• when replacing one phoneme with another, you get a different word (<д>om -<т>ohm);
• changing the order of phonemes will also result in a different word (<сон> - <нос>);
• when you remove a phoneme, you will also get another word (i.e.<р>he is the tone).

The term “phoneme” in a close modern sense was introduced by the Polish-Russian linguists N.V. Krushevsky and I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay who worked in Kazan (after Krushevsky’s early death, Baudouin pointed out its priority).

The phoneme as an abstract unit of language corresponds to the sound of speech as a concrete unit in which the phoneme is materially realized. Strictly speaking, speech sounds are infinitely varied; a sufficiently accurate physical analysis can show that one person never pronounces the same sound in the same way (for example, stressed [á]). However, while all these pronunciation options allow you to correctly recognize and distinguish words, the sound [á] in all its variants will be a realization of the same phoneme<а>.

Relationship between phoneme and meaning

A significant part of linguists (for example, representatives of the Prague Linguistic School, the Moscow Phonological School (MPS), as well as the founders of the term itself phoneme) believes that unstressed sound[a] (more precisely, [ʌ]), for example, in the first syllables of words weed, home is the implementation in speech of the phoneme<о>. Accordingly, in the first syllables of words herself, give the same sound [ʌ] is a realization of the phoneme<а>. According to this understanding, a phoneme is a generalization, an invariant of a series of alternating sounds:

• s[a]m - s[ʌ]ma - s[a]mostruk -<а>,

• d[o]m - d[ʌ]my - d[a]movoy -<о>,

and cannot be defined otherwise than through a significant unit of language - the morpheme, integral part which phoneme is. That is, without understanding the content of speech, the meaning of spoken words and parts of words, it is impossible to determine the phonemic composition of the language.

Where a sound can be a representative of different phonemes (s[ʌ]ma - from som and from myself), the belonging of a sound to a phoneme is determined by strong speech position(or positions of best discrimination) in a specific morpheme. For vowels in the Russian language, such a position is a stressed syllable, for consonants (according to deafness-voicing) - for example, the position before vowel sounds. If there is no sound form for a morpheme in which some phoneme is in strong position, in place of such a phoneme one assumes hyperphoneme or archphoneme(indicate all possible phonemes and enclose them in curly brackets): tr(a/o)mvay.

It is customary to enclose MFS phonemes in angle brackets:<г{а/о}лубой в{а/о}гон б’ежи{т/д} кач’аје{т/д}с’а>- phonemic Cyrillic transcription MFS.

Another understanding of the phoneme (a class of acoustically similar sounds, the identity of which is determined without knowledge of the content of speech) was developed by representatives of American descriptive linguistics, the methodology of which was developed in the analysis of little-known languages ​​(in particular, North American Indians) and appeal to the meaning of spoken speech was difficult (or limited) .

Representatives of the Leningrad Phonological School (LPS) recognize the connection between the phoneme and the meaning (they consider the phoneme to be a meaningful unit), but do not define phonemes through the identity of morphemes; According to this theory, in the series d[o]m - d[ʌ]moy there is an alternation of phonemes /o/ - /a/. It is customary to enclose LFS phonemes in forward slashes: /galuboy vagon b'izhyt kacáitsa/ - phonemic Cyrillic transcription of LFS.

Phoneme structure (distinctive features)

The description of the system of phonemes of a language is based on contrasts (oppositions) of phonemes according to distinctive features (voiced-voiced, hard-soft, etc.). We can say that a phoneme consists only of these features (“there is nothing in language but differences”). A phonological system is impossible without oppositions: if a language (for example, French) does not have the concept of soft consonant phonemes, then there are no hard consonant phonemes, although pronounced speech sounds can be regarded by speakers of another language (for example, Russian) as hard or soft.

Most often, however, distinctive features that do not affect the meaning are not recognized by native speakers. These are, for example, closed-open vowels in the Russian language: in words father-in-law([t’es’t’]) – test([test]) different vowel sounds, but we distinguish words father-in-law And test not by the closed-openness of the sound [e], but by the hardness-softness of the consonants. In Russian, open and closed vowels never occur in the same position (closed vowels are always only before soft consonants); There is not a single pair of words that differ only in the closed-open vowel; the closed-open vowel is only an accompanying sign of the softness-hardness of the consonant. In German, for example, the words Ähre – [’ὲ:rә] ( ear) and Ehre – [’é:rә] ( honor) differ only in the open-closedness of the first vowel sound (that is, this feature is semantically distinctive), therefore speakers German language clearly perceive differences in the closed-openness of vowel sounds.

Rules for identifying phonemes

Four rules derived by N. S. Trubetskoy for distinguishing phonemes from phoneme variants:

1) If in a particular language two sounds occur in the same position and can replace each other without changing the meaning of the word, then such sounds are optional variants of one phoneme.

At the same time, optional options are generally significant and individual, as well as stylistically significant and stylistically insignificant.

2) If two sounds occur in the same position and cannot replace each other without changing the meaning of the word or distorting it beyond recognition, then these sounds are phonetic realizations of two different phonemes.

3) If two acoustically (or articulatory) related sounds never occur in the same position, then they are combinatorial variants of the same phoneme.

4) Two sounds that satisfy the conditions of the third rule in all respects cannot, however, be considered variants of one phoneme if in a given language they can follow each other as members of a sound combination, and in a position in which one of these sounds can occur without the accompaniment of the other.

