Unlike others, it is performed in accordance with a certain logic.
In the structure of thinking, the following logical operations can be distinguished:
- comparison;
- analysis;
- synthesis;
- abstraction;
- generalization.
Comparison- mental operations based on
Analysis- a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics and then comparing them.
Synthesis- an operation opposite to analysis, allowing Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together, contributing to a deeper knowledge of reality.
Abstraction — highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from others, insignificant.
Generalization- mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.
Forms of logical thinking
Main forms logical thinking are:
- concepts;
- judgments;
- inferences.
Concept
Concept - form of thinking that reflects in a word concrete and abstract.
Judgment
Judgment - form of thinking that reflects communications approval form or denial.
Inference
Conclusion - conclusion.
The conclusions differ:
- inductive;
- deductive;
- Similarly.
Induction- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general.
Deduction- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific.
Analogy- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from private to private
Emotions can not only distort, but also stimulate thinking. It is known that feeling will give tension, sharpness, purposefulness and perseverance to thinking. According to , without sublime feelings, productive thought is just as impossible as without logic, skills, and abilities.
Logic and emotions in the thinking process
Unlike other processes, it is carried out in accordance with a certain logic. In the structure of thinking, the following logical operations can be distinguished: comparison, analysis, synthesis. abstraction and generalization.
Comparison - mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects. The result of the comparison can be a classification, which acts as primary form theoretical knowledge.
Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics and then comparing them.
Synthesis - an operation inverse to analysis that allows mentally recreate a whole from analytically given parts. Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together, contributing to a deeper Knowledge of reality.
Abstraction - mental operation based on you divide the essential properties and connections of an object and abstract from others, insignificant. These highlighted characteristics do not actually exist as independent objects. Abstraction facilitates a more thorough study of them. The result of abstraction is the formation of concepts.
Generalization is a mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.
Basic forms of logical thinking are concepts, judgments and inferences.
Concept - form of thinking that reflects essential properties, connections and relationships objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or a group of words. Concepts can be concrete and abstract.
Judgment - form of thinking that reflects communications between objects and phenomena in approval form or denial. Propositions can be true or false.
Conclusion - a form of thinking in which, based on several judgments, a certain one is made conclusion. Inferences are distinguished between inductive, deductive and analogical.
Induction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general. Deduction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific.
Analogy - logical conclusion in the process of thinking from private to private based on some similarities.
Although thinking is carried out on the basis of logical operations, it does not always act as a process in which only logic and reason act. Emotions very often interfere with the thinking process, changing it. Emotions subordinate thought to feeling, forcing one to select arguments that speak in favor of the desired decision.
Emotions can not only distort, but also stimulate thinking. It is known that feeling gives tension, sharpness, purposefulness and persistence to thinking. According to psychology, without sublime feelings, productive thought is just as impossible as without logic, knowledge, skills.
Exist 3 main forms of thinking – concept, judgment, inference.
Concept - this is an expression of the general and most essential in the objects and phenomena around us.
Basic concepts are formed throughout historical development human society and are the result of the mental activity of many generations of people. However, the assimilation of these concepts is carried out individually by each person in the process of his development.
For complete knowledge of an object or phenomenon, the connections between them, it is necessary to reveal the essential, most characteristic in them, which constitutes understanding.
Without understanding, there is no successful assimilation of knowledge about reality, there is no deep knowledge of reality. On the process of understanding big influence has a person's past experience, the wealth of those impressions.
Thought processes are carried out in the form judgments. Judgments reveal the essence of a concept. The formation of a judgment means the disclosure of connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of reality, that is, the disclosure of the essence of a concept.
Judgment is the affirmation or denial of any connections, relationships between objects and phenomena, between their properties and qualities.
Knowledge of any law or scientific position is the ability to make a correct judgment, that is, to reveal the essence of the content of a phenomenon, object, connections between them, formulated in some law or position.
Each judgment is a statement of facts, connections that exist between objects, phenomena, and practice shows how correctly the judgment reflects these connection facts.
Of great importance in checking the correctness of judgment are inferences.
Inference is a comparison and analysis of various judgments and the formation of new general or particular conclusions on this basis.
There are inferences inductive And deductive.
Inductive reasoning(induction) involves the establishment of general laws, rules, regulations based on the consideration of particular, individual facts, cases, phenomena.
Deductive reasoning(deduction) involves the disclosure of individual, particular phenomena and facts based on knowledge of general laws and regulations.
Induction and deduction are closely related. When discussing a particular phenomenon or object, a person makes conclusions not only of a general nature, but also draws particular conclusions based on general provisions and patterns. The close connection of both types of inferences contributes to the most complete disclosure of phenomena and objects of reality.
Types of thinking.
Depending on the combination of mental operations, forms of thinking, their content, and quality level, visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking are distinguished.
Visually effective thinking - is a type of thinking associated with direct including it in practical
Usually this type thinking is clearly manifested in activities that require solving mental problems with simultaneous reinforcement by practical actions.
Visual-figurative thinking - This is thinking based on ideas. Characteristic This type of thinking is a broad operation of specific visual images in the process of solving a particular mental problem.
Thinking is exactly what allows a person to establish certain patterns between phenomena and objects of the surrounding world. With its help we understand the reality around us. Forms of thinking have great value. If we perceived reality differently, it would be completely different. Forms of thinking in psychology are nothing more than formal structures of thought. There are three of them:
Concept;
Judgment;
Conclusion.
In psychology:
Practical-effective;
Verbal-logical;
Visual-figurative.
This article will look at exactly what forms of thinking there are.
Forms of thinking: concept
Everything around is different in some way. At the same time, it can be argued that everything around is not so unique. We can distinguish objects and phenomena precisely by the distinctive features that they possess. Example, squares have equal sides, milk is always white, dogs bark.
