerged, that is, a mild version of the inevitable redistribution of property. Indicative in this regard is the episode with the breeder Palnikov, who owned a tannery in the Shuya volost on the basis of private ownership. Representatives of the volost authorities advised Palnikov to hand over the plant to the state voluntarily. He agreed and concluded an agreement with the volost executive committee in which he was promised: to restore his voting rights, to accept him as a member of the trade union, not to take away the land, to give the children an opportunity to study, to appoint himself the director of the plant.

There were few such facts, but they showed in what direction the process could in principle go if the process itself was important, and not whipping it up with violence. But, as Kaganovich stated, our state is "not a state of law, its laws are determined by expediency at each specific moment."

Stalinism, or, more in Russian, Stalinism - this is what 1928 gave. Stalinism is an extreme and purely manifestation of an emergency, a war with one's own people. For two and a half decades, such an order (that is, the state of things) reigned in the country, in which death became the norm, lawlessness became the norm, betrayal became the norm, fear became the norm. Saving themselves, many abandoned their parents, teachers, betrayed friends for the sake of their salvation. The funnel of mass repressions drew in not only the millions of “target groups” of enemies appointed by the authorities, who had no place in the inverted, abnormal Stalinist state, but in general everyone who could be captured. However, from today's point of view, the whole horror of the situation was not in the twistedness of the Stalinist state and not even in the millionth arithmetic of repression, but in the speed, invisibility to the eye and apparent ease with which this turn took place - muffled for society by the "howl of jackals". That is why 1928 continues to attract the attention of historians: not so much as a "point of no return" but as a moment when something else could be changed.

In 1928, the journal Chudak, edited by Mikhail Koltsov, ridiculed foreigners as passionately as our Kremlin authorities and their propagandists do today. The drawing belongs to the famous artist Konstantin Rotov, who was later declared a German spy and ended up in Stalin's camps.

This means that in reality you are surrounded by enemies.

However, no matter how hard they try, they can't hurt you.

They are too cowardly and petty.

Seeing a fleeing jackal: soon you will find a way to legally deal with your envious people and enemies.

To escape from a jackal in a dream: in real life, suffer from rumors and gossip, most of which are far from fiction.

You should better control your behavior.

Interpretation of dreams from Dream Interpretation Longo

Dream Interpretation - Jackal

This is a wild dog that feeds mainly on carrion.

In some cities in Africa and Asia, jackals play the role of city orderlies, eating the corpses of small animals that they find on the streets at night.

Do you feel like a scavenger in any area of ​​your life? Jackals make plaintive cries, which some people take as a warning: does this sign tell you to be observant and vigilant? The Egyptian anubis was a jackal god.

He was the guardian of the underworld.

He was the god who prepared the way for the dead.

This happened because the jackals always found the dead thanks to their highly developed senses, despite the fact that the Egyptians carefully closed the burial grounds.

As a result, the jackal became the guardian of the dead.

If this image comes to you: know that you can trust your feelings, making your way through the darkness of your own inner worlds.

Interpretation of dreams from

Jackal - animal medium size, and if you compare it with, then its size is slightly smaller than the usual average mongrel.

Jackal settled in many regions, it can be found in the sultry, and in Asia, and in the Middle East. He feels good on the plains and foothills of our country, it is especially easy for him to live in the Caucasus, but he also does not mind living in Romania.

This animal lives on the banks of water bodies overgrown with small shrubs and tall reeds. In the mountains, it can be seen at a decent height, about 1 thousand meters above sea level. In fairness, it should be noted that he likes the life of the plains more. In general, if you list all the regions and continents, it will take a long time.

Outwardly, the jackal is very similar to or to a wolf. The size of the jackal, when compared with these animals, occupies an intermediate value - something in between.

The animal is harmoniously coordinated a little awkwardly - the muzzle is pointed, the legs are long and thin, and the torso is quite dense. He looks like a lean wolf. Looking at animal photo you can clearly see that jackal really strongly resembles a wolf, only much emaciated and rather shabby.

The thick tail is constantly lowered down and reaches almost the ground. On the top of the head are two short ears, which are always on the alert. The entire body of the animal is covered with thick, short hair, which is very hard to the touch. The number of fingers on the lower extremities is different - on the front 5 fingers, and on the hind legs there are only 4. Each finger ends with a claw.

The color of the jackal depends on the range. Thus, an animal living in the Caucasus has a brighter and darker color than relatives living in the eastern regions of India and Central Asia.

The color of the jackal's fur can be gray with a fawn tint to dark gray with an admixture of red. The belly of a jackal is a light color - dirty yellow, and the chest part is colored ocher with red gleams. Moreover, in summer and winter, the color palette may change slightly, as well as the stiffness of the fur.

The description of the beast would be incomplete if not to say that its body, excluding the length of the tail, is a little more than 75 cm, and the height of an adult does not exceed half a meter. The jackal cannot boast of body weight either, because even when full, its weight does not exceed 10 kg.

The nature and lifestyle of the jackal

Jackals, by virtue of their nature, do not migrate; they prefer a sedentary lifestyle. The refuge for the beast is any depression that nature or others have taken care of - a mountain crevice, burrows, niches among stones or dense impassable thickets along water bodies.

