In palmistry, not only palms tell about a person’s fate. The shape, length and flexibility of the fingers tell the palmist no less than the location and type of lines. The thumb in palmistry is responsible for the decisions made by a person and their further implementation.

Thumb Meaning

In palmistry, each part of the hand is endowed with its own special meaning. Not only lines, but also fingers are responsible for certain areas of life.

For practicing palmists, the thumb is unique - no single deity is attributed to it. However, some experts call it the finger of Venus because of the nearby hill of the same name.

Main characteristics for fortune telling

When analyzing thumb The palmist pays attention to many details and characteristics. They help reveal a person’s character and his destiny more fully.

Length

According to Indian palmistry, the length of the finger directly indicates the level of success achieved: the longer the finger, the more successful the person.

1. Large size indicates a frank and straightforward person. Such a person usually tries to gain maximum power and is a dictator.
2. The average shows a good manager who believes in himself and is able to lead others.
3. A short length indicates irrationality. Such individuals are usually influenced by momentary moods.

This parameter is determined by the ratio of the tips of the thumb and index fingers. The long finger usually reaches the second phalanx. Average length ends at the level of the middle of the third phalanx. The border of small length is the base of the lower phalanx.

The length of the thumb is determined by its relationship with the index finger

Size and location

The development and thickness of the thumb also reveals the character of the individual. This characteristic is no less important for a palmist than all the others.

1. A well-developed thumb indicates that the fortuneteller faces a person who is capable of moving towards his goal by overcoming himself.
2. Subtle and undeveloped - indicates that the individual pays most of his attention to emotions and the sphere of feelings. A person can be an artist or a poet.

Palmists pay attention to how the thumb joins the rest of the palm. Thanks to division into squares, this is easy to determine. The square is obtained by drawing two lines on the palm. The first of them runs down from the base of the middle finger. The second intersects the middle of the first at a right angle. The type of alignment is determined by the ratio of the point of attachment of the finger to the point of intersection of the lines dividing the palm into squares.

1. A high type of affiliation shows that the person has creativity. Such people approach solving problems and tasks in a non-standard way, and the decisions they make come like an insight.
2. Medium - serves as an amplifier positive qualities, for which the thumb is responsible.
3. Low - indicates a person who is familiar firsthand with the concepts of nobility, courage and a sense of duty. She is characterized by flexibility and the ability to adapt to unexpected circumstances.

Angle

The angle between the thumb and index finger in a relaxed state of the hand is determined by the right palm.

1. Angle less than 45. Indicates the severity and straightforwardness of the personality.
2. Right angle. People with this finger placement are able to empathize with others and take care of themselves. They are distinguished by a developed sense of justice and friendliness.
3. An angle of more than 90. Indicates a person’s openness and ability to provide support in any situation.

Flexibility

A clear indicator of character traits is the flexibility of the finger of the right hand. Palmists convert Special attention on how much it bends at the joint. There are only two possible interpretations here.

1. A high level of flexibility indicates that the individual is the joker and the soul of any company. Such people have a flexible nature that allows them to adapt to the situation.
2. A finger that is not flexible is a feature of persistent and stubborn people. Such people are clear in their intentions and do not deviate from their intended goal.

Finger phalanges

The thumb has two visible phalanges. They allow you to learn a little more about a person and his character.

Equal size of phalanges indicates that a person has a similar level of development of enterprise and perseverance. Such people are capable of not only giving ideas, but also turning them into reality.

A longer first phalanx indicates great tenacity. Such an individual goes towards his goal, regardless of obstacles. He does not break after failures, but becomes stronger.

If the second phalanx is longer than the first, the situation is diametrically opposite. A flexible and resourceful mind forces such people to carefully think through many paths and strategies before taking action.

An inflexible thumb is a feature of persistent and persistent people

Lines on the finger

A drawing of shapes and lines will tell you a lot. First of all, they pay attention to the family line. An even ring without breaks or other possible defects is considered ideal. This line indicates features family life and the person's parents.

Also an important element is the “wheat line”. This line serves as a phalanx separator. She tells the palmist about the living conditions of the person whose fate needs to be read. A clearly visible line indicates that conditions are good, there is prosperity in life, good level education and comfort.

If there are special signs (cross, diamond), then they need to be interpreted individually. In this case, the palmist should pay attention to what other lines or figures are combined with a special symbol.

