5. Trade In the post-reform era, the growth of domestic and foreign trade accelerated. Commodity farming was acquiring ever larger proportions.5.1. Domestic trade in the 60-90s. has increased many times over. The most significant was the grain market, which provided a 3-fold increase in

Protectionist policies and

Mercantilism. Financial

Reform

The accelerated pace of development of Russian industry required the development of trade. In the theoretical works of F. Saltykov (“Propositions”), I. Pososhkov (“Book of Poverty and Wealth”) Russian economic thought was further developed, the theory of mercantilism, which provided for the economic policy of the state aimed at attracting as much money as possible into the country through the export of goods. With such an unprecedented scale of construction of various manufactories, money was constantly needed. Moreover, the money had to be kept in the country. In this regard, Peter I creates conditions to encourage domestic producers. Industrial, trade companies, and agricultural workers are given various privileges in such a way that the export of products exceeds the import. He imposed high duties on imported goods (37%), In order to develop internal trade, he adopted a special document on “fair markets”.

In 1698, construction began on the Volga-Don Canal, which was supposed to connect the largest water arteries of Russia and contribute to the expansion of domestic trade. The Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, which connected the Caspian and Baltic Seas through the rivers.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. Sectors expanded not only in industry, but also in agriculture. New agricultural crops were imported into Russia, the development of which led to the creation of viticulture, tobacco growing, the development of new breeds of livestock, medicinal herbs, potatoes, tomatoes, etc. d.

At the same time, the encouragement of state-owned industry and trade led to the restriction of “non-statutory” trade of landowners and peasants, which impeded the free development of market relations in the Peter the Great era. Management of industry and trade was carried out by the Berg Manufactory Collegium and the Commerce Collegium.

The continuous growth of government spending on industrial development and military needs also determined financial policy. Financial functions were carried out by three institutions: the Chamber Board was responsible for collecting revenues, the State Office Board was responsible for distributing funds, and the Board of Audits controlled the first two institutions, that is, collection and distribution.

In accordance with the demands of the time and the search for funds, the Russian Tsar strengthened the state monopoly on a number of goods: tobacco, salt, fur, caviar, resin, etc. By decree of Peter I, special persons - the staff of profit-makers - looked for new and varied sources of income. Taxes were levied on windows, pipes, doors, frames, duties were established for shipping and berthing duties, for places in markets, etc. In total, there were up to 40 such taxes. In addition, direct taxes were introduced on the purchase of horses, on provisions for the fleet, etc. To replenish the treasury, a monetary reform was carried out.

Since the end of the 17th century. The restructuring of the Russian monetary system began. A new coin system was created, reducing the weight of the coin, replacing small silver coins with copper ones, and deteriorating the standard of silver. As a result of the financial reform, coins of various denominations appeared: copper ruble, half, half half, hryvnia, kopek, denga, polushka, etc. Gold (single, double chervonets, two-ruble) and silver coins (kopeck piece, penny, penny, altyn, kopeck) were also preserved. Gold chervonets and silver rubles became hard convertible currency.

The reform carried out had both positive and negative consequences. Firstly, it led to significant state revenues and replenished the treasury. If in 1700 the Russian treasury totaled 2.5 million rubles, then in 1703 it was 4.4 million rubles. And, secondly, coin transactions caused a fall in the ruble exchange rate and a 2-fold increase in prices for goods.

Social politics

• January 17, 2015 at 02:16 pm, Alexander Akimov

Under Peter I, copper smelters were built in the Olonets region - Petrovsky and Povenetsky (1707), Kongozersky (1707). In the Urals, N. Demidov is building 13 iron foundries. Smelting of silver and gold (mainly for the mint) began on a significant scale only at the beginning of the 18th century. In 1721, the Nerchinsk plant began operating, and from the middle of the 18th century. silver is smelted by Demidov's Kolyvan plant.

Industry under Peter 1.

Many have heard about the merits of Peter I, but few know that initially he had at his disposal a state with a poorly developed economy - agriculture, industry and trade were in their infancy or in decline. However, even then the priority task was to gain “access to the sea”, in connection with which the war with Sweden was started. For successful military operations an army and navy were needed. Peter I created his own new army. But all expenses were covered by taxes. This fact forced the king to think about the welfare of the people. The solution, according to some historians, was found during the Great Embassy, ​​the results of which showed the huge difference between Russia of that time and Europe.
The idea that Russia needed development industrial complex, was known long before the appearance of Peter, however, since the implementation of this idea required willpower and enormous efforts on the part of the sovereign, only he was able to begin its implementation.
Peter carried out his transformations according to the principles of mercantilism, which he learned after visiting abroad. According to this path, the goal was set to train ordinary people in advanced methods of development and mastery of new types of production.
Perth 1 began its transformations boldly and with great enthusiasm, but the people perceived them as another burden and whim of the ruler. Also, some issues of the country's development, which required a carefully thought-out transformation program, were carried out by Peter too quickly and thoughtlessly. And as a result, many of his ideas did not bear the fruits that were expected, and practically stopped after his death.

The beginning of reforms in the industrial sector.

For the development of industry, a raw material base was needed, in connection with this, geological exploration work was started throughout the country, and both foreign and local specialists were involved. During this period, deposits of carnelian, saltpeter, peat, coal, crystal, etc. were discovered. New enterprises were introduced (in the Ryazan region - coal was mined by the Rimin brothers, peat - by von Azmus).
Transformations were carried out at mining and iron factories, sericulture and sheep breeding, leather production and other sectors of the economy.
According to the reforms of Peter the Great, decrees were issued that contained such instructions as “what exactly?”, “how?”, “how much?” and “from what?” produce goods. Failure to comply with decrees was punishable by heavy fines and, in some cases, the death penalty.

Results of reforms in the industrial sector.

