If you are going to go to Greece and do not want to be completely dependent on a Russian-speaking guide, then you need to know at least an intermediate level of English. And if you want to try to travel around Greece on your own, visiting non-tourist places, if you want to experience the real Greece in the countryside and on the seaside, then here you need to learn Greek at least at the very basic level and learn to read at least the simplest inscriptions.

By the way, you may remember some letters of the Greek language from school, from physics or mathematics lessons, where “alphas”, “nu”, “pi” and “omegas” were used to denote different physical and mathematical quantities.

Greek language: alphabet, pronunciation

For a Russian-speaking person, Greek is quite simple to read, the eye gets used to writing letters quite easily, and the brain easily begins to put letters into words. The thing is that the Slavic writing originates precisely from Byzantium, from the Greek language, therefore some letters are very reminiscent of Russian ones. In addition, in Greece they both hear and write, so knowing the alphabet and some simple words and phrases, you can already communicate and read the inscriptions.

The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, the table below shows the names of the letters and how they are read:

The purpose of some establishments can be identified by identification pictures. Such pictures on showcases or signboards indicate hairdressing salons, cafes, and restrooms. By the way, often in Greece the toilet is designated in the international format - WC.

We will present the basic phrases in Greek for oral communication immediately in the form of transcription (pronunciation).

In principle, both hotels and restaurants in Greece will understand you, even if you contact them on English language... And many hotels also have Russian-speaking staff. But even if you learn at least a few words and phrases in Greek (welcome, thank you, please) and use them when communicating with the locals, you will give them great pleasure. As a result, the already hospitable Greeks will become even more hospitable and benevolent to you.

Icons from Athos.

Monastery of St. Dionysius

Starting its way from the town of Litochoro and climbing up towards the peaks of Olympus, at a distance of 18 km, at an altitude of 850 m above sea level, the historical Sacred Monastery of St. not criminal Enipeas gorge, representing a monument of rare architecture and aesthetic beauty, which is under protection.

Greek army.

Halkidiki. Sithonia. Nikiti.

The tourist infrastructure in Nikiti is at a high level. Comfortable and modern hotels in Greece will give you an unforgettable stay. Restaurants and small colorful cafes offer their visitors Mediterranean cuisine, National dishes and seafood dishes according to unique recipes known only to local chefs. Holidays in Greece are, of course, tasting light and unique wines made from local grapes.

Greece. about Crete.

Crete is a place where there is definitely something to see! Locals honor their customs and traditions, and therefore will help you to feel the spirit of this people. Local oils and wines traditional dishes, dancing in pubs until the morning, fields dotted with bushes of olives and grapes, and, of course, a breathtaking serpentine lined over the mountains - all this is Crete!

In the Greek phrasebook for tourists, we have included only those words and phrases that do not require informative answers.
What is the point of learning the word-question “why?” If you cannot understand what is being answered? Although we still left this word. What if you want to listen to Greek speech.

Our phrasebook is not for conversations and information, it is for establishing contact, for creating a pleasant mood for ourselves and others. Others are the neighbors in the hotel, the owner or hostess of the hotel, the receptionist, just nice people with whom you go to the beach at the same time.

V Greek phrasebook for tourists we have included words and phrases we used ourselves. It was a pleasure for us to pronounce them. In the end, ask "how much is it worth?" or saying “yes, that” when they show you souvenirs on the counter is much more pleasant than shaking your head and getting angry that you are not understood.

Local residents are always positive towards tourists and guests. Their income depends on us. But even they are trying to quickly get rid of the slow-witted arrogant tourist who turns his head in displeasure, rolls his eyes (oh, Lord, how stupid these locals are! does not understand!)

Such an aggressive demeanor is characteristic of insecure people who are not ready to understand that sign language and a couple of pre-learned phrases open the doors of the hearts of even a simple peasant woman selling melons in her field.

We have noticed more than once that it is worth saying a few words, admiring the nature around, laughing with them, and some colorful old peasant woman with a cigarette in the corner of her mouth, stern from wrinkles drawn by the sun, spreads into a smile, takes out all her goods. She immediately offers to drink, take a bite, try, and at the end, like her own grandmother before her granddaughter's departure, she puts a couple of peaches, melon and oranges into her bag - they will come in handy!

Communication is a great thing. A couple of words + a smile creates a great mood for the whole day and a desire to do something pleasant. In response, we have repeatedly tried to give something of ours. It's nice, honestly. Recommended.

Greetings, Farewells, Acquaintance, Appeals

Consent, refusal, requests, gratitude, necessity

Language barrier, timing

It is worth knowing simple words in a hotel - key, luggage, suitcase, tomorrow, today. Especially the key. "Key, please) Thank you)" What's easier? And in response, they may show you a point of interest or advise a map of the area that you did not notice.

Pick up a map, smack your lips and say "cafe" or "tavern"? And they will advise you on an excellent inexpensive place where the owners of the hotel like to visit themselves. Believe me, you will get pleasure: you will see the flavor and eat deliciously. Already someone who, but the Greeks know a lot about delicious food.

Pronouns and adverbs

Signs, names, warnings, institutions, organizations

Seeking help from the police

Rather for fun than business, numbers are needed. It is easier to write them down in a notebook or with a stick in the sand to rewrite them in a notebook. The store has a calculator and a scoreboard at the checkout. Let them be for general development.

The Greek language is beautiful. Many words are clear. Especially written ones. The relationship of the alphabets is felt. In addition, many letters have been known to us from school days from the lessons of geometry, algebra and physics.

This is a YouTube with an alphabet. You will learn the pronunciation of the letters, remember the letters themselves. Convenient in the language is that "as it is heard, so it is written." By repeating the letters, you can read the simplest signs on the street. Sometimes you need it. Once we confused a shop on a field road with a cafe. It happens.

Watch the lesson and read the Greek tourist phrasebook.

Food, names of dishes require a separate story. More on that later.

58 important words to help you understand the ancient Greeks

Prepared by Oksana Kulishova, Ekaterina Shumilina, Vladimir Fayer, Alena Chepel, Elizaveta Shcherbakova, Tatiana Ilyina, Nina Almazova, Ksenia Danilochkina

Random word

Agon ἀγών

In the broadest sense of the word, agon in ancient Greece was called any competition, dispute. Most often, sports were held (athletic competitions, horse races or chariot races), as well as musical and poetry competitions in urban areas.

Chariot Races. Fragment of painting of a Panathenaic amphora. Around 520 BC NS.

Metropolitan Museum of Art

In addition, the word "agon" was used in a narrower sense: in ancient Greek drama, especially in ancient Attic, this was the name of a part of a play during which a dispute between characters took place on the stage. Agon could unfold either between and or between two actors and two half chorias, each supporting the point of view of the antagonist or protagonist. Such an agon is, for example, the dispute between the poets Aeschylus and Euripides in the afterlife in Aristophanes' comedy "The Frogs".