Conclusion

The thumb helps reveal a person's character. Every detail has its own special meaning, as the Universe sends its signs through everything to help a person fulfill his destiny and live his destiny with dignity.

In total, a maximum of nine lines can be present on the thumb, each of which has its own individual meaning, and which reveals a person’s personality and influences his destiny.

Lines on the thumb

Vertical lines.

Vajra Rekha- is a thin line located on the side of the thumb that faces the Jupiter finger, from the Ripu Rekha side.

Sometimes the vajra rekha begins to bend on the Mount of Venus. This line is better known as the diamond line because people endowed with it can become very rich. It is synonymous with the words “diamond” and “steel”. However, in order for a person to get rich, it must be clear and clearly expressed.

If the Kesara rekha is also clearly drawn, this indicates that the person will make money without much effort.

The wavy shape of the Rajra Rekha indicates that the person will earn his capital through speculative means.

Kesara rekha runs parallel to the Vajra Rekha, but is closer to outside thumb Vertical line. But most often, it is a short line that begins on the Mount of Venus and ends just above the Mallika Rekha line.

The presence of a short line indicates a gradual increase in family wealth. If the kesara rekha is subtle and difficult to distinguish, this indicates that for a long period of time the person will be accompanied by financial success, and that his fortune would accumulate over many years.

If the kesara rekha is wide and clearly visible, it means that the person will make money quickly. If it is deep, clearly defined and extends to the stye line, it indicates a person born into a wealthy family.

Most likely, he will be interested in art. People who do not have Kesara Rekha find it difficult to achieve financial success.

If the line begins on the phalanx of the will and reaches the line of Life on the Mount of Venus, with this sign the person is injured and dies.

Ripu rekha– s starts his way with inside finger on the Mount of Venus and rises up the thumb to the barley line. Sometimes it can end at the phalanx of the will. Translated as "enemy". The line is regarded as hostile. It is believed that it not only neutralizes the positive effect of any line that it crosses, but also leaves a negative imprint on the corresponding areas of a person’s life.

Horizontal Lines.

Phala rekha- rice (barley) grain: passes between the phalanges of logic and will. Its absence on the finger is extremely rare. Indicates a well-fed old age surrounded by family. This line in most cases begins as a single line, but is soon joined by a second line, which symbolizes a companion or life partner. This term is associated with karma - translated as “the result of an action.” Accordingly, a good deed gives a positive result. And a bad deed in turn generates Negative consequences and allows you to determine the time when this fateful meeting will occur (or has already occurred).

Minor defects or interference on this line are usually associated with problems in personal relationships.

If the beginning of the stye line is wavy or there are breaks in it, this indicates a difficult childhood. If the line is wavy in the middle section, this indicates problems in adulthood. And, of course, if the line is wavy at its end, this indicates that the person will have to face difficulties in old age.

If the line separating the first and second phalanges is clear, without breaks or defects, the person will live in comfort.

If the line crossing the upper phalanx bifurcates at the end, the person will lose his mother in childhood.

Torn Barley Sign a line crosses the first joint (upper) of the thumb: a person spends everything he earns and gets into debt.

Phalanx of logic: (middle phalanx of the thumb)- responsible for mentality, logic, thinking.

Logic is the ability to find correct solution in the shortest possible time interval in order to complete the task strictly according to a given program and within a strictly specified time interval.

The longer the second phalanx of the thumb, the more pronounced a person’s logical abilities are.

Up to five lines can be present on a given phalanx.

Madhura Rekha- a wavy or straight line crossing the entire phalanx: translated as “possessing sweetness.” The line closest to the “barley”. It should be subtle but distinct. This indicates a person who is compassionate and sociable. With him you can always find mutual language.

Mandara rekha- the name of the sacred mythical mountain. This word is also synonymous with heaven and mirror. A line crossing the entire phalanx with an island indicates a person’s love of travel. Such a person is distinguished by innate tirelessness and endurance, due to which sooner or later he begins to experience a craving for travel.

Mana rekha- a line with a wave up or down, crossing the entire phalanx. An abstract term for the place where our thoughts, dreams, feelings, emotions and desires reside. This is an unfavorable line. Its presence indicates a person’s propensity for extramarital affairs and infidelity.