As a result of Peter's reforms, several large manufacturing plants arose. The most famous were in the Olonets region. The factories of this region were distinguished by their technical level of equipment and full workforce.
To support the activities of mining plants in the Urals and Perm, the city of Yekaterinburg was built. This widespread development was facilitated by the publication of the “Berg Privilege”, according to which everyone could, of their own free will, develop lands in search of precious metals, while paying a tenth of the cost of production, as well as giving the state and 32 shares to the owner of the land. Thus, by the end of the reign of Tsar Peter the Great, seven million pounds of cast iron and more than two hundred pounds of copper were processed annually at these plants, and deposits of precious metals - gold and silver - were also developed.
It is also worth noting the arms factories in Tula and Sestroretsk. Thanks to these factories, Russia stopped buying weapons and produced everything it needed itself.

Solving the personnel issue under Peter I

Peter I did not skimp and invited specialists from Europe, offering them very favorable conditions: high salaries, free housing and the right to export the accumulated wealth after a certain period. Thousands of craftsmen responded to his proposals; for example, approximately a thousand people were hired from Amsterdam alone.
Measures were also taken to increase the education and activity of the local population, in terms of their technical participation in industrial development:
- training young Russians abroad
- training of free, serfs and runaway (since 1720) peasants in manufactories.
However, there were few people willing to work in factories, so the tsar periodically issued decrees on the recruitment of apprentices to manufactories. In the future, it was decided to encourage landowners in their desire to engage in manufacturing production. This step made it possible to resolve the issue of filling jobs (serfs were forced to work in factories). However, the following conditions were created for the workers themselves:
- fourteen hour working day
- salaries were received mainly by free citizens, of whom there were few. The rest were paid in food and clothing.
- salaries at state-owned enterprises were higher than at private enterprises.
Product quality.
In such conditions, it was not surprising that the quality of the products was low, in view of the preserved simple ways processing and low interest of the workers themselves.
However, locally produced products, although slowly, were sold. Since the tsar, following the laws of mercantilism, introduced high duties on foreign goods.

Results of reforms.

Despite everything, Peter I laid the foundation for the development of industry in Russia and its economic growth. Many new types of production appeared, which undoubtedly improved the quality of life of the people. Evidence of this is that the people were able to endure a twenty-year war with Sweden.

In the field of economics Peter pursued a policy of Western European mercantilism. The essence of mercantilism comes down to petty tutelage and state supervision of industry and trade, to the provision of various privileges (loans, various kinds of advantages) to trading companies and industrial enterprises, to measures for the development of agriculture so that the country's exports exceed its import.

To do this, it was necessary to organize such an industry in the country so as not to import foreign products from abroad. The immediate goal of mercantilism was to keep valuable metals—gold and silver—within the country. Compulsory measures were also inherent in Western European mercantilism in England, France and other countries. Marx wrote about the mercantilism of Western Europe: “... it is truly characteristic of interested merchants and manufacturers of that time... that... the accelerated development of capital... is not achieved in this way called the natural way, but with the help of coercive means” (“Capital”, vol. III, 1938, p. 691).

Peter's mercantilism is closer to mercantilism Central Europe, which, like Russia, is characterized by a weak role of cities and the commercial and industrial class.

Peter's mercantilist policy was carried out in all activities both in relation to agriculture and in trade and industry. In the field of agriculture, technology was improved (mowing bread instead of harvesting it with sickles), new crops were introduced, mainly for export - tobacco and grapes in the south , medicinal herbs; New breeds of livestock were bred (Kholmogory breed of dairy cows, Merino sheep), etc.

Peter paid the greatest attention to the development of trade, about which he said that “trade is the supreme owner of human destiny.” In the interests of developing trade, Peter provided subsidies to trading companies. For example, the merchant Dokuchaev received a subsidy of 30 thousand rubles; Apraksin company - 46 thousand; dozens of other trading companies received subsidies ranging from 20 to 5 thousand rubles.

In order to increase exports and reduce imports, according to the tariff of 1724, high duties were established on imported goods, reaching up to 37.5% of their value; duties on imported goods were levied in foreign currency. By the end reign of Peter imports amounted to 2,100 thousand rubles, and exports amounted to 4,200 thousand rubles.

Foreign trade was carried out mainly through the Baltic ports, from which highest value had Petersburg. In 1722, 116 foreign merchant ships arrived at ports on the Baltic Sea; in 1725 there were 914 of them. Peter in every possible way encouraged the Russian merchants to organize a company and to trade relations with foreign countries, but only a few of the merchants knew how to take into account the demand of the Western European market; in 1715, Russian consulates were established abroad, “to ensure good order in commerce and the prevention of all difficulties requires.”

Little by little, Russian merchants began to get used to the conditions of the European market. To study the commercial sciences among the merchants, Peter sent annually to Holland and Italy at the state expense, first 12, and from 1723, 15 merchant sons from Moscow and Arkhangelsk.

Peter I concluded a profitable trade agreement with Persia. Under his rule, trade with China through Kyakhta and with Central Asia expanded significantly. In order to develop internal trade in the country, Peter especially supported fairs.

A special chapter on “fair markets” was included in the regulations of the Chief Magistrate of 1721, and instructions were also given on the organization of exchanges, brokers, etc. In the interests of developing internal trade, the establishment of canals was undertaken. In 1698, construction of a canal began between the Volga and Don, not far from Tsaritsyn.

Volga-Don Canal under Peter.

For construction Volga-Don Canal 20 thousand working people were rounded up. The work was carried out under the guidance of a foreign engineer. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the Volga-Don Canal was abandoned, and after the founding of St. Petersburg, hasty construction began Vyshnevolotsk Canal, for the construction of which about 40 thousand peasants were gathered. The Vyshnevolotsky Canal was completed in 1708 and connected the Caspian Sea with the Baltic Sea.

In 1718, work began on a bypass canal around the stormy Lake Ladoga, completed after the death of Peter.

Already in 1712, a Collegium for trade affairs was organized, “in order to add it to a better state, to which one or two foreigners are needed, who must be pleased, so that the truth and zeal in this will be shown with an oath, in order to establish better orders, for without contradiction there is that their trades are not comparatively better than ours.”