In classical Athens, agon was an important component not only of the theatrical competition, but also of the debate about the structure of the universe that took place in. The structure of many of Plato's philosophical dialogues, where opposing views of the symposium participants (mainly Socrates and his opponents) collide, resembles the structure of theatrical agon.

Ancient Greek culture is often called “agonal”, as it is believed that the “spirit of competition” in Ancient Greece permeated all spheres of human activity: agonality was present in politics, on the battlefield, in court, and shaped everyday life. The first to introduce this term in the 19th century was the scientist Jacob Burckhardt, who believed that it was customary for the Greeks to hold competitions in everything that included the possibility of struggle. Agonality really permeated all spheres of life of the ancient Greek, but it is important to understand that not everyone: initially, agon was an important part of the life of the Greek aristocracy, and commoners could not participate in the competition. Therefore, Friedrich Nietzsche called agon the highest achievement of the aristocratic spirit.

Agora and agora ἀγορά
Agora in Athens. Lithography. Around 1880

Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

The Athenians chose special officials - Agoranoms (market keepers), who kept order in the square, collected trade duties from, levied fines for improper trade; they also obeyed the market police, which consisted of slaves. There were also posts of metronomes, whose duty was to monitor the accuracy of weights and measures, and sitofilaks, who oversaw the grain trade.

Acropolis ἀκρόπολις
Acropolis of Athens at the beginning of the 20th century

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Translated from the ancient Greek akropolis - "upper city". This is a fortified part of an ancient Greek city, which, as a rule, was located on a hill and originally served as a refuge during wartime. On the acropolis there were city shrines, temples - the patrons of the city, and the city treasury was often kept.

Symbol ancient greek culture and history became the Athenian Acropolis. Its founder, according to mythological tradition, was the first king of Athens, Kekrop. The active development of the Acropolis as the center of the religious life of the city was carried out during the time of Peisistratus in the 6th century BC. NS. In 480 it was destroyed by the Persians who captured Athens. In the middle of the 5th century BC. e., under the policy of Pericles, the Athenian Acropolis was rebuilt according to a single plan.

One could climb the Acropolis by a wide marble staircase that led to the propylaea - the main entrance built by the architect Mnesicles. Above, there was a view of the Parthenon - the temple of Athena the Virgin (created by architects Iktin and Callicrates). In the central part of the temple there was a 12-meter statue of Athena Parthenos, made by Phidias from gold and Ivory; its appearance is known to us only from descriptions and later imitations. But the sculptural decorations of the Parthenon have survived, a significant part of which in early XIX The British ambassador to Constantinople, Lord Elgin, took them out for centuries - and they are now kept in the British Museum.

On the Acropolis there was also the temple of Nika Apteros - the Wingless Victory (devoid of wings, she should always remain with the Athenians), the Erechtheion temple (with the famous portico of the Caryatids), which included several independent sanctuaries to various deities, as well as other structures.

The Acropolis of Athens, badly damaged during the numerous wars of the following centuries, was restored as a result of restoration work that began at the end of the 19th century and especially intensified in the last decades of the 20th century.

Actor ὑποκριτής
A scene from Euripides' tragedy "Medea". Fragment of painting of a red-figure crater. 5th century BC NS.

Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

In an ancient Greek play, lines were divided between three or two actors. This rule was violated and the number of actors could go up to five. It was believed that the first role was the most important, and only the actor who played the first role, the protagonist, could receive payment from the state and participate in the competition for the acting prize. The word "tritagonist", denoting the third actor, was given the meaning of "third-rate" and was used almost as a curse. Actors, like poets, were strictly divided into comic and.

Initially, only one actor was involved in the plays - and that was the playwright himself. According to legend, Aeschylus brought in a second actor, and Sophocles was the first to refuse to play in his tragedies - because his voice was too weak. Since all roles in ancient Greek were performed in, the skill of the actor primarily consisted in the art of controlling voice and speech. The actor also had to sing well in order to perform solo arias in tragedies. The separation of actors into a separate profession was completed by the 4th century BC. NS.

In the IV-III centuries BC. NS. there were acting troupes, which were named "artisans of Dionysus." Formally, they were considered religious organizations dedicated to the god of the theater. These included, in addition to actors, dressers, mask makers and dancers. The leaders of such troupes could achieve a high position in society.

The Greek word for actor (hypokrites) in the new European languages ​​acquired the meaning of "hypocrite" (for example, the English word hypocrite).

Apotrope ἀποτρόπαιος

Apotrope (from the ancient Greek verb apotrepo - "to turn away") is a talisman that should ward off the evil eye and damage. Such a talisman can be an image, an amulet, or it can be a ritual or gesture. For example, a kind of apotropic magic that protects a person from harm is the triple tapping on wood, which is familiar to many.

Gorgonion. Fragment of painting of a black-figure vase. End of the 6th century BC NS.

Wikimedia Commons

Among the ancient Greeks, the most popular apotropic sign was the image of the head of the gorgon Medusa with bulging eyes, protruding tongue and fangs: it was believed that a terrible face would scare away evil spirits. This image was called "Gorgoneion", and it was, for example, an indispensable attribute of the shield of Athena.

The name could perform the functions of a talisman: children were given “bad”, from our point of view, abusive names, since it was believed that this would make them unattractive to evil spirits and ward off the evil eye. So, Greek name Eshros comes from the adjective aiskhros - "ugly", "ugly". Apotropic names were characteristic not only of ancient culture: probably the Slavic name Nekras (from which the common surname Nekrasov comes) was also an apotropic.

Abusive iambic poetry - the ritual abuse from which the ancient Attic comedy grew - also performed an apotropic function: to ward off troubles from those whom it calls last words.

the God θεóς
Eros and Psyche in front of the Olympic gods. Drawing by Andrea Schiavone. Around 1540-1545

Metropolitan Museum of Art

The main gods of the ancient Greeks are called Olympian - by the name of Mount Olympus in Northern Greece, which was considered their habitat. We learn about the origin of the Olympian gods, their functions, relationships and customs from the earliest works of ancient literature - poems and Hesiod.