Rati rekha: denotes intimate contact. It must be interpreted in conjunction with the lines of romantic affection located on the edge of the palm under the Mercury finger. It shows how happy a person will be in love.

Ideally, this line should be clear, clearly marked and there should be no breaks in it. The island on the rati rekha indicates that during the specified period of time the chosen one will be struck by illness. If the line is broken in the middle, it indicates that the person will be happy for the first half of his life, after which he will have to face problems and troubles. They will be caused by the health status of the partner.

If the line continues after the break, difficulties will be overcome. If the rati rekha consists of a series of consecutive broken lines, it is a symbol of celibacy.

A line around the thumb that looks like a pearl necklace: a good sign for male offspring. But a person's father may die suddenly after becoming rich and may lose one eye.

Malika rekha– a line in a chain crossing the phalanx: passes between the phalanx of logic and the Mount of Venus. It must be clear and clearly marked. This symbolizes a happy family and home life. Sometimes this line resembles a single, unbreakable chain. In this case, it indicates a person who is bold, courageous, with strong character. Black dots on this line symbolize conflicts between family members over finances.

In the study of science, not only lines and signs play an important role, but also the structure of the fingers and everything that is located on them. Having studied what palmistry is, you can choose the right talisman rings for your hands to improve the quality of your own life.

What do the fingers mean, palmistry, in general terms about the meaning and talismans

Before we start studying, let’s take a little look at their meaning and impact on certain areas. life path. Let us reveal the secret that each of the limbs can have an impact not only on a person’s character traits, but also, in some way, on life achievements.

Note. Each of the fingers belongs to one of the five planets, which means you can also pay attention to the zodiac signs?

For example, the middle finger (palmistry), which is under the influence of Saturn, has signs and marks that carry their own meaning and relate to the same planet. If you want to strengthen this planet, then you can choose the right talisman, which also suits the zodiac sign.

Note. Knowing the meaning of the stones, you can choose the right ring and wear it in exactly the right place to achieve your goal.

Let's give an example of the correct selection of a talisman. For example, you want to buy a money amulet for yourself, how to do this? The little finger or the planet Mercury is responsible for the money sign.

Let's figure out what suits us:

1. Shungite.
2. Heliotrope.
3. Agate (yellow).
4. Beryl.

Choosing a pinky ring with one of these stones will make an excellent money talisman.

Note. Naturally, knowing what palmistry is, fingers, meaning is necessary not only for correct selection talisman, but also for warning.

Warnings: Phalanx damage puzzles

If you damage any part, then this is a kind of warning factor. Any scratch, callus, burn or bite, all this carries with it some events that will occur from 7 to 70 days.

Note. Any changes on the pads, nails or hands indicate some kind of event. Experienced palmists also interpret scars.

Any signs on the hands and fingers (palmistry) are not scary. On the contrary, you can actually prepare for any warnings.

If you often get damaged, this means that your guardian angel is trying to warn you about something. And if you study palmistry of your fingers, you can determine exactly what you should be careful of.

What role do the lines on the phalanges play?

Everyone observes lines (vertical, horizontal), sometimes signs, on their pads. But what do the lines on the fingers mean (palmistry), what meaning do they carry?

1. As a rule, vertical lines on the fingers in palmistry indicate a favorable financial life, but can also indicate that the person is a spender.
2. Horizontal ones will tell you about the difficulties in your opponent’s life.
3. There are wavy ones, which most often carry negativity.

How to interpret lines?

Forefinger:

• The straight lines of the first phalanx indicate the moral state of a person.
• The second phalanx speaks of the noble intentions of the fortuneteller.
• The third will talk about a healthy moral attitude towards life.

Note. If you look at the transverse lines on the 3rd phalanx of the index finger, then this indicates receipt of an inheritance.

1. b-b - the combination speaks of insight (Fig. 6).

Note. If a straight line is found inside the 3rd phalanx of the middle one, this indicates military service. If the line is slightly inclined, then the person may die in the military field (other signs and lines will tell the details).

1. c - the combination will tell about artistic abilities. The two lines on the 2nd phalanx are wisdom and intelligence (Fig. 6).

Note. If more than 3 lines are found on the phalanges, this indicates that the fortuneteller is simply wasting his energy.