Thus, in Russian [ts] does not break up at the syllable boundary: face. At the same time, in Finnish and English languages the complex is necessarily divided: English. hot-spot"hot spot" or Finnish. it-se "himself".

4) A potentially single-phonemic group of sounds (that is, a group that satisfies the requirements of the previous three rules) should be considered a realization of one phoneme if it occurs in positions where, according to the rules of a given language, combinations of phonemes of a certain kind are unacceptable.

6) If a component of a potentially single-phonemic group of sounds cannot be interpreted as a combinatorial variant of any phoneme of a given language, then the entire group of sounds must be considered as a realization of one phoneme.

7) If one sound and a group of sounds that satisfy the above phonetic premises relate to each other as optional or combinatorial variants, and if the group of sounds is a realization of a group of phonemes, then one sound should be considered as a realization of the same group of phonemes.

Phoneme systems of some languages

Russian language

According to the St. Petersburg Phonological School, there are 43 phonemes in the Russian language ([a e i o u y p p" b b" m m" f f" v v" t t" d d" n n" s s" z z" r r "l l" w w җ c ch y k k "g g" x x"]). Sometimes [җ] (voiced equivalent [ш]) is not isolated as a separate phoneme, because it has practically fallen out of use in literary Russian; in this case, 42 phonemes remain.

The Moscow phonological school does not distinguish the phoneme [s], considering it equal to the phoneme [i]; there is also no distinction between hard and soft versions [k], [g] and [x]. In this case, there are 39 phonemes.

Abkhazian language

English language

The exact number of phonemes in English depends on the dialect and the criteria for distinguishing phonemes (distinguishing between phonemes and allophones), but most estimates agree on a number between 40 and 45. This is slightly above the average for the world's languages.

Quechua

In the southern dialects of this language (II-C) there are up to 28 phonemes (), as we move north, the phonemic composition begins to narrow, first due to the loss of ejective and aspirated consonants, and then uvular ones. Vowels are allophones, fricatives are allophones. In the southern dialects, the fricative [ʃ] is an allophone of [č], but in the central and northern dialects it forms a separate phoneme, partially corresponding to the southern ones. The possibility of reconstructing the general Quechuan phoneme composition is debatable.

see also

Notes

Literature

• Apresyan Yu. D., Ideas and methods of modern structural linguistics, M., 1966.
• Bulygina T.V., Prague Linguistic School, in the collection: Basic directions of structuralism, M., 1964.
• Her, Grammatical oppositions, in the book: Studies on general theory Grammar, M., 1968.
• Cantino J., Significative oppositions, in the collection: Principles of typological analysis of languages ​​of different systems, M., 1972.
• Kasevich V. B. Morphonology. L., 1986
• Kodzasov S. V., Krivnova O. F. General phonetics. M.: RSUH, 2001
• Kubryakova E. S., Pankrats Yu. G. Morphonology in the description of languages. M., 1983
• Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva, - M.: Sov. encyclopecia, 1990. - 685 pp.: ill. ISBN 5-85270-031-2
• Martinet A., Fundamentals of general linguistics, in the book: New in linguistics, v. 3, M., 1963.
• Reformatsky A. A. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970
• Tolstaya S. M. Morphonology in the structure of Slavic languages. M., 1998
• Trubetskoy N. S., Fundamentals of Phonology, M., 1960, ch. 1, 3-5.
• Churganova V. G. Essay on Russian morphonology. M.,

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See what “Phones” are in other dictionaries:

Phonemes- Verbally presented auditory hallucinations. They are the opposite of acoasmas - verbally unformed auditory hallucinations (noises, knocking, etc.) ... Dictionary psychiatric terms

Phonemes- – in psychopathology, elementary and simple speech deceptions of hearing in the form of certain phonemes, syllables and individual words (moans, screams, screams, groans, shouts, indistinct muttering, calls). Non-speech elementary deceptions of hearing are called acoasmas... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

Not to be confused with phoneme variation. Not to be confused with allophone. A variant of a phoneme in the teachings of the Moscow Phonological School (MPS): a modification of a phoneme determined by position (i.e., its variety, appearing in a phonological position, different ... ... Wikipedia

Not to be confused with phoneme variant. Variation of the phoneme in the teachings of the Moscow phonological school: a sound that is the realization of a phoneme (in other words, an allophone) in a significatively strong but perceptually weak phonological position is not ... ... Wikipedia

Phonemes- these are indivisible sound units of language that serve to construct word forms and to distinguish their sound type. So, each of the word forms ox, led(past tense verb lead), goal, angry(short form of adjective wicked, genus. p.m. part noun evil), stake, they say, chalk(past tense verb to sweep), floor, sat down(gender plural of noun village), walked(past tense verb go) differs from any other word form of this series by only one phoneme - respectively, the first consonants |в| - |in’| - |r| - |z| - |k| - |m| - |m’| - |p| - |s’| - |w|; the second and third phonemes of these word forms are the same: |o| and |l|. Word forms ox, shaft And howled(past tense verb howl) also differ in only one phoneme - the vowel: |o| - |a| - |and| (the latter in this case is represented in writing by the letter s). The difference in the composition of phonemes in word forms can be partial (as in the examples given) and complete, as, for example, in pairs of word forms chair - house, year - hour and so on.