The Olympian gods belonged to the third generation of gods. First, Gaia-Earth and Uranus-Sky appeared from Chaos, which gave birth to the titans. One of them, Kron, overthrew his father, seized power, but fearing that children might threaten his throne, he swallowed his newborn offspring. His wife Rhea managed to save only the last baby - Zeus. Having matured, he overthrew Cronus and established himself on Olympus as the supreme deity, sharing power with his brothers: Poseidon became the ruler of the sea, and Hades - the underworld. The main Olympian gods were twelve, but their list in different parts of the Greek world could be different. Most often, in addition to the already named gods, the wife of Zeus, Hera, the patroness of marriage and family, as well as his children, was included in the Olympic pantheon: Apollo, the god of divination and patron saint of muses, Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, Athena, the patroness of crafts, Ares, the god of war, Hephaestus, the patron saint. blacksmithing and messenger of the gods of Hermes. They were also joined by the goddess of love Aphrodite, the goddess of fertility Demeter, Dionysus - the patron saint of winemaking and Hestia - the goddess of the hearth.

In addition to the main gods, the Greeks also revered nymphs, satyrs and other mythological creatures that inhabited the entire surrounding world - forests, rivers, mountains. The Greeks represented their gods as immortals, having the appearance of beautiful, physically perfect people, often living with the same feelings, passions and desires as ordinary mortals.

Bacchanalia βακχεíα

Bacchus, or Bacchus, is one of the names of Dionysus. The Greeks believed that he sent ritual madness to his followers, because of which they indulge in wild frenzied dances. The Greeks called this Dionysian ecstasy "bacchanalia" (bakkheia). There was also a Greek verb with the same root - bakkheuo, "bacchante", that is, to participate in the Dionysian sacraments.

Usually, women who were called "bacchantes" or "maenads" (from the word mania - madness) performed the bacchante. They united in religious communities - fias and went to the mountains. There they took off their shoes, loosened their hair and put on non-shaved - animal skins. The ceremonies took place at night by torchlight and were accompanied by shouts.

Heroes of myths often have close but conflicting relationships with gods. For example, the name Hercules means "the glory of Hera": Hera, the wife of Zeus and the queen of the gods, on the one hand, tormented Hercules all her life, because she was jealous of Zeus for Alcmene, but she also became an indirect reason for his glory. Hera sent madness to Hercules, because of which the hero killed his wife and children, and then, in order to atone for his guilt, was forced to follow the orders of his cousin Eurystheus - it was in the service of Eurystheus that Hercules performed his twelve labors.

Despite the dubious moral character, many Greek heroes, such as Hercules, Perseus and Achilles, were objects of worship: people brought them gifts, prayed for health. It is difficult to say what appeared earlier - myths about the hero's exploits or his cult, there is no consensus among scientists on this score, but the connection between heroic myths and cults is obvious. The cults of heroes differed from the cult of ancestors: people who worshiped this or that hero did not always trace their ancestry from him. Often the cult of the hero was tied to some ancient grave, the name of the buried in which was already forgotten: the tradition turned it into the grave of the hero, and rituals and began to be performed on it.

In some places, heroes quickly began to be revered at the state level: for example, the Athenians worshiped Theseus, who was considered the patron saint of the city; in Epidaurus there was the cult of Asclepius (originally a hero, the son of Apollo and a mortal woman, as a result of apotheosis - that is, deification - that became the god of healing), since it was believed that he was born there; in Olympia, in the Peloponnese, Pelop was revered as the founder (Peloponnese literally means "the island of Pelop"). The cult of Hercules was state at once in several.

Hybris ὕβρις

Hybrid translated from ancient Greek literally means "audacity", "out of the ordinary behavior." When a character in a myth displays a hybris in relation to, he certainly suffers punishment: the concept of "hybrid" reflects the Greek idea that human arrogance and pride always lead to disaster.

Hercules frees Prometheus. Fragment of painting of a black-figure vase. VII century BC NS.

Hybris and punishment for it are present, for example, in the myth of the titan Prometheus, who stole fire from Olympus and was chained to a rock for this, and about Sisyphus, who in the afterlife eternally rolls a heavy stone uphill for deceiving the gods (there are different versions of his hybrid, in the most common he cheated and chained the god of death Thanatos, so that people stopped dying for a while).

The element of hybrid is found in almost every Greek myth and is an integral part of the behavior of heroes and: the tragic hero must go through several emotional stages: koros (koros - "excess", "satiety"), hybrid and ate (ate - "madness", "grief" ).

We can say that without a hybrid there is no hero: going beyond what is permissible is the main act of a heroic character. The duality of the Greek myth and the Greek tragedy lies precisely in the fact that the hero's feat and his punished insolence are often the same thing.

The second meaning of the word "hybrid" is recorded in legal practice. In the Athenian court, the hybrid was defined as "an attack on the Athenians." Hybris included any form of violence and border crossing, as well as an unholy attitude towards deities.

Gymnasium γυμνάσιον
Athletes in the gymnasium. Athens, VI century BC NS.

Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

This was originally the name given to exercise spots where young men prepared for military service and sports, which were an indispensable attribute of most of the public. But pretty soon the gymnasiums turned into real training centers, where physical education was combined with education and intellectual communication. Gradually, some of the gymnasia (especially in Athens under the influence of Plato, Aristotle, Antisthenes and others) became, in fact, the prototypes of universities.

The word "gymnasium", apparently, comes from the ancient Greek gymnos - "naked", as they trained in the gymnasiums naked. In ancient Greek culture, the athletic male body was perceived as aesthetically pleasing; physical activities were considered acceptable, gymnasiums were under their patronage (primarily Hercules and Hermes) and were often located next to sanctuaries.

At first, the gymnasiums were simple courtyards, surrounded by porticoes, but over time grew into whole complexes of covered premises (in which there were changing rooms, baths, etc.), united by an inner courtyard. Gymnasiums were an important part of the ancient Greeks' way of life and were a matter of state concern; supervision over them was entrusted to a special official - the gymnasium.

Citizen πολίτης

A member of the community who possessed the full range of political, legal and other rights was considered a citizen. We owe the ancient Greeks the development of the very concept of "citizen" (in the ancient Eastern monarchies there were only "subjects" whose rights could be infringed upon by the ruler at any time).

In Athens, where the concept of citizenship was especially well developed in political thought, by a full citizen, according to the law passed under Pericles in the middle of the 5th century BC. e., there could only be a man (although the concept of citizenship with various restrictions extended to women), a resident of Attica, the son of Athenian citizens. His name, upon reaching eighteen years of age and after a thorough verification of origin, was entered into the list of citizens, which was maintained by. However, in fact, the entirety of the rights of the Athenian received after the end of the service.

An Athenian citizen had rights and obligations closely related to each other, the most important of which were the following:

- the right to liberty and personal independence;

- the right to own a piece of land - associated with the obligation to cultivate it, since the community endowed each of its members with land so that he could feed himself and his family;

- the right to participate in the militia, while protecting a loved one with a weapon in his hands was also the duty of a citizen;

Athenian citizens treasured their privileges, so it was very difficult to obtain citizenship: it was given only in exceptional cases, for some special services to the policy.