Later, the Commerce Collegium began to be in charge of trade affairs. Back in the 17th century. On the basis of local peasant crafts, the first feudal manufactories were created - Tula, Kashira, Olonets, in which, along with serfs, there was also free-hired labor of working people.

The Northern War gave a strong impetus to the development of industry. In industry, Peter I created new enterprises necessary in order to free ourselves from foreign dependence.

Already existing enterprises were strengthened and strengthened. Comrade Stalin characterizes the policy of Peter the Great in the development of industry as follows: “When Peter the Great, dealing with more developed countries in the West, feverishly building plants and factories to supply the army and strengthen the country’s defense, this was a kind of attempt to jump out of the framework of backwardness” (To Stalin On the industrialization of the country and the right deviation in the CPSU (b), 1937, pp. 5-6).

Indeed, the development of the metallurgical industry is closely connected with the wars of Peter I. For example, in connection with Azov campaigns Peter used the private Borinsky ironworks, which arose around 1694 in the Voronezh region, in the interests of developing the military industry.

Peter expanded the Tula and Kashira factories. Since the beginning of the Northern War, Peter paid special attention to the Olonets factories, to which 12 thousand peasant households were assigned to procure firewood and coal. Factories were supposed to produce cannons, anchors, etc.

IN St. Petersburg and Moscow cannon factories were built (in St. Petersburg again, and reconstructed in Moscow); was also built Sestroretsk plant, which, in addition to weapons, produced anchors, nails and wire, employed 629 people.

Peter paid the greatest attention to the Ural industry. Built in 1699 Nevyansky plant Peter in 1702 handed it over to the Tula master Demidov, who expanded this plant and soon built a new Tagil plant.

Ural iron turned out to be of higher quality than foreign iron. Fockerodt says that “Russian iron is good, soft, it is better than Swedish, which best hardware and you won’t find it.” In 1718 | Cast iron production reached 6,641 thousand poods at the Ural and other ironworks. Of this cast iron, 13% was smelted at state-owned factories, and the rest, 87%, at private ones. In 1726, 55,149 pounds of iron were exported abroad from St. Petersburg and Arkhangelsk, not counting the other Baltic ports.

According to Fokerodt, in 1714 the number of copper and iron cannons in the entire Russian state reached several thousand. The guns were cast in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Voronezh Olonets, Sestroretsk. To monitor the developing Ural industry, Peter sent engineer de-Genin to the Urals. 25 thousand serfs were assigned to 11 Ural factories. The entire peasant population within a 100-verst radius had to service the factories: harvest timber, transport products to rivers, etc.

This emphasizes the serf-like features of Peter’s enterprises. To supply the army under Peter, 15 cloth and woolen enterprises arose. Peter's cherished dream was to equip the Russian army with the help of Russian industry. In addition, under Peter, 15 linen factories, 15 silk factories, 11 leather factories, and 5 paper factories were organized. Copper smelters were built and the mining of silver-lead ores was organized for the first time in Nerchinsk. According to Fokerodt, “Peter I, during his lifetime, brought various factories to the point where they supplied in abundance, as much as was needed for Russia, such goods as, for example, needles, weapons and various linen fabrics and especially canvas, which could not only be supplied to the fleet, but also loaned to other nations.”

Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, the government established factories, encouraged merchants to establish them, supplied entrepreneurs with funds and provided them with various benefits and benefits.

At the same time, the government, while providing funds, maintained control and interfered with production technology. It must be borne in mind that this Petrine industry had its roots in handicraft and handicraft production and in serf enterprises of the 17th century.

By the end of the reign of Peter I, according to his contemporary, the Secretary of the Senate Ivan Kirillov, there were 233 industrial enterprises. Some of the enterprises were quite large. For example, 730 people worked at a cloth factory in Moscow, and 1,162 people worked at a cloth and canvas factory.

Along with large industry Peter also took measures to develop small crafts, but government intervention in this area was not always successful. Thus, in order to increase the export of canvas and linen abroad, Peter ordered the peasants to set up wide mills for textiles; this order, however, corresponded to the available technical base and was canceled two years later.

In 1722, Peter introduced a guild structure for artisans. Craftsmen united in workshops, elected shop elders to monitor the quality of goods; a seven-year period was even established for apprenticeship, but without limiting the number of students and establishing the size of production, which is typical for workshop organizations in Western Europe.

At first, “thieves, swindlers and drunkards”, “guilty women and girls” were assigned to work at industrial enterprises; “walking people”, beggars and loiterers were assigned to enterprises. Such personnel could not contribute to the development of enterprise productivity. Working people were usually recruited from bankrupt townsman artisans on a free-hire basis. By a decree of January 18, 1721, in response to requests from industrialists and merchants, they were allowed to buy serfs for enterprises.

Such serf peasants, bought for enterprises, were called possessions. They were not listed as the owners of the enterprise, but as the owners of the enterprise to which they were purchased. So, for example, serfs bought by Demidov were considered to belong to Nevyansk or Tagil plants.

The plant was sold along with the peasants who belonged to it. In addition, it was practiced to add to the state factories the peasants of the surrounding villages, as well as the “ownerless” peasants who were identified to replenish the workforce! whose strength. Peasants were attributed not only to nearby, but sometimes even distant places.

So, peasants who lived several hundred miles away were right to visit the Ural factories. Part of the year! assigned peasants worked in factories and only for a limited time! time was released for their agricultural work. Peter tried to create local Russian cadres of working craftsmen. For this purpose, foreign engineers who came to Russia were required to train several Russians in their craft.

In 1711, Peter ordered the establishment of craft schools in large enterprises for training in certain skills and the Decree read: “The Emperor ordered to send 100 children from the clergy and from the artisans who would be 15 or 201 years old and would be able to write in order to go to teaching to masters of various crafts.”

The situation of the working people was extremely difficult. They received a soldier's ration equal to 6 rubles 20 kopecks per year. The work continued from dawn to sunset. During work, supervisors often used corporal punishment.

Conditions were especially difficult at the Ural ironworks.