A phoneme is a generalized sound unit of language, abstracted from all possible sounds appearing in its place in the stream of speech. For example, the vowel phoneme |a| is modified differently depending on which consonants it is adjacent to: for example, in the word form [s’at’] (spelling. sit down, led. incl. verb sit down) in contrast to [sat] (spelling. garden) phoneme |a| stands between two soft consonants and is therefore represented by a sound that is advanced forward and upward in its formation.

In Russian literary language 5 vowels and 37 consonant phonemes.

Vowels differ in the degree of tongue elevation and the presence or absence of labialization (bulge) (Table 1).

Consonants divided into sonorant and noisy. The sonorant ones include |m|, |m’|, |n|, |n’|, |l|, |l’|, |р|, |р’|, |j|, the rest are noisy. Sonorants are pronounced with the participation of the voice with the addition of slight noise. Noisy ones are pronounced with the participation of noise and voice (voiced) or only noise (voiceless).

Both sonorant and noisy consonants differ in the place of formation (depending on which organs are involved in articulation) and in the method of formation (Table 2).

Table 2 System of consonant phonemes

Method of education	Place of education
	Labial		Forelingual		Middle language	Rear lingual
	Labiolabial	Labiodental	Dental	Anteropalatal	Midpalatal	Postopalatines
Occlusive	|p| |b| |p’| |p’|		|t| |d| |t’| |d’|		|k’| |g’|	|k| |g|
Occlusive fricatives (affricates)			|ts|	|h|
Slotted		|f| |in| |f’| |in’|	|s| |z| |s’| |z’|	|w| |f| |w''| |w’’| |j|	|x'|	|x|
Nasals	|m| |m’|		|n| |n’|
Lateral			|l| |l’|
Trembling				|r| |p’|

Consonants are also divided into hard and soft, voiceless and voiced.

Paired in hardness - softness (i.e., differing only in this attribute) are the consonants: |п| - |p’|, |b| - |b’|, |t| - |t’|, |d| - |d’|, |f| - |f’|, |v| - |в’|, |с|- |с’|, |з| - |z’|, |m| - |m’|, |n| -|n’|, |l| - |l’|, |r| - |p’|, |k| - |k’|, |g| - |g’|, |x| - |x’|. Consonants unpaired according to this feature: |zh|, |sh|, |ts| (solid), |zh’’|, |w’’|, |h’|, |j| (soft).

Paired in deafness and voicedness are the consonants:, |п| - |b|, |p’| - |b’|, |t| - |d|, |t’| - |d’|, |f| - |v|, |f’| - |в’|, |с| - |z|, |s’| - |z’|, |w| - |zh|, |w’’| - |w’’|, |k| - |g|, |k’| - |g’|. Consonants unpaired according to this feature: all sonorant (voiced), |ts|, |ch|, |х|, |х’| (deaf).

Consonants |ш|, |ж|, |ш’’|, |ж’’| and |h| are combined into a group of sibilant phonemes, and the consonants |с|, |з|, |с'|, |з'| and |ts| - to the whistling group.

Consonants |sh’’| (“w long soft”) and |zh’’| (“zh long soft”), unlike all other consonants, are long (the consonant |zh’| is conveyed in writing by the combination LJ or zzh: reins, go, squeal; in word forms rain- combination railway: rain, rain).

The position of maximum differentiation (strong position) for vowel phonemes is the position under stress, and for consonant phonemes - the position before vowels. In other positions (weak) some phonemes are not distinguished. Thus, in unstressed syllables, as a rule, the phonemes |o| and |a|, and in the position after soft consonants - also |e| (cm. ); at the end of word forms and before voiceless consonants, paired voiced ones coincide with voiceless ones, and before voiced consonants, paired voiceless ones coincide with voiced ones (see), and therefore, in both cases they do not differ; in a number of positions before consonants, consonants paired by hardness and softness are not distinguished (see). The composition of phonemes appearing within a particular morph is revealed in those word forms where they appear in a strong position, cf.: [в^да] and [vody], where the vowel phoneme of the root is in a strong position; [l’ec] and [l’ésu] (Dan. singular part of a noun forest), [l’ezu] (1 l. unit of verb climb), where the final consonant of the root is in strong position.

Note. If in all possible word forms containing any morph, one or another phoneme within this morph remains in a weak position, then such a sound unit (vowel or consonant) is hyperphoneme. For example, in the word dog, the first vowel phoneme, represented phonetically only by the sound [l], is a hyperphoneme, appearing in the position of non-distinction of vowel phonemes |o| and |a|; in the word second, the first consonant phoneme, phonetically |f|, is a hyperphoneme located in the position of non-distinction of the consonant phonemes |f|, |f’|, |v| and |in’|.

The most important positional (phonetically determined) realizations of phonemes.

1. In unstressed syllables the vowels |е|, |о| and |a| modified (weakened) and in a number of positions do not differ (Table 3).
   