Homer Ὅμηρος
Homer (center) on Raphael's fresco "Parnassus". Vatican, 1511

Wikimedia Commons

They joke that the Iliad was not written by Homer, but by “another blind ancient Greek”. According to Herodotus, the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey lived “not earlier than 400 years before me,” that is, in the 8th or even the 9th century BC. NS. The German philologist Friedrich August Wolf in 1795 argued that Homeric poems were created later, already in the written era, from scattered folk tales. It turned out that Homer is a conventional legendary figure like the Slavic Boyan, and the real author of masterpieces is a completely different ancient Greek, an editor-compiler from Athens at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC. NS. The customer could be Pisistratus, who arranged singers at the Athenian holidays to the envy of others. The problem of authorship of the Iliad and the Odyssey was called the Homeric question, and the followers of Wolf, who sought to isolate heterogeneous elements in these poems, were called analysts.

The era of speculative theories about Homer ended in the 1930s, when the American philologist Milman Parry organized an expedition to compare the Iliad and Odyssey with the epic of Bosnian storytellers. It turned out that the art of illiterate Balkan singers is built on improvisation: the poem is created anew every time and is never repeated verbatim. Improvisation is made possible by formulas - repetitive combinations that can be slightly modified on the fly, adapting to a changing context. Perry and his student Albert Lord proved that the formula structures of the Homeric text are very similar to the Balkan material, which means that the Iliad and Odyssey should be considered oral poems that were dictated at the dawn of the invention of the Greek alphabet by one or two improvisational storytellers.

Greek
language ἑλληνικὴ γλῶσσα

It is believed that the Greek language is much more difficult than Latin. This is true if only because it splits into several dialects (from five to a dozen - depending on the purposes of the classification). Some (Mycenaean and Arcadian Cypriot) works of art have not survived - they are known by inscriptions. The dialect, on the contrary, was never spoken: it was an artificial language of storytellers, combining the features of several regional variants of Greek at once. Other dialects in their literary dimension were also tied to genres and. For example, the poet Pindar, whose native dialect was Aeolian, wrote his works in the Dorian dialect. The recipients of his songs-praises were winners from different parts of Greece, but their dialect, like his own, did not influence the language of the works.

Dem δῆμος
Plates with full names citizens of Athens and the indication of the deme. IV century BC NS.

Wikimedia Commons

Demom in ancient Greece was called a territorial district, and sometimes the inhabitants who lived there. At the end of the VI century BC. e., after the reforms of the Athenian statesman Cleisthenes, the dem became the most important economic, political and administrative unit in Attica. It is believed that the number of demos under Cleisthenes reached a hundred, and later increased significantly. Demos varied in population; the largest Attic demes were Acharns and Eleusis.

The Canon of Polykleitos dominated Greek art for about a hundred years. At the end of the 5th century BC. e., after the war with Sparta and the plague epidemic, a new attitude to the world was born - it ceased to seem so simple and clear. Then the figures created by Polycletus began to seem too heavy, and the refined, individualistic works of the sculptors Praxiteles and Lysippos came to replace the universal canon.

In the era of Hellenism (IV-I centuries BC), with the formation of the idea of ​​art in the 5th century BC. NS. as about ideal, classical antiquity, the word "canon" began to mean, in principle, any set of immutable norms and rules.

Katarsis κάθαρσις

This term comes from the Greek verb kathairo ("to cleanse") and is one of the most important, yet controversial and difficult to understand, terms of Aristotelian aesthetics. Traditionally, it is believed that Aristotle sees the goal of the Greek precisely in catharsis, while he mentions this concept in the Poetics only once and does not give it any formal definition: according to Aristotle, tragedy "with the help of compassion and fear" realizes "catharsis ( purification) of such affects. " Researchers and commentators have been fighting this short phrase: under affects Aristotle means fear and compassion, but what does “purification” mean? Some believe that it comes about the purification of the affects themselves, others - about the purification of the soul from them.

Those who believe that catharsis is the purification of affects explain that the viewer who experienced catharsis at the end of the tragedy feels relief (and pleasure), as the fear and compassion experienced are purged of the pain they inevitably bring. The most important objection to this interpretation is that fear and compassion are painful in nature, so pain cannot contain their "impurity."

Another - and perhaps the most influential - interpretation of catharsis belongs to the German classical philologist Jacob Bernays (1824-1881). He drew attention to the fact that the concept of "catharsis" is most often found in ancient medical literature and means cleansing in the physiological sense, that is, getting rid of pathogenic substances in the body. Thus, for Aristotle, catharsis is a medical metaphor, apparently of a psychotherapeutic nature, and it is not about cleansing fear and compassion itself, but about cleansing the soul from these experiences. In addition, Bernays found another mention of catharsis in Aristotle - in Politics. There we are talking about a medical cleansing effect: sacred chants heal people prone to extreme religious excitement. Here the principle is akin to the homeopathic one: people prone to strong affects (for example, fear) are healed by experiencing these affects in small safe doses - for example, in where they can feel fear, being completely safe.

Ceramics κεραμικός

The word "pottery" comes from the ancient Greek keramos (river clay). This was the name of clay products made under the influence of high temperature followed by cooling: vessels (made by hand or on potter's wheel), flat painted or embossed ceramic slabs, with which the walls of buildings, sculpture, stamps, seals and sinkers were faced.

Earthenware was used for storing and eating food, as well as in rituals and; it was brought as a gift to temples and invested in burials. On many vessels, in addition to figural images, there are inscriptions scratched or applied with liquid clay - this could be the name of the owner, dedication to a deity, a trade mark or the signature of a potter and vase painter.

In the VI century BC. NS. most widespread received the so-called black-figure technique: the reddish surface of the vessel was painted with black varnish, and individual parts were scratched or tinted with white paint and purple. Around 530 BC NS. red-figure vessels spread: all the figures and ornaments on them were left in the color of clay, and the background around them was covered with black lacquer, which also made the inner drawing.

Since the ceramic vessels are very resistant to environmental influences due to the strong firing, tens of thousands of their fragments have survived. Therefore, ancient Greek ceramics are indispensable in establishing the age of archaeological finds. In addition, in their work, vase painters reproduced common mythological and historical plots, as well as genre and everyday scenes - which makes ceramics an important source on the history of everyday life and ideas of the ancient Greeks.

Comedy κωμῳδία
Comedy actor. Fragment of the painting of the crater. Around 350-325 BC NS. A crater is a vessel with a wide neck, two handles on the sides and a leg. Used to mix wine with water.

Metropolitan Museum of Art

The word "comedy" consists of two parts: komos ("merry procession") and ode ("song"). In Greece, this was the name of the genre of dramatic performances, between which took place in Athens at the annual in honor of Dionysus. The competition was attended by three to five comedians, each of whom presented one play. The most famous comic poets of Athens were Aristophanes, Cratinus and Eupolis.