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WITH possession

Introduction

1. The state and development of Russian industry under Peter 1

2. Reform of the management system under Peter 1

3. Domestic and foreign trade under Peter 1

4. Changes in the financial system under Peter 1

5. Military reform of Peter 1

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

IN this essay The topic will be considered: “Russia under Peter 1”.

During the reign of Peter 1, Russia turned into a great power with an efficient economy, a powerful army and navy, highly developed science and culture. I would very much like to see all these achievements in modern Russia.

Russia's advance was rapid and decisive. Peter maintained cheerfulness and faith in success among his like-minded people; he was in a hurry to accomplish a lot, and it is not for nothing that Peter’s era is called “Young Russia.” But all these transformations often took place through violence, through the suffering of the people, through a drastic breakdown of customs, habits, and psychology of people, through extremism, intolerance, and unwillingness to take into account the internal conditions for reform. The planting of the new came through a fierce struggle with the old. Despite the fact that Peter was a supporter of the Western path of development and Western rationalism, he carried out his reforms in an Asian way.

It should also be emphasized that in his attempts to get closer to Western European civilization, introducing everything that was advanced and useful, Peter forgot about the originality of Russia, about its dual Eurasian essence. He believed that all the sources of its backwardness lay in Asian roots. Striving for Europe, Peter often adopted only the external forms of progressive ideas, ignoring the inner essence of age-old traditions.

Adopting advanced technologies, scientific, military and other achievements from the West, Peter did not seem to notice the development of humanist ideas there, much less wanting to introduce them to Russian soil.

And yet the significance of the great changes in the life of Russia, carried out in the era of Peter, is difficult to overestimate.

1. State and p industrial development Russia under Peter 1

Undoubtedly, the young tsar’s determination to begin radical reforms was influenced by failures in the war with Sweden and Turkey for access to the Baltic and Black Sea. Military failures showed, first of all, the backwardness of domestic metallurgy. Indeed, until the very beginning of the 18th century, Russia imported, mainly from Sweden, iron, copper, tin, and weapons. The war in the Baltic states stopped these supplies, so the development of its own metallurgical production became a strategic problem.

The government made great efforts to build iron factories at the expense of the treasury in the Urals and in the Olonets region. The first decade of the 18th century can be characterized as a period of active government intervention in the economy and the encouragement of private enterprise. It has become common practice to transfer state-owned enterprises, especially unprofitable ones, to private “particular” owners, foreigners or commercial and industrial companies - businesses. The state assumed the costs of training workers, supplied equipment, and sent specialists to these enterprises. For particularly important industries, various privileges were given, preferential loans, free land for the construction of new factories.

It should be emphasized that these emergency measures played a decisive role in creating a powerful material base for the army, which made it possible to defeat Sweden in the Northern War. As a result, Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea and returned its lands, which had long been part of the Novgorod principality. In 1703, the city of St. Petersburg was founded, which became the new capital of Russia in 1713. Isaev I.A. History of the state and law of Russia: Textbook. for universities for special purposes and the direction of Jurisprudence” / Moscow. state legal acad. - M.: Yurist, 1998. - P.235.

The first manufactories appeared in Russia back in the 17th century, but they did not play a noticeable role in the economy at that time. It was from the 18th century that the manufacturing period in the national economy began, since the manufacturing system became predominant compared to handicraft production. Since the 17th century, manufactories in Russia began to be called in the Western sense - “factories”, although, as is known, factories were based on a system of various machines and civilian labor, which were almost non-existent in Russia at that time.

Since there were almost no free workers in the country, the main problem in organizing manufactories was providing them with hired labor. If in the first years of the 18th century it was still possible to find free (“walking”, runaway) people who did not fall into serfdom, then later, when the process of enslavement intensified and the search for runaway peasants became more strict, the number of “staggering” people in the country sharply decreased . The government has increased the scale forced labor, when entire villages and villages were assigned to enterprises, first only for the autumn-winter period, and then for good. Zuev M.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. Tutorial. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - P.218.

In addition to state and patrimonial ones, possessional, or conditional, manufactories began to appear (lat. possessio - conditional possession). Since 1721, by decree of Peter I, non-nobles (merchants, rich townspeople from among the artisans) were allowed to buy serfs. In this case, the peasants were assigned to the enterprise and formed a single whole. These peasants could no longer be sold separately, i.e. such manufactures were bought and sold only under certain conditions. The activities of the owners of possessional manufactories were monitored government surveillance. These owners were subsequently exempted from compulsory public service and had tax and customs privileges. Scattered manufactories also continued to develop, which arose on the basis of merchant capital and tied domestic peasant production to commercial and industrial capital.

In the first quarter of the 18th century there was a noticeable increase in manufacturing production. And if at the end of the 17th century there were about 20 manufactories in the country, then in the mid-1720s there were already 205 manufactories and large craft enterprises, of which 90 belonged to the treasury and 115 to private capital. There were especially many metallurgical enterprises: 52 in ferrous metallurgy, 17 in non-ferrous metallurgy, which were mainly located in the Urals and Tula. On the shore of Lake Onega in 1703, an iron foundry and ironworks was built, which laid the foundation for the city of Petrozavodsk. In addition, in the 1720s there were 18 sawmill factories, 17 gunpowder factories, 15 cloth factories, 11 leather factories, as well as enterprises producing glass, porcelain, paper, etc. Livshchits A.Ya. Economic reform in Russia and its price. - M.: Prospekt, 2001. - P.111.

The transformation of the Urals into the world's largest metallurgy center became a notable economic event in Russia at that time. In 1699, on the initiative of Peter, ironworks were built on the Neva River, which in 1702 were transferred to the former Tula blacksmith Nikita Demidov. The Ural factories of the Demidovs and other entrepreneurs were at an advanced technical level even by European standards. The products of metallurgical plants were of high quality, they began to export them to Europe, and soon Russia became the first place in Europe in the production of cast iron. If in 1700 150 thousand pounds of cast iron were produced, then in 1725 - about 800 thousand pounds of cast iron (1 pood = 16 kg).