   Here [ые] is a non-front vowel, middle between [ы] and [е]; [^] - mid-low vowel, non-front, non-labialized; [ie] - front vowel, middle between [i] and [e]; [ъ] and [ь] are reduced vowels of the middle-low rise, non-labialized: [ъ] is a non-front vowel, [ь] is a front vowel. Examples:

   (1) [e]tika - [ye]túchesky, [e]export - [ye]export, [ó]sen - [^]senny, [ó]lovo - [^]lovyanny, [á]lt - [^ ]lie, [á]zbuka - [^]zbukovnik; (2) syn[e]tika - syn[ye]túchesky, ts[e]ny - ts[ye]ná, v[ó]dy - v[^]dá, d[a]r - d[^]rút , lit[á]r - lit[^]ry; (3) sh[e]st - sh[ye]stú, sh[o]lk - sh[ye]lká, zh[ó]ny - zh[ye]ná, zh[á]rko - zh[^]rá , sh[a]r - sh[^]ry; (4) [l’e]s ( forest) - [l’ie]sa, [v’ó]dra ( buckets) - [v’ie]dro, [p’a]t ( five) - [p’ie]tak; (5) t[e]mp - t[a]mpovoy (special), baby[e]y - insert[y], g[ó]rod - g[a]roda, cucumber[ó]m - hare [b]m, fright[á]t - frightened; (6) [b'e]reg ( shore) - [b’b]regovoy, [t’ó]many ( dark) - [t’b]mnováto, [p’a]t - [p’b]tachók ( patch), [nose ( carried) - you [n’y]si ( take it out), for[n’á]t ( take) - zá[n’t]you ( busy), tower[e] ( tower) - dacha [b] ( dacha), tsa[r’ó]m ( king) - state[r’a]m, kalanch[á] - dach[b] (dacha), tsa[r’a] ( king) - state [р’ъ] ( sovereign) ([ъ] is pronounced in place of |а| only at the end of words).

   
   

   Thus, in all unstressed positions (except for the position of the first pre-stressed syllable after |ж|, |ш|) the vowels |о| and |a| do not differ. This phenomenon is called akanism.

2. After hard consonants, the vowel |i| changes into the sound of the middle row [s]: igrá - play along [y]gre; idea - without[y]action.

Voiced paired consonants in positions at the end of the word form and before voiceless consonants are deafened: du[b]y - du[p], but[zh]ú - but[sh], lá[v]ok (gen. plural. ) - lá[f]ka, po[d]throw - po[t]write.

Note. In a word God consonant |g| stunned in [x]: bo[x].

Voiceless paired consonants in positions before voiced ones (except for [v], [v'] and sonorant ones) are voiced: ko[s']út - ko[z']ba, o[t]lozhút - o[d]brosit, [s ] bridge - [from] houses.

Hard dental consonants |с|, |з| and |n| in the position in front of the soft teeth (except for |l'|), the following are softened: boro[z]dá - boro[z'd']út, fra[n]t - fra[n't']ukha, [s]kat' - [ s'n']yat, romá[n]s - about romá[n's']e.

Hard consonant |n| before |w’’|, |h| softens: tabu[n] - tabu[n’sh’’]ik, staká[n] - staká[n’ch]ik.

Soft labials harden before all consonants, except soft labials and |j|: petó[m’]ets - petó[m]tsy, ru[b’]út’ - rulu.

3. Consonants |с|, |с’|, |з|, |з’| before the hissing |sh|, |sh’’|, |zh|, |h| are replaced by hissing ones: [s]krepút - [w]shitch ( sew), r[z]break - r[sh’’]epút ( split), different [s’]út - different [sh’’]ik ( peddler), [with whom; [w’] than; [with] love; [f] pity.

In combinations stn, zdn consonants T And d not pronounced: joy - joy[sn]y ( glad), stará - star [zn]y ( star), be late - pó[z’n’]y ( late).

The consonant |j| is also not pronounced. in the position after the vowel before |i| and at the beginning of the word: glue, k[l’éju] ( glue) - k[l’éi]t ( glue), str[уjá] ( jet) - str[uú], fight - b[^i] ( fights); (to her- date p.un. h. pronouns she) - [i]m (Dan. Pl.).

Morph Difference

The traditional (historical) difference between nominal and verbal root morphs, as well as nominal and verbal stems in general, is that the nominal root morph and nominal stem end in a consonant, while the verbal root morph and verb stem can end in both vowel and consonant, cf.: wall-a, table, window-o, army (army) And know, look, know (know), look. Deviations from this pattern are represented by nouns and adjectives of a late-formed structural type with a vowel base (foreign borrowings and abbreviations): highway, coat, kangaroo, hummingbird, net, traffic police, automated control system, CSKA, Moscow State University(pronounced: tseeska, emgeu), etc. However, such nominal stems are unable to be combined with inflections (which retain traditional compatibility only with consonant stems) and therefore the corresponding names belong to the category of indeclinables (see § 183, § 185).

The minimal form of the root morph in the significant parts of speech comes down to the formulas CVC in nouns, CV and CVC in the verb (here and below C denotes a consonant phoneme, consonant, V - vowel, vocal element). In this case, the first consonant may not be represented: cf. nominal roots house-, side-, us- and verbal yes- (yes-li), zhi- (zhi-t), -u- (about-u-t), bear- (bear-ti), write- (write-ut), go- (id-ut). Root morphs without a vowel are also possible, but always with combinations of consonants: day, angry, press, lie, sleep.

The minimum type of prefix and postfix morphs and root morph of function words are C and CV, and in the latter case the consonant may not be represented: in/in, s/so, for, yes, but, not, same/f, would/b, -sia/-s, -those, a, and, o.

Minimum type of suffixal morph: in names - VC or C: plat-hedgehog, empty-yak, table-ik, letter-ar, spirit-from-a, honey-ov-y, ice-yang-oh, fox-y, carving-b-a, concoction-n-ya, covered; su [d’-j-a] (judge), judge; ruch-k-a, ruch-ek; smart-n-y, smart-yong; hot, hot, ok; in the verb - CV (with possible absence of a consonant): jump, oh, oh, breakfast, salt, as well as C and VC: jump-n-net, breakfast-at (having breakfast).