The plot of the ancient Athenian comedy is a mixture of a fairy tale, obscene farce and political satire. The action usually takes place in Athens and / or in some fantastic place where the main character goes to implement his grandiose idea: for example, an Athenian flies on a huge dung beetle (a parody of Pegasus) to the sky to free and bring back the goddess of peace to the city (such a comedy was staged in the year when a truce was concluded in the Peloponnesian War); or the god of the theater Dionysus goes to the underworld and judges there the duel between the playwrights Aeschylus and Euripides - whose tragedies are parodied in the text.

The genre of ancient comedy has been compared to the culture of Karnaval, in which everything is upside down: women are involved in politics, seize the Acropolis ”and refuse to have sex, demanding an end to the war; Dionysus dresses up in the lion's skin of Hercules; the father instead of the son goes to study at Socrates; the gods send ambassadors to people to agree on the resumption of the interrupted. Jokes about genitals and faeces sit side by side with subtle allusions to the scientific ideas and intellectual debates of their time. Comedy laughs at everyday life, political, social and religious institutions, as well as literature, especially high style and symbolism. Comedy characters can be historical figures: politicians, generals, poets, philosophers, musicians, priests, in general any notable figures of Athenian society. The comic consists of twenty-four people and often depicts animals ("Birds", "Frogs"), personified natural phenomena ("Clouds", "Islands") or geographical objects ("Cities", "Demos").

In comedy, the so-called fourth wall is easily broken: performers on stage can come into direct contact with the audience. For this, in the middle of the play there is a special moment - the parabaza - when the choir, on behalf of the poet, addresses the audience and the jury, explaining why this comedy is the best and it is necessary to vote for it.

Space κόσμος

The word "space" among the ancient Greeks meant "creation", "world order", "universe", as well as "decoration", "beauty": space was opposed to chaos and was closely related to the idea of ​​harmony, orderliness and beauty.

The cosmos consists of the upper (heaven), middle (earth) and lower (underworld) worlds. live on Olympus - a mountain that in real geography is located in Northern Greece, but in mythology it often turns out to be a synonym for heaven. On Olympus, according to the Greeks, is the throne of Zeus, as well as the palaces of the gods, built and decorated by the god Hephaestus. There the gods spend their time enjoying feasts and eating nectar and ambrosia - the drink and food of the gods.

Oikumena - a part of the earth inhabited by man - at the borders of the inhabited world is washed on all sides by a single river Ocean. The center of the inhabited world is at Delphi, in the sanctuary of Apollo the Pythian; this place is marked with the sacred stone omphalus ("the navel of the earth") - to determine this point, Zeus sent two eagles from different parts of the earth, and they met there. Another myth was associated with the Delphic omphalus: Rhea gave this stone to Cronus, who devoured his offspring, instead of the baby Zeus, and it was Zeus who placed him in Delphi, thus marking the center of the earth. Mythological ideas about Delphi as the center of the world were reflected in the first geographical maps.

In the bowels of the earth there is a kingdom where the god Hades reigns (after his name the kingdom was called Hades) and the shadows of the dead dwell, over which the sons of Zeus, who are distinguished by special wisdom and justice, Minos, Eak and Radamant, rule.

The entrance to the underworld, guarded by the terrible three-headed dog Cerberus, is located in the far west, across the Ocean River. Several rivers flow in Aida itself. The most important among them are Lethe, whose waters give the souls of the dead the oblivion of their earthly life, Styx, the waters of which the gods swear, Acheron, through which Charon transports the souls of the dead, the "river of weeping" Kokit and the fiery Piriflegeton (or Phlegeton).

Mask πρόσωπον
Comedian Menander with comedy masks. Roman copy of an ancient Greek relief. 1st century BC NS.

Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

We know that in Ancient Greece they played in masks (in Greek prosopon - literally "face"), although the masks themselves from the 5th century BC. NS. none of the excavations was found. From the images on it can be assumed that the masks depicted human faces, distorted for the sake of a comic effect; in the comedies of Aristophanes "Wasps", "Birds" and "La Gushka" animal masks could be involved. By changing masks, an actor could appear on stage in different roles in the same play. The actors were only men, but the masks allowed them to play female roles.

The masks were shaped like helmets with holes for the eyes and mouth - so when the actor put on the mask, his entire head was hidden. Masks were made of light materials: starched linen, cork, leather; they came with wigs.

Meter μέτρον

Modern Russian versification is usually built on the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The Greek verse looked different: it alternated between long and short syllables. For example, dactyl was not the sequence "percussion - unstressed - unstressed", but "long - short - short". The first meaning of the word daktylos is “finger” (compare “fingerprinting”), and the index finger consists of one long phalanx and two shorter ones. The most common size-measure - a hexameter ("six-dimensional") - consisted of six dactyls. The main dimension of the drama was iambic - a two-syllable foot with a short first syllable and a long second. At the same time, replacements were possible in most sizes: for example, in a hexameter, instead of two short syllables, a long one was often found.

Mimesis μίμησις

The word "mimesis" (from the Greek verb mimeomai - "to imitate") is usually translated as "imitation", but this translation is not entirely correct; in most cases it would be more accurate to say not “imitation” or “imitation”, but “image” or “representation” - in particular, it is important that in most Greek texts the word “mimesis” does not have the negative connotation that the word “imitation” has ".

The concept of "mimesis" is usually associated with the aesthetic theories of Plato and Aristotle, but, apparently, it originally arose in the context of early Greek cosmological theories based on the parallelism of the microcosm and the macrocosm: it was assumed that processes in and processes in the human body are in mimetic relations of similarity. By the 5th century BC. NS. this concept is firmly rooted in the field of art and aesthetics - to such an extent that any educated Greek would most likely answer the question “What is a work of art?” - mimemata, that is, “images”. Nevertheless, it retained - in particular, in Plato and Aristotle - some metaphysical connotations.

In the dialogue "State" Plato argues that art should be expelled from ideal state- in particular, because it is based on mimesis. His first argument is that every object that exists in the sensible world is only an imperfect semblance of its ideal prototype in the world of ideas. Plato's reasoning is arranged as follows: the carpenter creates a bed, turning his gaze to the idea of ​​a bed; but every bed he makes will always be just an imperfect semblance of his ideal prototype. Therefore, any image of this bed - for example, a painting or sculpture - will be only an imperfect copy of an imperfect likeness. That is, art that imitates the sensible world further removes us from genuine knowledge (which can only be about ideas, but not about their similarities) and, therefore, does harm. Plato's second argument is that art (for example, ancient theater), through mimesis, makes viewers identify with the characters and sympathize with them. , also caused by not real event, but mimesis, stimulates the irrational part of the soul and takes the soul out of the control of the mind. Such an experience is harmful for the entire collective: Plato's ideal state is based on a rigid caste system, where the social role and occupation of each are strictly defined. The fact that in the theater the spectator identifies himself with different characters, often “socially alien”, undermines this system, where everyone should know their place.