1. f-f - such a combination portends glory, thanks to perseverance and learning (Fig. 6).
2. a-a – wealth and wisdom (Fig. 6).
3. g-g – acquired wealth through one’s own entrepreneurial spirit (Fig. 6).

One straight line on the little finger, running from beginning to end, will tell about achievements in science.

Palmistry of the phalanx of the fingers: transverse and wavy lines

Not good good sign are the transverse lines:

• On the big one, these are difficulties in life.
• The same lines on the 3rd phalanx of the nameless portend financial problems.
• On the little finger, in front of you is a windbag.

A straight, pronounced line on the last phalanx of Mercury speaks of a person who will achieve success in trade.

What do knobby fingers mean in palmistry?

When examining many hands and palms, one comes across fingers with pronounced articular joints. In any case, it is necessary to find the reason (this is congenital form or the nodes appeared as a result of the disease). If we talk about science, then such hands speak of a practical and straightforward person.

Knots on the fingers (palmistry) speak of people who are not inclined to show emotions, but very clearly hide them. Such people tend to think carefully before making their choice. If your significant other has knots, do not expect a quick solution from him (her), just give it time, then discuss everything.

Such people go through life relying strictly on logic, and not on impulse or inspiration:

1. Thanks to common sense and stubbornness, owners of such a hand move forward in the chosen direction.
2. Knobby fingers (palmistry) also indicate a person who has baggage interesting ideas and are able to draw interesting and original conclusions, especially when they are wrong and do not want to deviate from the path.
3. Ideals are rare in their lives; they do not deny them, but at the same time they always need confirmation.

Note. It is very difficult to convince such people of anything, since they have a clear point of view and their own beliefs.

General value

Those with short and thick fingers are distinguished by their enthusiasm; they take up work on the fly, but, unfortunately, do not complete it. Such combinations include artists or actors.

Those with subtle endings will patiently approach any task and monotonously bring it to its logical conclusion and you can rely on them.

Thin with a thick ending indicate a person who makes a quick decision and tries to avoid physical activity. In life, these are narcissistic individuals, but at the same time they do not forget about loved ones and relatives. This hand is typical creative person or teacher.

Now you can take a closer look and understand what palmistry and fingers are by examining each one on your right and left hand.

Fortune telling by the Hill of Venus

Just by looking at the thumb, a specialist can already tell a lot about a person:

• The larger the Venus symbol, the better for the opponent. This indicates healthy professional growth. But here you also need to study palmistry, Saturn’s finger (index), since it is he who is responsible for work and career.
• The opponent has all the makings of a leader, including determination and healthy ambition. The presence of willpower and the desire for power.
• It is difficult to find a common language with such people, since they only hear themselves and there is no other person’s opinion for them.

Small size

1. All of the above characteristics are present, but they are not sufficiently developed.
2. Such people are persistent, powerful, purposeful, but do not have that thirst for power and lack willpower.
3. It’s more pleasant to communicate with such people, they know how to listen to others and always take advice into account.

Average length

1. Such people have self-esteem and know how to stand up for themselves, even if their opponent is physically superior.
2. The opponent comes out of the situation as a winner, thanks to his originality.
3. They are pleasant to talk to and sociable.

Thick but short

1. The owner is quite practical.
2. He stands firmly on the ground and listens only to his common sense.
3. But such a person is sometimes unable to control his actions and can respond with aggression.

Long and thin

1. These are subtle and sensitive people who avoid conflicts.
2. Such people always make concessions and have a gentle character.

Note. In addition to the shape of the big one, pay attention to all the lines, marks, scars, moles.

Jupiter index finger, palmistry

By carefully examining the index finger, you can clearly sort out the following human qualities:

1. Pride.
2. Cruelty.
3. Power.
4. Stubbornness.
5. Target.

Let's turn the back of our hand towards ourselves and carefully study:

• Jupiter's finger is the same length as the ring finger. Indicates a proud, stubborn person. But such a person will never cross the red line. An excellent sense of proportion and a realistic assessment of the situation.
• The index finger is longer than the ring finger. Characterizes a free person who always achieves his goal. Sometimes he goes over his head, regardless of the circumstances. Such people lack brakes, which can have disastrous consequences.
• The index is shorter than the ring. Such people are very timid and shy, which extends from childhood. Aged, that's enough calm personalities who do not like conflicts and problems. They are loved by their friends and respected in society. They avoid conflicts and at some point may give in to avoid a quarrel.