To provide metallurgical production with raw materials, the search for various natural resources was strongly encouraged in the country. All successful “miners” received a generous payment for the discovery of new deposits. In 1700, the Ore Order was created, later renamed the Berg Collegium, which was in charge of not only metallurgical production, but also geological exploration. To stimulate the search for natural resources, the government announced the principle of “mining freedom”, according to which anyone could develop subsoil for a small fee in favor of the state or the private owner of the land.

In addition to large manufactories, the Russian economy still had a large handicraft sector in the cities, as well as home crafts in the countryside as an integral part of the natural feudal estate, although these producers also became increasingly dependent on market relations in the person of buyers of products. Urban and rural artisans produced fabrics, leather and felted shoes, pottery, saddles, harnesses and other products. In the 18th century, craft specialties appeared related to the new way of life brought from Europe by Peter I: braid makers, snuff makers, watchmakers, carriage makers, hat makers, hairdressers, bookbinders, etc. Zuev M.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. Tutorial. - M.: Bustard, 2002. -

Under Peter I, an attempt was made to place small craft production under state control. So, in 1722, by decree of the tsar, artisans had to join workshops. In the workshops, foremen were elected who monitored the quality of products and the procedure for admission to the workshop organization. Apprentices had to master the craft for seven years to become journeymen, and they, in turn, could become masters no earlier than two years later. True, these workshop organizations did not have the strict regulation of production and sales of products that existed in medieval Europe, and in general this system was not as widespread as in the West.

2. Governance reform under Peter 1

Peter I sought to carry out internal reforms in Russia in order to bring it to European level. In addition to military and diplomatic problems, he delved deeply into all issues of Russian public administration. For 25 years - from 1700 to 1725 - he adopted almost three thousand different laws and decrees relating to economic, civil, and everyday aspects of the life of the population, including the administrative structures of the state. Just like reforms in industrial production, reforming the system of state and local government was connected primarily with the military needs of the country. In the first years of his reign, the young king dealt with these issues occasionally, in a hurry. And only in the last seven or eight years of his reign, thanks to his efforts, the activities of all administrative institutions received a normative basis and were regulated according to a certain system.

Radical comprehensive reforms in the field of governance were driven by the need to strengthen the absolute monarchy. First of all, it was necessary to create a harmonious administrative vertical, completely subordinate to the supreme power. A radical reorganization of the entire structure of public administration from top to bottom was aimed at this. Kargalov V.V., Savelyev Yu.S., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. - M.:

The main object of the reorganization was the Boyar Duma, which constantly interfered in the affairs of Peter's predecessors and which no longer corresponded to the regime of an absolute monarchy. In 1699, instead of the Boyar Duma, Peter established the Nearest Office of eight trusted representatives to assist in solving state affairs, which he called the Council of Ministers.

In 1711, he abolished this structure, creating a governing Senate of nine people appointed by himself. It was the highest state body with legislative, administrative and judicial powers. In January 1722, the new positions of Attorney General and Chief Prosecutor of the Senate were created to oversee the activities of the Senate.

Head state power became emperor. This title was granted to Peter by the Senate in 1721 after the victorious end of the Northern War with Sweden, and Russia was proclaimed an empire. From now on, Peter and his heirs began to have unlimited power, the right to introduce strict regulation in management, ideology, public life, and culture.

Peter I devoted a lot of time to reforming the outdated order system. In 1717-1718, almost the entire numerous, complex, confusing, unsystematic “crowd” of orders was replaced by collegiums - new governing bodies. Unlike orders, which, as a rule, had regional competence, the collegiums had nationwide powers, which in itself created a higher level of centralization. A total of eleven collegiums were created: the Military Collegium was in charge of the army, the Admiralty Collegium was in charge of the fleet, the Justice Collegium was in charge of legislation, the Manufacturer Collegium was in charge of industry, etc. Later, the rights of the collegium were vested in the Holy Synod, which directed church affairs, as well as the Chief Magistrate, in charge of city affairs. Kargalov V.V., Savelyev Yu.S., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. - M.:

The boards were created according to the Swedish model, but taking into account Russian conditions. Each of them included a president, vice-president, advisers, assistants, and secretary. The president of the board, as a rule, was Russian, and the vice-president was a foreigner. The work in the boards was clearly organized, in contrast to the orderly confusion and confusion. Peter sincerely hoped that the collegial system would not carry the old vices: arbitrariness, abuse, red tape, bribery. But the tsar’s hopes were not destined to come true, since in the conditions of the incredible strengthening of the role of the bureaucracy, the scale of these vices only grew.

In 1708-1710, a provincial reform was carried out, according to which the entire country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov, Arkhangelsk, Siberian. The provinces, in turn, were divided into districts. Administrative, judicial, police, and financial functions were concentrated in the hands of the governor, in accordance with which taxes were collected, recruits were recruited, the search for fugitive peasants was carried out, court cases were considered, and the troops were provided with food.

Subsequently, Peter repeatedly returned to the problem of reorganizing local government. In 1719, the second provincial reform was carried out, the number of provinces increased to eleven, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which reported directly to the collegiums and the Senate. In accordance with the reform, the power of the governor extended only to the province of the provincial city, and in the remaining provinces there were governors in power, who were subordinate to the governors in military and judicial matters.

Simultaneously with the provincial reform, it was planned to carry out urban reform. Peter wanted to give cities full self-government so that they could elect burgomasters. However, unlike Western Europe, Russian cities of the early 18th century had not yet developed a rich and influential bourgeoisie that could take over city government. In 1720, a Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, who was supposed to lead the urban estates in Russia. Reader on the history of state and law of Russia. / Ed. Chibiryaeva S.A. - M.: Bylina, 2000.

It is worth noting that the administrative system created during Peter’s reforms turned out to be very strong. In its main features it remained (with some changes) until 1917. The management structure, the mechanism of power and its functions remained unshakable for almost two centuries.