Aristotle replied to Plato in the work "Poetics" (or "On the art of poetry"). First, a person like biological species by nature, it is prone to mimesis, therefore, art cannot be expelled from an ideal state - this would be violence against human nature. Mimesis is the most important way cognition and assimilation of the surrounding world: for example, with the help of mimesis in its simplest form, the child learns the language. The painful sensations experienced by the viewer during viewing lead to psychological relaxation and, therefore, have a psychotherapeutic effect. The emotions that art evokes also contribute to cognition: "poetry is more philosophical than history", since the former refers to universals, and the latter considers only special cases. So, a tragic poet, in order to believably portray his heroes and evoke emotions suitable for the occasion in the viewer, must always reflect on how this or that character would behave in certain circumstances; thus, tragedy is a reflection on human character and human nature in general. Consequently, one of the most important goals of mimetic art is intellectual: it is the study of human nature.

Mysteries μυστήρια

Mysteries are religious with rites of initiation or mystical connection with. They were also called orgies (orgia). The most famous mysteries - the Eleusinian - took place in the temple of Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis, near Athens.

The Eleusinian mysteries were associated with the myth of the goddess Demeter and her daughter Persephone, whom Hades took to the underworld and made his wife. The inconsolable Demeter achieved the return of her daughter - but temporary: Persephone spends part of the year on earth, and part in the underworld. The story of how Demeter, in search of Persephone, reached Eleusis and herself established the mysteries there, is detailed in the hymn to Demeter. Since the myth tells of a journey leading to and returning from there, the mysteries associated with it were supposed to provide the initiates with a more favorable afterlife fate than that which awaited the uninitiated:

“Happy are those of the earthly people who have seen the sacrament. / The one who is not involved in them, after death will not be forever / Share similar to have in the darkened kingdom of the underworld, ”- said in the hymn. What exactly is meant by “like share” is not very clear.

The main thing that is known about the Eleusinian Mysteries themselves is their secrecy: the initiates were strictly forbidden to divulge what exactly happened during the sacred actions. However, Aristotle tells something about the mysteries. According to him, the initiates, or mystai, "received experience" during the Mysteries. At the beginning of the ritual, the participants were somehow deprived of their ability to see. The word "myst" (literally "closed") can be understood as "with closed eyes" - perhaps the "experience" received was associated with the feeling of blindness and being in darkness. During the second stage of initiation, the participants were already called “epopts,” that is, “those who saw”.

The Eleusinian Mysteries were incredibly popular among the Greeks and attracted numerous devotees to Athens. In "The Frog" the god Dionysus meets the initiates in the underworld, who spend their time in blissful fun on the Champs Elysees.

Ancient music theory is well known from special treatises that have come down to us. Some of them also describe the notation system (which was owned only by a narrow circle of professionals). In addition, there are several monuments with musical notes. But, first, we are talking about short and often poorly preserved passages. Secondly, we lack a lot of details, necessary for performance, concerning intonation, tempo, method of sound production, accompaniment. Thirdly, the musical language itself has changed; certain melodic moves do not evoke in us the same associations that the Greeks have. Therefore, the existing musical fragments are hardly capable of resurrecting ancient Greek music as an aesthetic phenomenon.

Not a citizen Slaves collecting olives. Black-figure amphora. Attica, about 520 BC NS.

The Trustees of the British Museum

The basis of the order is a column standing on three foundation steps. Its trunk ends with a small capital supporting the entablature. The entablature consists of three parts: a stone beam - architrave; above it is a frieze decorated with sculpture or painting, and, finally, a cornice - an overhanging slab that protects the building from rain. The sizes of these parts are strictly coordinated with each other. The unit of measure is the radius of the column - therefore, knowing it, you can restore the dimensions of the entire temple.

According to myths, the simple and courageous Doric order was calculated by the architect Ion during the construction of the temple of Apollo the Panionian. The Ionian type, lighter in proportion, appeared at the end of the 7th - 6th century BC. NS. in Asia Minor. All elements of such a building are richly decorated, and the capital is decorated with spiral curls - volutes. The Corinthian order was first used in the temple of Apollo at Bassa (second half of the 5th century BC). A sad legend is associated with his invention about a nurse who brought a basket with her favorite things to the grave of her pupil. After a while, the basket sprouted with the leaves of a plant called acanthus. This view inspired the Athenian artist Kallimachus to create an ornate capital with floral decorations.

Ostracism ὀστρακισμός
Ostrakons for voting. Athens, circa 482 BC NS.

Wikimedia Commons

The word "ostracism" comes from the Greek ostrakon - shard, a shard used for writing. In classical Athens, this was the name for a special vote of the popular assembly, with the help of which a decision was made to expel a person who posed a threat to the foundations of the state system.

Most researchers believe that the law on ostracism was adopted in Athens under Cleisthenes - a statesman who in 508-507 BC. e., after the overthrow, carried out a number of reforms in the city. However, the first known act of ostracism occurred only in 487 BC. NS. - then Hipparchus, the son of Harm, a relative, was expelled from Athens.

Each year, the popular assembly decided whether to ostracize. If it was recognized that there was such a need, each voting participant arrived at a specially fenced part of the agora, where ten entrances led - one for each Athenian phylum (after the reforms of Cleisthenes in the 6th century BC, this was the name of the territorial districts) - and left there a shard brought with him, on which was written the name of the person whom, in his opinion, should have been sent into exile. The one who received the majority of votes was sent into exile for ten years. At the same time, his property was not confiscated, he was not deprived, but was temporarily excluded from political life (although sometimes the exile could be returned to his homeland ahead of schedule).

Initially, ostracism was intended to prevent the resurgence of tyrannical power, but it soon became a means of power struggle and eventually ceased to be used. The last time ostracism was carried out in 415 BC. NS. Then the rival politicians Nikias and Alcibiades managed to come to an agreement with each other and the demagogue Hyperbole was sent into exile.

Policy πόλις

The Greek polis could be relatively small in territory and population, although exceptions are known, for example, Athens or Sparta. The formation of the polis fell on the Archaic era (VIII-VI centuries BC), V century BC. NS. considered the heyday of the Greek city-states, and in the first half of the 4th century BC. NS. the classical Greek polis went through a crisis - which, however, did not prevent it from remaining one of the most important forms of organizing life in the future.

Holiday ἑορτή

All holidays in Ancient Greece were associated with worship. Most of the holidays were held on specific dates, which formed the basis of the calendar of the ancient Greeks.