In all of these structures (except for the postfixal morph), instead of one consonant there can be a combination of consonants: these are, for example, root morphs know-, simple-, spark-, prefix at-, outside-, suffixal -ost, -ism, -sk, -stv-, -zn.

In non-minimal form, the types of morphs considered are expanded by combining minimal structures; these are the root morphs: nominal city-, lakes-, ant-, verbal si- (shine), know- (know-how), know[j]- (know-how), sway- (sway-et-sya), guard- (ste-reg-ut); prefix over-, under-, times-/over-; postfixal -either (anyone); root morphs of function words or, over/must, unless; suffixal morphs: nominal in words color-nick, coward-live, white-ovate, verbs in winter, look-at, lazy.

Typical flexion morph: V, VC or VCV: house-y, in the house-e, city-a, night-i, carrying-u, carrying-and, carrying-a, vid-it, carrying-eating, city-am, most-of-them, houses-ami, carried -yeah, big-y (big).

Syllable

Syllable is a sound or several sounds produced by one impulse of exhaled air. In Russian, only vowel sounds are syllabic (syllable-forming). There are as many syllables in a word form as there are vowels. For example, in the word form build one syllable, in word form so-ci-a-li-sti-che-ski-e- eight, in word form dust-le-moisture-not-about-any-tsa-e-most- nine, etc. The Russian language is characterized by both open syllables (ending with a vowel: water), and closed (ending with a consonant: pocket, soldier); There are open syllables that consist only of a vowel ( willow).

A syllable is built according to the principle of ascending sonority: in open syllables, noisy consonants precede sonorous ones, and sonorant ones precede a vowel ( blah blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah); the structure of the prevocalic (preceding the vowel) part of closed syllables is similar ( ve-ksel, twirl, vy-shot). The postvocalic (located after the vowel) part of non-final closed syllables can contain only sonorant consonants ( vel-vet, o-boy-ma, property). Final closed syllables may, however, end with obstruents ( kar-kas) And various combinations consonants ( po-isk, pa-sport, ship, cylinder). In the initial syllables of word forms, the prevocalic part can, as an exception (in violation of the principle of ascending sonority), be a combination of “sonorant + noisy”: blush, forehead, flatterers. At the beginning of a syllable, and therefore at the beginning of a word form, combinations “[j] + consonant” are impossible; such combinations are possible only in the postvocalic part of closed syllables ( slide, properties). But in the postvocalic part, and therefore at the end of the word form, combinations “consonant + [j]” are impossible [in the prevocalic part they are normal: be-[l’jo] (linen), solo-[v’ji] (nightingales)].

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THE CONCEPT OF PHONEME.

Introduction

The fact that our speech can be divided into individual sounds, which we distinguish from each other, seems self-evident. It seems quite obvious that everyone hears the difference between vowels in words at home - Duma, or consonants in words weight - all, cancer - varnish and distinguish raid from will pour just by sound.

However, in fact, the selection of individual sounds in a stream of speech is not at all determined only by sound. Same sound by carriers different languages is assessed differently in terms of sound composition: Koreans will not notice the difference R from l, Arabs O from y, for the French in words weight And all how different sounds will be judged by vowels rather than final consonants; and speakers of very many languages ​​will not be able to hear the difference between raid And will pour.

Consequently, the selection of individual sounds and their assessment as the same or different depends on the characteristics of the linguistic structure.

To determine how many different sound units are used in a language, it is necessary to solve two problems: 1) divide the flow of speech into individual sounds - minimal sound segments; 2) determine which sounds should be considered the same and which should be distinguished.

The linguistic mechanisms that ensure such linear division and identification of segments of the speech chain were first shown by L. V. Shcherba in 1912.

Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba was the founder of the Leningrad Phonological School and stood at the origins of the formation of such a science as phonology. Phonetics questions interested L.V. Shcherba throughout his entire scientific activity. Shcherba's most significant works on phonetics (pre-revolutionary period) were “Subjective and Objective Methods in Phonetics” (1909) and “Russian Vowels in Qualitative and Quantitative Relation” (1912). L.V. Shcherba supported the idea of ​​Baudouin de Courtenay about the existence in the language of such phonetic units that do not coincide with acoustic or physiological units. These units, according to Shcherba, are the result mental activity. Adhering to the mental explanation of the essence of phonetic units in the early stages of his activity, Shcherba sees the task of phonetics as a science in the study of sound representations of speech. But unlike B. de Courtenay, Shcherba introduces a semantic element into the definition of a phoneme. He defines a phoneme as the shortest general phonetic representation of a given language, capable of being associated with semantic representations and differentiating words, and the phoneme can be distinguished in speech without distorting the phonetic composition of the word.

The basis of Shcherba’s linguistic worldview in the pre-revolutionary period was subjective psychologism. He considered language a mental phenomenon, one of the products of the activity of our psyche. He recognized the subjective method as the only phonetic method, since we must always turn to the consciousness of the individual speaking a given language. Later, already in Soviet times, Shcherba began to lean more and more towards the materialist philosophy of language, towards dialectical materialism. This was also manifested in the interpretation of the phoneme, which in 1937 Shcherba considered as a dialectical unity of the general and the particular. During this period he understood the phoneme as sound type, able to differentiate words and their forms. The shade of a phoneme is like the various sounds actually pronounced, which are the particular in which the phoneme is realized. It was L.V. Shcherba who combined the research of his predecessors, structured knowledge about such a linguistic phenomenon as the phoneme, and became the founder of phonemic analysis.