Peter's reforms were undoubtedly directed against the old boyar aristocracy, which did not want changes and the strengthening of strong centralized power. At the same time, Peter relied on the local nobility, which, being a more progressive young class, supported the course of strengthening the absolute monarchy. With the aim of economic support for the nobility, in 1714 Peter issued a Decree on Single Inheritance, according to which the final merger of two forms of feudal land ownership (votchina and estate) took place into a single legal concept - “real estate”. Both types of farms were equalized in all respects, the estate also became hereditary, and not a conditional farm, they could not be divided between heirs. Estates were inherited only by one of the sons, usually the eldest. The remaining children received an inheritance in money and other property; they were obliged to enter military or civil (civilian) service.

Closely adjacent to this Decree was the introduction of the Table of Ranks in 1722. According to this Table, all positions in the civil and military service were divided into 14 classes-ranks from the lowest - fourteenth, to the highest - first. In accordance with the Table, employees from among the nobles or burghers were required to go through these steps in order to be promoted. This document introduced the principle of seniority and finally eliminated the previously abolished principle of localism, which still existed unofficially in the country. The most interested in the introduction of this order were the nobles, who could now rise to the highest government ranks and actually join the power. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1990. - P.72.

It is appropriate to remember that under Peter the nobles were not the privileged class that they became in the second half of the 18th century. They were still service people in public service. If in pre-Petrine times nobles returned home after military campaigns, then under Peter they had to join regular regiments from the age of 15, undergo long military service “from the ground up” and only after that receive an officer rank and serve in the army until old age or disability. On the other hand, every soldier who rose to the rank of officer received hereditary nobility.

In addition to official duties, the nobles were also assigned educational duties. Hundreds of young nobles had to study military or naval affairs in Russia or abroad. All male children of the nobility were required to learn literacy, cyfiri (arithmetic) and geometry, otherwise they were not allowed to marry. Reader on the history of state and law of Russia. / Ed. Chibiryaeva S.A. - M.: Bylina, 2000. - P.289.

A distinctive feature of the Russian autocracy in pre-Petrine times was the complete merger of church and state. While in Western Europe The church moved further and further away from state administration; in Rus' in the 17th century there was a so-called ecclesiastical state. The tsar himself acted simultaneously as both the supreme ruler of the church and the head of state; religious ideas were also central to secular life.

Peter I destroyed this tradition and carried out church reform, completely subordinating the church to the state. After the death of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church Patriarch Andrian in 1700, the patriarchate was abolished (which was restored only after the February Revolution of 1917). In 1721, the Holy Synod was established - a special “spiritual board” to manage the affairs of the church. At the head of the Holy Synod was the chief prosecutor, a secular man, usually one of the guards officers. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Tsar himself. The economic rights of the church were noticeably limited, its huge land plots were cut, and part of its income began to be withdrawn to the state budget. Pushkarev S. G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.158.

Starting with Peter I, the state began to interfere in religious life and monitored the mandatory communion of all Orthodox Christians. Through the Synod, the secret of confession was abolished; priests were required to report to the Secret Chancellery about the confessions of parishioners made during confession if they concerned the interests of the state. The Church was henceforth obliged in all worldly affairs to obey the orders of secular authorities.

3. Domestic and foreign trade under Peter 1

To maintain and streamline the internal market, the Commerce Collegium was created in 1719. Later, the Chief and City Magistrates were established, whose functions included all kinds of assistance to the merchants, their self-government, and the creation of guilds.

In order to improve trade routes, the government began building canals for the first time in the country's history. Thus, in 1703-1709, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system began, the Ladoga (1718) Canal, completed shortly after the death of Peter, the Volga-Don (1698) Canal, the construction of which was completed only in 1952. The land roads were very bad; during the rainy season they became impassable, which, of course, hampered the development of regular trade relations. In addition, the country still had many internal customs duties, which also restrained the growth of the all-Russian market.

It should be noted that the development of domestic trade was hampered by a “cash famine”; the country continued to experience an acute shortage of monetary metals. Money circulation consisted mainly of small copper coins. The silver penny was a very large monetary unit; it was often cut into several parts, each of which made independent circulation.

In 1704, Peter I began monetary reform. Silver ruble coins, or simply rubles, began to be issued, which before Peter remained only a conventional unit of account (the ruble did not exist as a coin). The silver thaler was adopted as the weight unit of the ruble, although the silver content in the ruble was less than in the thaler. The ruble had a portrait of Peter I, a double-headed eagle, the year of issue and the inscription “Tsar Peter Alekseevich” stamped on it. Kolomiets A.G. History of the Fatherland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - P.326.

The new monetary system was based on a very simple and rational decimal principle: 1 ruble = 10 hryvnia = 100 kopecks. By the way, many Western countries came to such a system much later. Fifty kopecks were issued - 50 kopecks, half-fifty kopecks - 25 kopecks, nickels - 5 kopecks. Later, an altyn was added to them - 3 kopecks and a five-altyn - 15 kopecks. The minting of coins became a strict and unconditional monopoly of the state, and a ban was announced on the export of precious metals abroad. Pushkarev S.G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Jurist, 2002. - P.161. During the same period, the search for domestic silver deposits in Transbaikalia, in the Nerchinsk region, was crowned with success. The strengthening of the monetary system was also facilitated by an increase in exports and a positive foreign trade balance.

Under Peter I, gold coins were also issued: Caesar rubles and chervonets. The first of them were often used as a military award for lower ranks - soldiers, while the ruble was hung like a medal around the neck. Chervonets mainly served foreign trade turnover and had almost no circulation within the country.

Initially, the Peter the Great ruble was quite valuable and was equal to 8 1/3 spools of pure silver (1 spool = 4.3g). Later, as a result of negative economic changes in the country, the ruble gradually lost weight, first to 5 5/6, and then to 4 spools. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - P.327.

Petrine reforms also affected foreign trade, which began to actively develop thanks, first of all, to access to the Baltic Sea. The strengthening of the foreign trade orientation of the Russian economy was facilitated by the purposeful policy of mercantilism pursued by the government. One of the ideologists of mercantilism was the Russian thinker-economist I.T. Pososhkov, who in 1724 published “The Book of Scarcity and Wealth.” In it, he emphasized that the country needs to create technically advanced enterprises based on domestic raw materials so that it can confidently enter the foreign market.