In addition to local holidays, there were Panhellenic holidays common to all Greeks - they originated in the archaic era (that is, in the 8th-6th centuries BC) and played an important role in the formation of the idea of ​​common Greek unity, which in one form or another existed in throughout the history of independent Greece, despite the political independence of the poleis. All these holidays were accompanied by different kinds. The sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia (in the Peloponnese) was held every four years. In the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi (in Phocis), the Pythian Games were also held once every four years, the central event of which was the so-called music agons - competitions. In the area of ​​the Isthmian Isthmus, near Corinth, the Isthmian Games were held in honor of Poseidon and Melikert, and in the Nemean Valley in Argolis - the Nemean Games, at which Zeus was venerated; and both - every two years.

Prose πεζὸς λόγος

Initially, prose did not exist: only one type of artistic speech was opposed to the spoken language - poetry. However, with the emergence of writing in the VIII century BC. NS. narratives of distant countries or events of the past began to appear. Social conditions favored the development of eloquence: the speakers sought not only to convince, but also to please the audience. Already the first surviving books of historians and rhetoricians (The History of Herodotus and the speeches of Lysius of the 5th century BC) can be called fiction. Unfortunately, according to Russian translations, it is difficult to understand how aesthetically perfect were the philosophical dialogues of Plato or the historical works of Xenophon (IV century BC). Greek prose of this period is striking in its discrepancy with modern genres: there is no novel, no story, no sketch; however, later, in the era of Hellenism, an antique novel will appear. The general name for prose did not appear immediately: Dionysius of Halicarnassus in the 1st century BC. NS. uses the expression "pedestrian speech" - the adjective "pedestrian" could also mean "(most) ordinary."

Satirov's drama δρα̃μα σατυρικόν
Dionysus and the Satyr. Painting of a red-figure jug. Attica, around 430-420 BC NS.

Metropolitan Museum of Art

Dramatic genre, which consists of satyrs, mythological characters from the retinue of Dionysus. In the tragic competitions held on, each tragedian represented three, which ended with a short and funny satire play.

Sphinx Σφίγξ
Two sphinxes. Ceramic pixida. Around 590-570 BC NS. Pixida is a round box or box with a lid.

Metropolitan Museum of Art

We meet this mythological creature among many peoples, but his image was especially widespread in the beliefs and art of the ancient Egyptians. In ancient Greek mythology, the sphinx (or "sphinx", because the ancient Greek word "sphinx" is feminine) is the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, a monster with a woman's face and chest, the paws and body of a lion and the wings of a bird. Among the Greeks, the sphinx is most often a bloodthirsty monster.

Among the legends associated with the Sphinx, in antiquity, the myth about. The Sphinx lay in wait for travelers near Thebes in Boeotia, asked them an insoluble riddle and, without receiving an answer, killed them - according to different versions, either devoured or thrown off the cliff. The riddle of the Sphinx was as follows: "Who walks on four legs in the morning, on two in the afternoon, and on three in the evening?" Oedipus was able to give the correct answer to this riddle: this is a man who crawls in infancy, walks on two legs in his prime, and in old age leans on a stick. After that, as the myth tells, the Sphinx threw himself off a cliff and crashed to death.

The riddle and the ability to solve it are important attributes and frequent designations in ancient literature. This is exactly what the image of Oedipus turns out to be in ancient Greek mythology. Another example is the sayings of the Pythia, the servant of the famous Apollo at Delphi: the Delphic prophecies often contained riddles, hints and ambiguities, which, according to many ancient writers, are characteristic of the speech of the prophets and sages.

Theatre θέατρον
Theater at Epidaurus. Built around 360 BC NS.

According to some researchers, the rule to return money was introduced by the politician Pericles in the 5th century BC. e., others associate it with the name Agirriya and refer to the beginning of the 4th century BC. NS. In the middle of the 4th century, "entertainment money" constituted a special fund to which the state attached great importance: in Athens for some time there was a law on the death penalty for the proposal to use the money of the entertainment fund for other needs (it is associated with the name of Eubulus, who was in charge of this fund since 354 BC.).

Tyranny τυραννίς

The word "tyranny" is not of Greek origin; in the ancient tradition it was first encountered by the poet Archilochus in the 7th century BC. NS. This was the name of the one-man rule, established by an illegal and, as a rule, violent way.

For the first time tyranny arose among the Greeks during the formation of the Greek - this period was called the early, or older, tyranny (VII-V centuries BC). Some of the older tyrants became famous as eminent and wise rulers - and Periander of Corinth and Pisistratus of Athens were even named among "". But in the main, the ancient tradition has preserved evidence of the ambition, cruelty and arbitrariness of tyrants. Particularly noteworthy is the example of Falaris, the tyrant of Akragant, who is said to have roasted people in a copper bull as punishment. Tyrants cruelly dealt with the nobility, destroying its most active leaders - their rivals in the struggle for power.

The danger of tyranny - a regime of personal power - was soon understood by the Greek communities, and they got rid of the tyrants. Nevertheless, tyranny had an important historical significance: it weakened the aristocracy and thus made it easier for the demos to fight for further political life and the triumph of the principles of the polis.

In the 5th century BC. e., in the heyday of democracy, the attitude towards tyranny in Greek society was unequivocally negative. However, in the 4th century BC. e., in an era of new social upheavals, Greece experienced a revival of tyranny, which is called the late, or younger.

Tyrannicides τυραννοκτόνοι
Harmodius and Aristogiton. Fragment of painting of a red-figure jug. Attica, about 400 BC NS.

Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

The Athenian Harmodius and Aristogeiton were called tyranicides, who, prompted by a personal resentment, in 514 BC. NS. led a conspiracy to overthrow the Pisistratids (sons of the tyrant Pisistratus) Hippias and Hipparchus. They managed to kill only the youngest of the brothers - Hipparchus. Harmodius died right there at the hands of the bodyguards of the Pisistratids, and Aristogeiton was captured, tortured and executed.

In the 5th century BC. e., in the heyday of the Athenian, when anti-tyrannical sentiments were especially strong there, Harmodius and Aristogiton began to consider greatest heroes and surrounded their images with special honor. Statues made by the sculptor Antenor were installed for them, and their descendants received various privileges from the state. In 480 BC. e., during the Greco-Persian wars, when Athens was captured by the army of the Persian king Xerxes, the statues of Antenor were taken to Persia. Some time later, new ones were installed in their place, the works of Cretius and Nesiot, which have come down to us in Roman copies. The statues of the tyrant fighters are believed to have influenced the concept of the sculptural group Worker and Kolkhoz Woman, which belonged to the architect Boris Iofan; this sculpture was made by Vera Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

Tragedy τραγῳδία

The word "tragedy" consists of two parts: "goat" (tragos) and "song" (ode), why -. In Athens, this was the name of the genre of dramatic performances, between which competitions were held on other holidays. The festival, held in Dionysus, was attended by three tragic poets, each of whom had to present a tetralogy (three tragedies and one) - as a result, the audience watched nine tragedies in three days.