Phoneme analysis

Phoneme functions

Sound matter is formed and used by each language in a special way, in accordance with the rules of its phonological system, which includes a subsystem of segmental means and a subsystem of supersegmental (prosodic) means.

The minimal (shortest in linear terms) structural and functional sound units in most languages ​​are phonemes. They themselves do not have meanings, but are potentially associated with meaning as elements of a single sign system. In combination with each other and often separately, they form exponents of words and morphemes and provide recognition (identification) and differentiation (differentiation) of linguistic signs as meaningful units.
Thus, due to the different composition of phonemes, namely the use of different phonemes in the same position, in the exponents of Russian words genus/rot/ and glad/rat/ it becomes possible to identify each of these words and differentiate them from each other. In the same way, different phonemes appear in identical positions, distinguishing exponents, and thereby the whole:

• English words but /bVt/ ‘but’ and boot /bu:t/ ‘boot, shoe’,
• German words liegen /li:g&n/ ‘to lie’ and legen /le:g&n/ ‘to put down’,
• French words mais /mE/ ‘but’ and mes /me/ ‘mine’.

In most cases, word exponents turn out to be multiphonemic. For example, Russian words have single-phoneme exponents A/a/, And/i/, at/u/, V/v/, To/k/, morphemes - l/l/ in spa , -t/t’/ in sleep , -s/s/ in tables , -at/u/ in go-y , V- /v/ in in-climb , -A- /a/, - j- And - at/u/ in step-a-j-y(spelling: I'm walking). Contains one phoneme each

• exhibitors English words o /@U/ ‘zero’, A /eI/ ‘excellent grade (in American school)’, e /i:/ ‘number e (in mathematics)’, I /aI/ ‘i’,
• exhibitors german words A /a:/ ‘la (music)’, E /e:/ ‘mi (music)’, o! /o:/ ‘oh!, ah!’,
• exponents of French words a /a/ ‘has’, eau /o/ ‘water’, ou /u/ ‘or’.

The exponents of many morphemes in these languages ​​are monophonemic.
The exponent of a linguistic sign cannot consist of less than one phoneme.

Phoneme segmentation

Sounded speech represents a continuum from an acoustic and articulatory point of view, i.e. indivisible whole. Linguistic units in general and phonemes in particular have a discrete nature, i.e. they are quite clearly distinguished from each other in syntagmatic and paradigmatic terms. The distinctiveness of phonemes in speech is based not on acoustic or articulatory features, but on structural-functional features, i.e. actually linguistic. Phonemic segmentation is specified by itself language system. As a result of phonemic segmentation, a chain of discrete phonemes is assigned a number of sounds ( backgrounds).
The background acts as an individual, single representative (representative) of a certain phoneme in speech. Each phoneme corresponds to an infinite number of backgrounds.

In accordance with morphological(semiotic in nature) principle, which was formulated in the school of L.V. Shcherby, the boundaries between phonemes are where the boundaries between morphemes are . For example, the syllable Yes in a word (word form) water is divided into two phonemes: /d/ and /a/, reflecting the presence of a morphemic seam: water. In the same way, a syntagmatic boundary is established between the phonemes /v/ and /a/ in the word form grass, between /u/ and /p/ in the word form oo-pad-oo .

Repeatedly repeated individually, phonemes acquire autonomy in the phonological system of the language, so in the exponent of the word Yes, where there is no morphemic division, there is a boundary between the phonemes /d/ and /a/.

Using a morphological criterion, we can determine whether we are dealing with long consonants, long vowels, diphthongs as single phonemes or as combinations of phonemes (monophonemic and biphonemic interpretation).
Yes, in a word enter, beginning phonetically long, two phonemes /v/ are distinguished, one of which is the exponent of the morpheme V-, and the other is initial in the exponent of the root morpheme - water-. The morphological criterion makes it possible to prove that in the Russian language there are no diphthongs as single phonemes, and in the German and English languages ​​diphthongs are monophonemic.
Boundaries between phonemes can also be signaled by meaningful alternations (for example, alternations along the ablaut in the English word forms find ~ found ( ~ ]aU]), in the German word forms find-en ~ fand-en ([I] ~ [a]).
Thus, boundaries between phonemes are possible both at the junctions of words and morphemes, and within morphemes. They do not have to coincide with syllable boundaries.
The situation is different in syllabic languages. In them, the syllable, as a rule, is an indivisible exponent of the morpheme and/or word. In its functions, such a syllable is similar to a phoneme. Therefore, in such cases a syllable is spoken of as the shortest phonological unit - a syllabem.

Phonological oppositions and differential features

Each phonemic (non-syllabic) language has a small, closed set of phonemes. They can carry out their identifying and differentiating function due to the fact that they differ from each other, being paradigmatically opposed.

Paradigmatic features of phonemes are revealed on the basis phonological oppositions, i.e. such oppositions between phonemes that distinguish not just different sets of phonemes, but also using these sets as their exponents different words(and morphemes).

The typology of phonological oppositions was first developed by N.S. Trubetskoy.