To catch a jackal digging a hole for itself is not an easy task, because he does not like to work. But the interesting thing is that if, nevertheless, he works on his hole, he will definitely equip it with an embankment in front of the entrance.

The jackal likes to rest in shady places where you can hide from the heat and wait out the blizzard. After a good rest, the jackal goes hunting. It should be noted that the beast is incredibly cunning, agile and fast. Having overtaken the victim, he pounces on it with lightning speed, squeezing it with his teeth so that you cannot escape. When jackals hunt in pairs.

That one drives the prey there. Where another insidious predator is already lying in wait for her. If given characteristics of the jackal in a nutshell, it should be noted that this predator - animal highly developed.

Many would envy the mind, cunning, agility and dexterity of this beast. Residents who were not lucky enough to live in the habitat of this animal claim that when attacking poultry houses or stockyards, the jackal behaves extremely boldly.

However, when meeting with a person, he will not attack him, because he is too cowardly. It may very well be that cowardice has nothing to do with it, but he behaves this way because of his great mind.

After dusk, the jackals become active. In general, by nature it is a nocturnal animal, although in those areas where the animal is not disturbed by humans, it behaves quite actively during the day. In search of food, animals roam in flocks, which consist of family groups. The number of animals can reach 10 individuals.

At the head of the pack there are always two seasoned animals, several underyearlings and young wolves, although often individuals that have strayed from their group can be nailed to the pack - lone jackals. Each family has a habitat area, the area of ​​​​which is about 10 km.

Before starting the hunt, the beast emits a long, loud howl, from which the inside gets cold. It's more of a terrible, drawn-out scream that is picked up by all jackals in earshot.

It is authentically known that jackals howl not only before the hunt, but also when they hear the ringing of bells, the howling of sirens and other drawn-out sounds. Like wolves, jackals like to howl at the moon, but they do it on clear starry nights, but they do not arrange concerts on cloudy weather.

Animal howl jackal capable of reproducing in the range of its own vocal sounds. When jackals howl in pairs, they show that there is some kind of connection between them. For example, before the mating season, the animals put on an amazing sound show.

Listen to the howl of the jackal under the siren

Jackal food

Jackal, which is usually called ordinary - the animal is not picky in food. Likes, as they say, to taste carrion, which remains half-eaten after a larger beast.

The jackal is no stranger to profiting at someone else's expense, and therefore he is in no hurry to bother himself with hunting sometimes. Remember passages from everyone's favorite cartoon about Mowgli where there are scenes when jackals arrange a feast, attacking the remains of the carcass left half-eaten by Sherkhan, the tiger from the same cartoon.

The predator prefers to eat under the cover of night, probably during the day he is afraid that they will see him and take away his prey. The diet of the animal consists of rodents, small animals, lizards.

He will not disdain to eat, a frog, a snail and even a grasshopper. On a fish day jackal hunt along the coast, finding a dead fish, willingly eats it.

Of course, poultry meat is also to the taste of the jackal, so he willingly catches waterfowl representatives of the feathered world. Near the flock of predators, which gathers near the "dining table", vultures often feast, which, like jackals, feed on carrion.

Reproduction and lifespan

The end of winter for jackals means it's time to start rutting. These animals create married couples only once and for life. The male is a good husband and father, together with the female he always takes part in the arrangement of the hole and brings up the offspring.

A pregnant female walks for about two months. Puppies are born, as a rule, from 4 to 6, very rarely 8 can be born. Childbirth takes place in a hole, which is usually located in a secluded secret place.

The feeding period lasts three months, but from the age of three weeks, the mother begins to introduce food into the diet for young puppies, which she regurgitates, and the kids willingly eat it up. Closer to autumn, jackals become quite independent and begin to hunt in small flocks.

Young animals become sexually mature in different ways - females reach puberty in a year, and young jackals begin to look for a mate two years after birth. It is known that in the wild, jackals usually do not live for more than 10 years, and in captivity, with good care and well-fed food, their age can reach 15 years, after which they go to another world.

The jackal is an animal that belongs to the class of mammals, the carnivore order, the canine (canine) family, the genus wolves (lat. Canis).

There are versions of the origin of the Russian word jackal from the French (chacal), Turkish (cakal), Arabic (checal) or ancient Indian (srgala) names of this animal. In Russia, the word "jackal" and its variant "chequel" (or in some places "chikalka") spread at the beginning of the 19th century.

Jackal - description, characteristics, photo. What does a jackal look like?

The jackal has an average size for the canine family. Adult individuals, depending on the species, reach a length of 83 cm to 132 cm, a height of 38 cm to 40 cm. The weight of a jackal varies from 6.5 to 15 kg. Females from males almost do not differ in size. The body structure of the animal resembles a small mongrel dog.

The head of the jackals is wedge-shaped, not massive. The muzzle is sharp. The length of the skull does not exceed 19 cm. In females, the skull is slightly smaller. Its structure indicates that jackals feed mainly on small animals. The fangs of these canine representatives are sharp, large and strong, but thin. Predatory teeth are adapted for cutting thick skin, but are relatively weak. The iris of the eyes is light or dark brown. Ears erect, widely spaced, blunt.