Ideally, the finger should be straight and even. According to palmistry, curvature of the finger towards the middle indicates selfishness. Such people sometimes love themselves and feel sorry for themselves; they lack faith in themselves. They often try to deceive fate to confirm their hopes.

Average and its meaning in fortune telling

According to palmistry, the middle finger is the finger of Saturn, which is associated with such character traits as:

1. Restraint.
2. Responsibility.
3. Shyness.
4. Visual lack of emotion.

By structure, the middle finger (palmistry) should be higher than the rest:

• In the case where the length of the limb is radically different, then sitting in front of you is a person who adores solitude and feels quite comfortable alone.
• If the differences are not significant with other fingers, this indicates irresponsibility and frivolity.
• If there is a slight curvature towards the index finger, then the person has low self-esteem and the opponent is not confident in his abilities, starting any business, he is constantly tormented by doubts.
• When the middle one is bent towards the nameless one, it speaks of shyness and timidity. Relationships with the opposite sex are difficult for him.

Note. Most often, this combination indicates creative personalities who are making significant progress in this area.

Nameless and his influence on character

The ring finger in palmistry represents the god Apollo, who became famous for his sensuality and emotionality:

1. Ideally, the ring and index fingers are the same in height.
2. If Apollo's finger is longer than his index finger, then there is undoubtedly an esthete sitting in front of you.

1. There are cases when, according to palmistry, the ring finger is the same length as the middle finger. Such people are capable of risky actions, so you need to be careful with such a companion.
2. If there is a slight bend towards the average, then the opponent does not live and work according to fate.
3. He fulfills his obligations day by day, but does not live his life. Such a person has well-developed intuition.
4. You can often find a hand where Apollo’s finger “looks” at the little finger. This suggests that the person is quite self-critical.

Note. Such people always need support from friends and others, since they themselves are not confident in their abilities.

How to recognize a person by the length of his little finger

The little finger or finger of Mercury has direct relation to business, finance and business acumen:

• In normal cases, the little finger should reach the first phalanx of the ring finger. If it is longer, then an intelligent, sociable person is sitting in front of you.
• If it is shorter, then the person lacks acumen in business and communication with others is quite difficult for him.

Note. If the little finger goes towards the ring finger, this indicates cunning, and if the finger is crooked, then such a person is very cunning and it is not worth doing any business with him.

Practical palmistry: the meanings of the rings on the fingers and their role in a person’s destiny

For ordinary person, rings are ordinary jewelry, that’s how it is. But rarely has anyone thought that, from the point of view of palmistry, a ring on a certain finger carries its own specific meaning.

When putting on a ring, a person does not even suspect that the meaning of the rings on the fingers (palmistry) emphasizes, first of all, his individuality, as well as his aspirations. Besides wedding ring, other jewelry does not carry any specific load, but can tell a lot about its owner.

Let's take a closer look at what the rings around the fingers mean (palmistry):

	The decoration on the index finger speaks of the strong-willed character of its owner. If the ring is on right hand, then the owner is a reasonable person. The left hand indicates hysteria. On both hands, the owner will stop at nothing to achieve the goal.
	The owner with such decoration emphasizes his beauty and individuality. The brighter and more beautiful the ring, the more the owner tries to convince others of his irresistibility. A ring on the middle finger also helps the owner to overcome some difficulties in life.
	In addition to the wedding ring, there are other pieces of jewelry that highlight the owner’s desire for pleasure.
	The owners personify a sharp mind, cunning, sophistication and variability of their nature.
	Such people want to establish themselves, especially sexually, given that the finger is on the Mount of Venus. In general, these are emotional people with strong energy, and they can say something that will be remembered by others for a very long time.

Rings on the fingers (palmistry) are interpreted approximately as follows: the ring is bright and large, indicating the owner’s hysterical behavior in this direction.

How to interpret the distance between fingers?

If you look at an open palm, you will notice several distances between the fingers, which also carry their significance and influence a person’s character:

• The distance between the middle and index fingers will tell you about independent thinking.
• The gap between the little finger and the ring finger characterizes a person who is capable of committing thoughtless actions.
• The little finger and index finger extend from the middle fingers. The combination indicates a self-confident person.
• The nameless and middle ones are close, without a gap. Talks about a person's secrecy.