Supporters of mercantilism believed that the country should achieve an active foreign trade balance, i.e. the excess of income from the export of goods over the costs of importing goods into the country. For example, in 1726, exports from Russia through the main seaports - St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Riga - amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and imports - 2.1 million.

An obligatory element of mercantilism is the establishment of strict customs barriers to protect domestic producers from foreign competitors. Thus, in 1724, a customs tariff was established, according to which a duty of up to 75% of their value was established on the import of foreign goods such as iron, canvas, and silk fabrics in order to stimulate their production in the country. A duty of up to 50% was set on Dutch linen, velvet, silver and other goods, up to 25% on those goods that were produced in Russia in insufficient quantities: woolen fabrics, writing paper, up to 10% on copper utensils, window glass, etc. .d.

High export duties were imposed on raw materials needed by domestic entrepreneurs so that they would not leave the country. The state kept basically all foreign trade in its hands through monopoly trading companies and farm-outs. The main currency used in foreign trade was still the silver thaler (efimok). Pushkarev S. G. Review of Russian history. - M.: Yurist, 2002. - P.160.

Noticeable changes also occurred in the structure of foreign trade. If at the beginning of the 18th century mainly agricultural products and raw materials were exported, then by the mid-1720s more specific gravity Manufacture products began to occupy the market: Ural iron from Demidov factories, linen, ropes, canvas. The largest volume of imports was still occupied by luxury goods for members of the royal family and nobles, as well as colonial goods: tea, coffee, spices, sugar, wine. Thanks to the energetic actions of Peter, Russia, since 1712, for the first time in history, stopped buying weapons from Europe.

During the first decades of the 18th century, the geography of Russian foreign trade centers also changed. If in the 17th century Arkhangelsk played the main role in trade with the West, then soon its place was taken by St. Petersburg, and later by Riga, Revel (Tallinn), Vyborg, Narva. Trade relations with Persia and India were carried out along the Volga through Astrakhan and the Caspian Sea, and with China through Kyakhta. Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - P.328.

4. Changes in the financial system under Peter 1

The Northern War with Sweden, southern campaigns to the Sea of ​​Azov, the construction of a fleet, manufactories, canals, and cities constantly required huge government expenditures. Russia's budget was in critical condition. The task was set to find new tax revenues. Specially authorized people - profit-makers - were sent to search for new objects of taxation. Beginning in 1704, one after another, an endless series of new taxes were established: mill, bee, cellar, bath, pipe - from stoves, clamp, hat, shoe, icebreaker, watering, from schismatics, cab drivers, inns, from beards, sales of edibles, sharpening knives and other “all sorts of petty fees.”

State monopolies were added to the new taxes. In addition to resin, potash, rhubarb, and glue, new monopoly goods were added: salt, tobacco, chalk, tar, fish oil, lard, and oak coffins. Fishing became an object of farming, and wine was sold only in state-owned taverns.

The main income came from direct taxes, which were imposed only on the “vile” classes. At the end of Peter's reign, many petty taxes were abolished. And to increase state revenues, instead of household taxation, which existed since 1679, in 1718-1724, a capitation tax was introduced from the revision soul, which was paid not only from able-bodied men, but also from boys, old people and even those who died, but were still registered in revision lists. Landowner peasants paid 74 kopecks per year to the treasury, plus an additional 40-50 kopecks to their landowner, and state peasants paid 1 ruble 14 kopecks per year only to the treasury. Karamzin N. M. Traditions of the Ages. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - P.133.

For more accurate accounting, censuses of the male population began to be conducted throughout the country every 20 years. Based on the results of the censuses, revision tales (lists) were compiled. During the census, the number of serfs increased, since former indentured servants, who previously received freedom after the death of their master, were also equated to this category.

In addition, taxes were imposed on the black-growing peasants of the northern regions, the arable peasants of Siberia, and the peoples of the middle Volga region, who previously did not pay taxes because they were not serfs. To them were added single-palace dwellers, i.e. former service people (gunners, archers), previously exempt from taxes. The townspeople - townspeople and townspeople - were now also required to pay the poll tax.

Various classes sought all kinds of privileges in order to be exempt from paying taxes. The collection of taxes always took place with great difficulty, with huge arrears, since the solvency of the population was very low. Thus, in 1732, arrears amounted to 15 million rubles, which was twice the amount of income.

Main item of income state budget, as already mentioned, were direct taxes on the population - up to 55.5% in 1724. In addition, as in the 17th century, indirect taxes and a system of taxation for the sale of monopoly goods, as well as taxation for the construction of mills, bridges, etc., played a major role. Various in-kind duties became widespread, such as recruiting, billeting (apartment duty) and submarine duties, according to which peasants had to provide stationed military units with food and feed grain. State peasants were also obliged to perform various types of work for the benefit of the state: transport mail and provide carts for transportation, take part in the construction of canals, harbors, and roads. Karamzin N. M. Traditions of the Ages. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - P.134.

Manipulations with small copper coins played a special role in replenishing treasury revenues. So, for example, the market price of one pound of copper was 7 rubles, but from this mass at the beginning of the 18th century 12 rubles worth of copper money was minted, and by 1718 - 40 rubles. The huge difference between the market price of copper and the denomination of copper coins led to their endless illegal counterfeits - “thieves' money”, rising prices and depreciation of money, impoverishment of the population.

The main budget item was military expenditures. For example, the military campaigns of Peter I absorbed approximately 80-85% of all Russian income, and in 1705 they cost 96%. During the period of Peter's reforms, systematically

expenses increased on the state apparatus, on the construction of St. Petersburg and palaces around it, on various ceremonial events on the occasion of military victories - “victories”, magnificent festivities, etc. The constantly growing budget deficit in the 18th century began to be increasingly covered by inflation, and also government loans, especially after the death of Peter I.