In this work the following characteristics of oppositions will be used:

• by the number of opposed members:
• two-term (binary) oppositions, for example: /d/:/t/ - house :volume ;
• three-term (ternary), for example: /p/:/t/:/k/ - sweat :That :cat, etc.;
• according to the number of differential features that serve to distinguish opposing phonemes:
• oppositions of the same sign (for example: /g/:/k/, opposed on the basis of voicedness: deafness (unvoicedness) - year :cat), And
• multi-featured, for example: /t/:/z/, contrasted according to the characteristics of voicedness: deafness and closure: gapiness (non-occlusion) - tol :angry ;
• in relation to the phoneme system:
• isolated oppositions (for example, German /l/:/r/ - lassen:Rassen, and
• proportional, for example: rus. /l/:/r/ = /l"/:/r"/ - fishing :ditch = A lion (< Leva):roar .

Tests for the participation of a given phoneme in phonological oppositions make it possible to establish a set of its simultaneous differential signs .
So, for the Russian phoneme /d/ through oppositional analysis, i.e. comparisons of /d/ with other phonemes (/d/:/t/, /d/:/n/, /d/:/d"/, /d/:b/, /d/:/g/, /d /:/z/, the phonological content of /d/ appears as a set of features

Since a phoneme is determined by its strong variant, it is quite easy to count the number of vowel and consonant phonemes of the Russian language: there are as many of them as there are sounds in strong positions. However, not all linguists show unity in their views on the phoneme system. Thus, representatives of different philological schools qualify vowel [s] differently. Some scientists consider it an independent phoneme<ы>, because this sound occurs in a strong position ( son, pumpkin, fathers). Others call [s] a variant phoneme<и>, because, firstly, this sound occurs in a strong position only after hard consonants (for other vowels, a strong position is possible both after hard and soft consonants), and secondly, the sound [s] practically does not occur at the beginning of a word (as opposed to [and]).

There is also no unity in the identification of some consonant phonemes: not all linguists consider phonemes to be independent<г`>, <к`>, <х`>(since the sounds [g`], [k`], [х`] usually appear in a strong position only before front vowels: cunning, hero, (in) hand– and are never at the absolute end of a word). Some scientists do not agree with the existence of phonemes<ж`:>, <ш`:>, considering their longitude to be the result of the assimilation of two sounds: [s] [ch`] or [sh] [ch`].

Taking into account the specifics of the faculty that trains primary school teachers, we propose to join the opinion of linguists who determine the number of phonemes depending on the number of possible strong positions.

In accordance with this approach, 6 vowel phonemes are distinguished in modern Russian: <а>, <э>, <о>, <и>, <ы>, <у> (see § 10) – and 37 consonants : <б>, <б`>, <в>, <в`>, <г>, <г`>, <д>, <д`>, <ж>, <ж`:>, <з>, <з`>, <й`>, <к>, <к`>, <л>, <л`>, <м>, <м`>, <н>, <н`>, <п>, <п`>, <р>, <р`>, <с>, <с`>, <т>, <т`>, <ф>, <ф`>, <х>, <х`>, <ц>, <ч`>, <ш>, <ш`:> (see § 11).

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Subject and tasks of phonetics
The subject of the study of phonetics is the whole sound system language: sounds in the stream of speech, their natural alternations, compatibility, acoustic and articulatory characteristics. In addition, in phonetics

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Phonetic transcription
Oral speech, which is the object of consideration of phonetics, differs from written language, which records spoken speech in letter designations. But when studying phonetics, there is a need to accurately characterize

Phonetic units of the Russian language
Our speech is not a continuous stream of sound. It is divided into segments, distinguished by various kinds of pauses. Indeed, to understand the meaning of what has been said, not only the grammatical sequence with

Acoustic characteristics of sounds
The sounds of speech, like other sounds around us, are the result of special oscillatory movements air environment. There are two main types of sounds: musical tone (the result of rhythmic

Vowel sounds
Different articulation (the work of the speech organs) allows you to pronounce sounds that are clearly different from each other. The quality of the vowel sound depends on the position of the tongue and the participation of the lips in the process of formation.

Consonant sounds
The articulation of consonants is more difficult than the articulation of vowels. The main feature of the formation of consonants is that the speech apparatus creates an obstacle in the form of closure or convergence of the speech organs.

Syllable. Hyphenation
Our speech is divided into segments of different durations. Let us remember that one of the units of such division is the syllable (see § 4). In modern Russian linguistics there are various theories

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Sounds in the stream of speech are very rarely used in isolation. They are usually closely related to each other and undergo various changes. If such changes occur within the same sea

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The alternation of vowel sounds depends primarily on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. In it, vowels sound most clearly, so the position of the vowel in a stressed syllable is called

Positional changes of consonants
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The concept of phoneme
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Phonemic transcription
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Phonetic transcription signs
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Vowel sounds
It is based on the table presented in “Russian Grammar” (M.: Nauka, 1980). sounds characteristic rise

Consonant sounds
It is based on the table presented in “Russian Grammar” (M.: Nauka, 1980) sounds, voice and noise

Phonetic analysis of the word
I. The order of characterization of a syllable: 1. Stressed or unstressed syllable. 2. Covered or uncovered. 4. Open or closed.

About the phoneme

Phoneme

The basic concept in phonology is phoneme.

Term "phoneme" introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of French nobles, Ivan (Jan) Alexandrovich Baudouet ́ n de Courtenay ́ (1845 - 1929), founder of the Kazan school of linguistics. He considered the phoneme to be a mental variant (equivalent) of the sounds of a language.

Phoneme- this is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of ​​sound.