The tail of the jackal is about a third of the length of the body and either reaches the heel or slightly goes beyond it. The animal never raises its tail up, but keeps it in a lowered position.

Jackal legs are long. The front legs are almost the same length as the hind legs. The fused bones on the front legs allow the beast to travel long distances. Jackals, like other canids, are digitigrade animals. They have five toes on their front paws and four on their back paws. The thumb is short and does not reach the ground. Jackal claws are short and blunt.

The coat of jackals is short, coarse and hard. The guard hairs, which are the longest, are on the back. The color of the fur is dominated by yellow, red, brown tones, and black on the back and tail, depending on the species. There are no gender differences in coloration: both males and females are colored approximately the same.

Jackals have keen hearing, which helps them detect rodents in tall grass. The voice of the jackal is a howl in high tones with a screech and resembles the cry of a child.

Where do jackals live?

Jackals live in the southeast of Europe, the Middle East, South Asia and almost the entire territory of Africa. They are common in arid steppe regions, in humid forests, in the mountains, and are also found near settlements. Moving in search of food, they are able to populate new areas where they have never appeared before. If in the middle of the 20th century on the European continent jackals occupied the Balkan Peninsula, occasionally entering Romania, Hungary and Moldova, then by the beginning of the 21st century they became common in these places and spread even further north: to the Czech Republic, Slovakia, southwestern regions of Ukraine. Jackals from Azerbaijan, Georgia and Dagestan settled in Kalmykia, Astrakhan, Rostov and Volgograd regions of Russia. And the trend of moving these animals to the north continues. In Asia, jackals are distributed throughout the south, occupying the following areas: the peninsula of Asia Minor and the Arabian Peninsula, the states of the Middle East, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, in addition to their mountainous regions, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan, reaching borders of Thailand. In the foothills of the Himalayas, according to some sources, they rise to a height of up to 3000 m. The northern borders of the habitat of jackals are in Kazakhstan, where animals living along the Amu Darya and Syr Darya climb hundreds of kilometers to the north of the republic, reaching almost to the Southern Urals and Karaganda. Four species of jackals live in Africa, which occupy almost the entire mainland, except for some central and western regions.

The favorite habitat of jackals is dense impassable thickets. These can be reeds, tugai forests (tugai are a kind of floodplain forests), consisting of various shrubs braided with climbing plants, or thickets of tall grasses. In such places, animals arrange dens right in the turf of grasses, just in the bushes, without tearing out holes. Jackal lairs, located in dense bushes, can be connected by a network of trails. In treeless steppe and semi-desert landscapes, jackals settle in natural depressions in the soil or self-dug short burrows. Living in the foothills, they usually rise no higher than 1000 meters from sea level. Often, jackals are found near settlements, and sometimes even in them. Often the determining factor is the presence of water bodies on the banks of which you can find food, such as in the Caucasus, where jackals are distributed mainly in lowlands, in thorny brambles and reeds around swamps, where many migratory waterfowl winter.

Jackal puppies are born with soft fur, the color of which varies from light gray to dark brown. Upon reaching a month, the coat changes: guard hairs appear on the head, back, paws and tail. The color also changes to reddish with black ripples. Jackal cubs are born blind and begin to see clearly only on the 9-17th day. On the 10-13th day, healthy puppies open their ears, and on the 25-30th day they become erect.

Teething is associated with lactation and further feeding. The teeth begin to be cut from the milk incisors on the 11-14th day and finish at the age of about 5 months. Babies quickly gain weight: at the age of 2 days, little jackals weigh about 200 g, at the age of one month about 500 g, and at 4 months - already more than 3 kg. Young jackals reach sexual maturity by 11 months, but sometimes stay with their parents as helpers until 1-2 years old.

In some areas, the reasons for the death of jackals are starvation during cold winters and fires covering dense thickets and reeds.

• It is believed that the jackal is a cowardly animal. This is not entirely true: he is rather cautious, because in places where no one disturbs him, he is not afraid of a person and even lets people near the cubs.
• Jackals are very curious and even arrogant animals. Many people who had to spend the night in places where jackals live talk about how they literally steal not only food, but also clothes and other items literally from under their noses.
• In different countries, jackals are characters in folk tales and often act as negative heroes.
• In the mountains of the Caucasus, the inhabitants of mountain villages often fall asleep under the howl of jackals. In Adygea there is even a folk sign: "If jackals cry, then the night will be clear."
• An Uzbek parable explains why the jackal howls desperately, yelps and cries with a human voice. The fact is that 2 jackals came to a man: he caressed one, and he became a dog, and drove the other away, and he remained a jackal and now he cannot forgive insults.
• The ancient Egyptians associated the jackal with the world of the dead. The god of the underworld and the conductor of the souls of the dead, Anubis was portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal.
• The Soviet biologist and cynologist Klim Timofeevich Sulimov, as a result of crossing a jackal and a dog, brought out a new breed, which was called Sulimov's dog.