Most of the tragedies have not reached us - only their names and sometimes small fragments are known. Preserved full text seven tragedies of Aeschylus (he wrote about 60 of them in total), seven tragedies of Sophocles (out of 120) and nineteen tragedies of Euripides (out of 90). In addition to these three tragedians who entered the classical canon, about 30 other poets composed tragedies in 5th century Athens.

Tragedies in tetralogy were usually linked in meaning. The plots were based on the stories of the heroes of the mythical past, from which the most shocking episodes related to war, incest, cannibalism, murder and betrayal, often occurring within the same family, were selected: a wife kills her husband, and then her own son kills her (Oresteia Aeschylus), the son learns that he is married to his own mother ("King Oedipus" Sophocles), the mother kills her children to take revenge on her husband for treason ("Medea" Euripides). Poets experimented with myths: they added new characters, changed the storyline, introduced themes that were relevant to the Athenian society of their time.

All tragedies were necessarily written in verse. Some parts were sung as solo arias or lyric parts of the choir to the accompaniment, and could also be accompanied by dance. The maximum number on a scene in a tragedy is three. Each of them played several roles during the production, since there were usually more characters.

Phalanx φάλαγξ
Phalanx. Modern illustration

Wikimedia Commons

Phalanx is a battle formation of the ancient Greek infantry, which was a dense formation of heavily armed infantrymen - hoplites in several ranks (from 8 to 25).

The hoplites were the most important part of the ancient Greek militia. Full set The military equipment (panoplia) of the hoplites included an armor, helmet, greaves, round shield, spear, and sword. The hoplites fought in a closely-knit formation. The shield that each warrior of the phalanx held in his hand covered the left side of his body and right side warrior, standing next to, so that the most important condition for success was the coordination of actions and the integrity of the phalanx. The flanks were the most vulnerable in such a battle formation, so cavalry was placed on the wings of the phalanx.

The phalanx is believed to have appeared in Greece in the first half of the 7th century BC. NS. In the VI-V centuries BC. NS. the phalanx was the main battle formation among the ancient Greeks. In the middle of the 4th century BC. NS. King Philip II of Macedonia created the famous Macedonian phalanx, adding some innovations to it: he increased the number of ranks of the formation and adopted long spears - saris. Thanks to the successes of the army of his son Alexander the Great, the Macedonian phalanx was considered an invincible striking force.

Philosophical school σχολή

Any Athenian who had reached the age of twenty and had served could take part in the work of the Athenian ecclesia, including proposing laws and seeking their abolition. In Athens during its heyday, attendance at the popular assembly, as well as the execution of public office, was paid; the size of the payment changed, but it is known that in the time of Aristotle it was equal to the minimum daily wage. They usually voted with a show of hands or (less often) with special stones, and in case of ostracism - with shards.

Initially, popular meetings in Athens took place on, from the 5th century BC. NS. - on the Pnyx hill 400 meters southeast of the agora, and somewhere after 300 BC. NS. they were transferred to Dionysus.

Epos ἔπος

Speaking about the epic, we first of all remember the poems about and: "Iliad" and "Odyssey" or the poem about the campaign of the Argonauts Apollonius of Rhodes (III century BC). But along with the heroic epic there was a didactic one. The Greeks loved to clothe books with useful and informative content in the same sublimely poetic form. Hesiod wrote a poem about how to run a peasant economy ("Works and Days", VII century BC), Arat devoted his work to astronomy ("Phenomena", III century BC), Nikandr wrote about poisons (II century BC), and Oppian - about hunting and fishing (II-III centuries AD). These works strictly adhered to the Iliad and Odyssey - hexameter - and there were signs of Homer's poetic language, although some of their authors are millennia away from Homer.

Efeb ἔφηβος
Efeb with a hunting spear. Roman relief. Around A.D. 180 NS.

Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

After 305 BC. NS. the institute of ephebia was transformed: the service was no longer compulsory, and its term was reduced to a year. Now among the ephebes were mainly noble and wealthy young people.

See gratitude, causality that is in the mouth, then thank you, that is not in the mouth, then thank you ... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M .: Russian dictionaries, 1999. thank you (imperial, (pre) great, (pre) much), ... ... Synonym dictionary

THANKS- (God save me). 1. particle, to whom what, to whom what on what and without additional. Expression of gratitude. Thank you. Thanks for the favor. Thank you for that (about gratitude for something very small, insignificant). 2. in meaning. predicate, to whom what. ... ... Explanatory dictionary Ushakova

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THANKS- 1. Expresses gratitude. S. for the treat. S. for attention (formula for a polite conclusion of a report, speech). 2. in meaning. skaz., to whom (what). We must be grateful for what N. S. to the neighbor who helped. With the rain, there will be good shoots. 3. particle. ... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

thanks- THANKS, thank you, outdated. thanks, outdated. merci, colloquial thank you, colloquial. decrease thank you ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms for Russian speech

thanks- (Source: "Full accentuated paradigm according to A. A. Zaliznyak") ... Forms of words

thanks- God save Source: http://new.tvplus.dn.ua/?link=print/news/words/0079 ... Dictionary of abbreviations and acronyms

thanks- service., uptr. often 1. With a word of thanks express gratitude to someone for anything. Thank you so much. | Thanks for the help. | Thank you from all of us for the hospitality, for the treat. | Thanks a lot for the advice. 2. If someone speaks to whom ... ... Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary

thanks- I. particle. Expresses gratitude. S. for help. S. to you from all of us for the hospitality, for the treat. S., who replied to my letter. S. on a kind word (colloquial). S. for attention (the form of a polite conclusion of the speech, report, etc.). □ (with def. In Wed) ... encyclopedic Dictionary

THANKS- Give a hundred thanks to someone. Pribayk. Thanks to smb. SNFP, 122. Giving / giving thanks to someone. Arch., Kar., Novg., Perm., Pechor., Psk., Sib. Thanks to smb. AOC 10, 201; SRGK 4, 287; Nose 2, 73; SGPO, 128; SRGNP 1, 164; SRNG 7, 258; ... ... A large dictionary of Russian sayings

thanks- 1. particle. a) Expresses gratitude. Thanks for the help. Save / bo you from all of us for the hospitality, for the treat. S., who replied to my letter. Save / Bo on a kind word (colloquial) Save / Bo for attention (form of a polite conclusion of a speech, report and ... Dictionary of many expressions

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