Phoneme cannot be pronounced, only varieties (shades) of phonemes are pronounced in different conditions - positions in the word and surrounded by various “neighboring sounds”

. Phoneme- general, actually pronounced sound - specific.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example, [a] can be pronounced differently in pitch, strength, duration, timbre, but all different millions of sounds [a] are designated

one letter, reflecting one sound type, i.e. one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet often do not coincide, but a parallel can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages ​​it almost coincides.

The phoneme can therefore be - approximately!!! - describe as a letter of the sound alphabet.

If in the stream of speech Thousands of different sounds can distinguish different words only thanks to phonemes.

Consequently, a phoneme is the minimum sound unit of a language system that allows one to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.

when replacing one phoneme with another, you get a different word (<д>om -<т>ohm);

changing the order of phonemes will also result in a different word (<сон> - <нос>);

when you remove a phoneme, you will also get another word (i.e.<р>he is the tone).

In a word " milk» one phoneme /o/ is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed. Wed: [ mъlΛ ToÓ ]

Thus, a phoneme is an abstraction, a type, a model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts phoneme " And " speech sound » do not match.

(See also: in the English word boy two phonemes ( b like a monophthong and oi as a diphthong), and in the word by b accompanied by another diphthong ; V be , bee contained bin combination with other vowels phonemes - etc.).

There are also cases when two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word “children’s” /t/ and /s/ sound like one sound [ts], and in the word “sew” /s/ and /sh/ sound like a long [sh:].

Each phoneme is a set of essential features by which it differs from other phonemes. For example, /t/ is voiceless in contrast to voiced /d/, front-lingual in contrast to /p/, plosive in contrast to /s/, etc.

The features by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.

For example, in Russian language the word “there” can be pronounced with short [a] and long [a:], but the meaning of the word will not change. Consequently, in Russian these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme .

But in English and German language vowel phonemes also differ in length. be And bee, German Bann And Bahn).

In Russian language the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential feature, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal.

General features that cannot be used to distinguish phonemes are called integral features. For example, the sign of voicing in [b] is not a distinctive (differential), but an integral sign in relation to [x].

The phoneme is realized in the form of one of the possible options. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are called allophones. (Sometimes the terms " shade"(Russian linguist Lev Shcherba) or " divergent"(Baudouin de Courtenay).

Strong position Phonemes are positions where phonemes clearly reveal their properties: som, sam; lobefore chka, robehind , sl wash, i.e. vowels are stressed, consonants are before vowels or sonorants.

Weak position- this is, in particular, the position neutralization phonemes where phonemes do not perform distinctive functions: soma, herself; leg, naked; rock, horn; mouth, gender. (Neutralization of phonemes- this is the coincidence of different phonemes in one allophone).

The same phoneme can change its sound, but only within limits that do not affect its distinctive features. (Obviously, no matter how much the spruce trees differ from each other, they cannot be confused with pine or aspen).

Phonetic variants of phonemes are mandatory for all native speakers. If a man pronounces a sound in a low voice and lisps, and a girl pronounces a sound in a high voice and burrs, then these sounds will not be phonetic, obligatory variants of phonemes. This is a random, individual, speech, not linguistic variation.

Each phoneme is realized in speech by a variety of acoustically and articulatory similar sounds.

Moreover, the difference between them is within one phonemes are not used to distinguish words, but differences between sounds different phonemes – used:

bar/bur/bur;

beech/ruk/bough/muk;

lynx/snout/roar, etc.

Thus, we can say that a phoneme is functional sound type, sound type, sound type .

In the Russian language, it is generally accepted to distinguish the following phonemes.

CONSONANTS AndVOWELS

Labiolabial	Labiodental	Forelingual	Middle-lingual	Posterior lingual
p p’ b b’		t t' d d'			Occlusive
					Africates
	f f’ in v’	c c’ w z z’ w	SCH? and'? (th)	x x' (γ)	Fricatives (slotted)
		n n’ l l’ r r’			Sonants
			and y		High vowels
					Mid-rise vowels
					Low vowels

Consonants labiolabial stops are voiced and voiceless, hard and soft /p, p’, b, b’/. (We will denote Russian phonemes with Russian letters).

The same four consonants are found in the cells of the anterior and posterior lingual stop consonants.

There are only two affricates - unvoiced c (hard) and ch' (soft).

Fricative consonants – two quadruples of labial-dental and front-lingual (f, f’, v, v’, s, s’, z, z’).

In addition, between the front and rear linguals there are hard /sh/ and /zh/, and also soft /sch/ and /zh’/, which dual education noise focus.

/x/ and /x’/ are completely back-lingual.

Sonants (that is, sounds that represent a musical tone - despite to the barrier in the oral cavity) - represented by labiolabial /m/ and /m’/, anterior lingual N and N’, which sound due to the opening nasal resonator for voice. Front-lingual L and L’ sound due to opening lateral passage in the tongue area - lateral sonants. Front-lingual P and P' sound due to the fact that the barrier periodically opens - trembling sonants.

Middle language Y - a peculiar sound

(With unstable articulation ) .

Vowels form a characteristic triangle, where I, U, A occupy extreme positions in the space of possible vowels by articulation, and O, E, Y are positions intermediate between the extreme points.

I, E – front vowels; they are usually combined with soft consonants.

O, U – back vowels; they are characterized by additional labial articulation.

A and Y are considered middle vowels.

Thus - 43 phonemes.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Non-disputed phonemes (discussion between representatives of the MFS and PFS).