What does crooked fingers mean (palmistry)?

1. The little finger goes to the nameless one, talking about entrepreneurial activity.
2. Unnamed to average, such a person is prone to depression.
3. Index to the middle – ambition.

What is important to a palm reader is not only the palm of the person whose fate and character must be read. Thumb in palmistry - no less important element for reading fate than all other lines and signs located on the hands. The length and shape of the phalanges make it possible to fully reveal the characteristics of a person, to create an accurate description that corresponds to reality as much as possible.

The meaning of finger shape and length

Unlike other fingers, the thumb was not named after any deity. However, many people call it the Aries finger. In palmistry, it is an indicator of vital energy.

In length it can be normal, short or long. Normal level The length is considered to be the one at which the rim of the thumb is at the same level as the base of the index finger.

Depending on the length, the following characteristics are distinguished:

1. Short length indicates impressionability and indecisiveness. For such people, the heart usually decides before the head. Individuals are more inclined to follow the majority, hesitate in making decisions and show tactlessness towards others.
2. Long is a sign of well-developed leadership qualities. People with this thumb structure are balanced, well harmonized with their inner self and have good judgment.
3. A very long one is a direct sign of great frankness of the soul. If the tip reaches the level of the second phalanx of the index, then the person is prone to tyranny and strives to achieve his goal at any cost.

The shape of the fingers can also reveal character traits. In palmistry, attention is paid to the joints, shape of the fingertip and thickness.

Depending on these parameters, there are the following options interpretations:

1. Short length and large thickness are a sign of such a trait as stubbornness.
2. In people with small and poorly developed thumb there is a lack of willpower and energy resources.
3. Directness is a direct sign of such qualities as foresight, perseverance, isolation, loyalty and reliability.
4. The evenness of the joints indicates that the individual has a large supply of vitality.
5. People with knotty joints take energy from strange, incomprehensible flashes.
6. The square shape of the tip indicates a realistic type of thinking.
7. A pointed tip is a sign of an impractical and impulsive personality.

Shape and length can tell a lot about a person. However, this is only one parameter that matters in palmistry when reading character and fate from the palm and fingers.

Type of connection between finger and palm

The way the thumb and the rest of the palm are connected is as important in reading the hand as any other sign.

The connection point is determined very simply. A vertical line is drawn from the middle of the base of the middle finger. A horizontal line is also drawn, crossing the previously drawn line exactly in the middle. The position of the base of the thumb is determined relative to the point at which the lines intersect.

The following options are available:

1. The normal type of connection is the case when the junction of the palm and finger coincide. Serves as an amplifier of all the positive qualities for which it is responsible.
2. High connection. Such people are susceptible and may turn out to be mediocre and dishonest.
3. Low connection. The characteristics of these people are courage, flexibility, bravery and practical talent.

In order to correctly determine the type of connection and reveal its meaning, it is recommended to use a ruler to draw the necessary lines. The more accurately the point of intersection of the main lines is determined, the more accurate a personality profile can be drawn up.

Angle between palm and thumb

The width of the angle between Aries and Jupiter indicates how the individual relates to others. This parameter is also responsible for the mood and willpower of the individual whose fate is read from hand signs.

Close location (45° or less). Indicates that the person is closed, inflexible and secretive. Quite often this type of angle indicates dishonesty.

Inclination towards others is a sure sign that the individual is afraid to establish relationships with other people. In most of the cases encountered, people with a similar arrangement of the thumb suffer from neuroses and are unhappy.

A finger located at right angles to the rest of the palm is an indication of a well-developed and keen sense of justice. The characteristics of such people are friendliness, gullibility and broad-mindedness.

People with a wide angle between the palm and thumb are soft-hearted. They rely too much on other people and may suffer from their gullibility.

Flexibility of the thumb

The flexibility of the thumb refers to the extent to which the tip of the phalanx is able to bend back. Newcomers to palmistry may confuse this parameter with the angle of location.

Flexible - indicates flexibility of character. Such people usually have nobility and tolerance. Also, plasticity can be good for those people who strive for extravagance. They do not like to enter into conflicts with other people or play the role of “devil's advocate.”

A straight finger that does not bend back can be a sign of inner strength, which is a good sign for a leader. However, excessive firmness and directness indicates that the individual does not show tolerance towards other opinions. His mind is closed.