To streamline and strictly centralize the financial system, the highest state bodies were created in 1719-1721: the Chamber Board - to manage the country's income, the State Board - to manage expenses, the Board of Revision - to control the financial system as a whole. All this was done in contrast to the previous system, when each order had its own sources of income. Karamzin N. M. Traditions of the Ages. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - P.135.

5. Military reform Peter 1

One of the most significant transformations of Peter I should be called the military reform, which made it possible to bring the Russian army closer to European standards of that time.

At the end of the 17th century, Peter I disbanded the Streltsy troops not so much because of their military insolvency, but for political reasons, since the Streltsy for the most part supported the forces opposing Peter. As a result, the king was left without an army. Regiments hastily formed in 1699-1700 under the leadership of foreign officers in the battles near Narva showed a complete inability to resist the Swedes. With the help of his comrades in the “amusing troops,” Peter energetically began recruiting and training a new army. And already in 1708-1709 it showed itself at the level of the armies of any European country.

First of all, the previous principle of forming an army by random soldiers from walkers, hunters, dating people, etc. was abolished. For the first time in Russia, a regular army was created on the basis of conscription, which had been established since 1705. In total, until 1725, 53 recruitments were carried out, according to which more than 280 thousand people were mobilized into the army and navy. Initially, one recruit was taken into the army from 20 households, and from 1724 they began to be recruited in accordance with the principles underlying the poll tax. Recruits underwent military training, received uniforms and weapons, whereas until the 18th century, warriors - both nobles and peasants - had to report for service in full equipment. Gumilev L.N. From Rus' to Russia. Essays on Russian history. - M.: Logos, 1999. - P.244.

Peter I almost did not use the principle of a mercenary army from among foreigners, which was widespread in Europe. He preferred national armed forces. It is interesting that in relation to recruits it was established next rule: if the recruit was a serf, he automatically became free, and then his children born after liberation also became free.

The Russian field army consisted of infantry, grenadier, and cavalry regiments. The emperor received special attention from two regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, created by Peter in Moscow in early years, during the struggle for the throne, and later transformed into the palace guard. All nobles had to carry military service from soldier's rank. Thus, according to the decree of 1714, it was forbidden to promote as officers those nobles who had not completed military service in the guards regiments, which not all noble children liked. The most capable young nobles were sent to study (especially maritime affairs) abroad.

Officers were trained in military schools founded in 1698-1699 - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). By decree of Peter in the early 1720s, 50 garrison schools were founded to train non-commissioned officers. Timoshina T.M. Economic history of Russia: Textbook / Ed. prof. M.N. Chepurina. -8th ed. Erase. - M.: Legal House "Justitsinform", 2002. - P.80.

Peter I paid special attention to the fleet. At the end of the 17th century, ships were built in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk. In 1704, the Admiralty and shipyards were founded in St. Petersburg, where the construction of naval ships moved. At the Admiralty Shipyard, where at the same time

Up to 10 thousand people worked; from 1706 to 1725, about 60 large and more than 200 small ships were built for the Baltic Fleet. Sailors for the fleet were also recruited through conscription. By the mid-1720s, the navy consisted of 48 battleships and about 800 galleys and other ships, on which about 28 thousand crew members served. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow, located in the famous Sukharev Tower, where naval officers were trained. Timoshina T.M. Decree. Op. - P.81.

Conclusion

It is very difficult to evaluate all the transformations of Peter I. These reforms are very controversial in nature, they cannot be given an unambiguous assessment. The most important thing is that for the first time after the baptism of Rus', Peter I made an energetic attempt to bring the country closer to European civilization.

Peter I constantly emphasized that Russia should no longer remain closed to world economic processes if it does not want to continue to lag behind in socio-economic development and gradually fall into heavy colonial dependence on advanced Western countries, as happened with many Asian states that were unable to end traditionalism. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia managed to take its rightful place in the system of European states. It has become a great power with an efficient economy, a powerful army and navy, and highly developed science and culture.

Carrying out reforms in Russia, Peter strove for an ideal state based on fair and rational laws, but this turned out to be a utopia. In practice, a police state was created in the country without any institutions of social control.

Adopting advanced technologies, scientific, military and other achievements from the West, Peter did not seem to notice the development of humanist ideas there, much less wanting to introduce them to Russian soil. It was under Peter that the serfdom of the peasants increased, due to which the tsar’s reform activities mainly took place, since there were almost no other sources of economic growth in the country. The burdens of the reforms, which fell on the shoulders of the peasants and urban population, were more than once the causes of major popular uprisings in Central Russia, the Volga region, in Ukraine and on the Don, for example, the uprising of the Cossacks under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin in 1707-1708, brutally suppressed by the tsarist authorities.

Listliterature

Gumilev L.N. From Rus' to Russia. Essays on Russian history. - M.: Logos, 1999. - 674 p.

Zuev M.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. Tutorial. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 896 p.

Isaev I.A. History of state and law of Russia: Textbook. for universities for special purposes and the direction “Jurisprudence” / Moscow. state legal acad. - M.: Yurist, 1998. - 768 p.

Karamzin N.M. Legends of centuries. - M.: Knowledge, 1988. - 659 p.

Kargalov V.V., Savelyev Yu.S., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. - M.: Russian word, 2001. - 577 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. New Russian history. Lecture course. - M., 1888. - 542 p.

Kolomiets A.G. The history of homeland. - M.: BEK, 2002. - 745 p.

Livshchits A.Ya. Economic reform in Russia and its price. - M.: Prospekt, 2001.- 432 p.

Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1990. - 304 p.

Platonov S.F. Lectures on Russian history. - M.: graduate School, 2001. - 600 p.

Pushkarev SG. Review of Russian history. - M.: Yurist, 2002. - 642 p.

Smirnov I.I. Political history of Russia. - M.: Os-89, 1999. - 318 p.

Timoshina T.M. Economic history of Russia: Textbook / Ed. Prof. M.N. Chepurin.-8th ed. Erase. - M.: Legal House "Justitsinform", 2002. - 416 p.

Reader on the history of state and law of Russia. / Ed. Chibiryaeva S.A. - M: Bylina, 2000. - 524 p.

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