Concepts can only exist in the form of word meanings. It is also worth noting that they are designated by words. Concepts summarize all our knowledge about objects and things in the world.
Concepts should not be confused with perception or memory representation, since in both of these cases our mind operates with something specific. In the case of the concept, there is no specificity (the concept “horse” does not mean a specific horse, but all horses at once).
Forms of thinking: judgment
A judgment is nothing more than an affirmation or denial of something about some object or phenomenon of the surrounding world. This can be a denial or affirmation of connections, properties, characteristics, and so on.
A judgment, unlike a concept, is expressed not by a word, but by a sentence. Judgments can be divided into:
General and private;
Affirmative and negative;
In the first case, everything depends on whether we are talking about all objects and phenomena or only about individual ones. An example of a general proposition: all living things breathe; an example of a particular proposition: some dogs have long ears.
Affirmative judgment: the table is wooden, negative: it is not cold outside.
If a judgment mentions any condition (if it rains, then) - it is conditional. There is no condition - it is categorical.
Judgments help to reveal the essence of concepts. It is worth noting that a true judgment can be made only by knowing the essence of the concept in question.
Judgments can express not only knowledge, but also subjective assessments.
Forms of thinking: inference
In this case, from one or several judgments at once we obtain new ones. They can be:
Deductive;
Inductive;
Similarly.
Deduction is a movement from the whole to the part (from the general to the particular). Everything in this case is based on the fact that a person, on the basis of some general laws, cognizes individual phenomena and objects.
In induction, everything happens the other way around. Thought moves from the general to the specific. That is, general laws are established on the basis of any particular phenomena or objects.
Analogy is the movement of thought from particular to particular. In other words, a person studies two similar objects or phenomena, and draws some conclusions based on the information received. It is important to note that the objects in question must have at least some common features.
Example of deductive reasoning:
All people lie. Vakulin man. Vakulin is lying.
An example of inductive reasoning:
The seagull has a beak. The crow has a beak. Every bird must have a beak.
Example of inference by analogy:
My cheap TV is broken. The neighbor's cheap TV broke. All cheap TVs break.
Thus, a person, with the help of the described forms of thinking, cognizes the surrounding reality.
Thinking is a cognitive mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of connections and relationships between objects of objective reality. Thinking is a process associated with the processing of information, either received through sensations or stored in memory as a result personal experience, in order to be able to react in a new situation. The following are distinguished: features:
1. The main function of thinking is to identify internal connections in objects.
2. Thinking relies in its knowledge on these sensory images;
3. Thinking can be divorced from the real world, since for cognition it can use a “substitute” for objects of the external world - a sign, a symbol
4. Thinking proceeds as a whole based on previously acquired knowledge;
5. Feature - mental results are initially generalized;
6. We can think not only in terms of the present, but also the past and the future.
Types of thinking:
1. By the nature of the tasks being solved:
- theoretical – aimed at finding general patterns.
- practical - aimed at resolving private specific tasks.
2. According to the method of solving problems (according to the genesis of development):
-visual-effective (subject-effective) - the instrument is the object.
The peculiarity is that with its help it is impossible to solve the problem without the participation of practical actions. That is why he has such a close connection with practice.
-visual-figurative - allows you to understand the real world without the participation of practical actions, can only be carried out in an ideal way. Distinctive features: simultaneity (simultaneity), impulsiveness and syntheticity.
-verbal-logical (conceptual) - using this type of thinking, a person can analyze, compare phenomena, objects, situations, evaluating the object, situation, phenomenon, both from his own point of view and from other points of view.
- abstract-logical (abstract) - highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from other, unimportant ones.
3. By degree of deployment:
-discursive (logical) - mediated by the logic of reasoning, not perception.
-intuitive - thinking based on direct sensory perceptions and direct reflection of the effects of objects and phenomena of the objective world.
4. according to the degree of novelty and originality:
-creative (productive) - thinking based on creative imagination.
-recreating (reproductive) - thinking based on images and ideas drawn from certain sources.
5. By means of thinking:
- verbal - thinking that operates with abstract sign structures.
- visual - thinking based on images and representations of objects.
6. By function:
- critical - aimed at identifying shortcomings in the judgments of other people
- creative - associated with the discovery of fundamentally new knowledge, with the generation of one’s own original ideas, and not with evaluating other people's thoughts.
Basic forms of thinking:
Concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties of objects and phenomena
Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects connections between objects and phenomena
Inference is a form of thinking in which a certain conclusion is drawn based on judgments.
Thinking operations:
-analysis (mental separation) - highlighting in an object certain of its sides, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc.; This is the division of a cognizable object into various components.
-synthesis (mental unification) is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking.
- generalization (mental unification into a class or category) - the unification of many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic.
- comparison - an operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and identifying the commonality or differences between them.
-abstraction (isolating some features and distinguishing them from others) is a mental operation based on abstracting from the unimportant features of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.
- classification - systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish connections between these concepts or classes of objects.
- categorization - the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and nonverbal meanings, symbols, etc.
Logical forms (processes) of thinking: concept, judgment, inference.
Concept– a form of thinking that reflects the general, essential properties and distinctive features of objects and phenomena. Each concept has volume (the totality of all objects included in this concept) and content (knowledge about these objects and objects). Concepts do not remain unchanged, they deepen and expand.
According to the nature of the reflection of connections and relationships, concepts are divided into two types: specific concepts(which reflect connections and relationships between really existing objects), abstract concepts. The content of a concept is always revealed in a judgment; it is expressed verbally or in writing.
Judgment – a statement containing an affirmation or denial of connections and relationships between objects and phenomena. Judgments can be affirmative or negative. Examples of an affirmative judgment include statements such as “The student knows the lesson.” Negative judgments include those judgments that note the absence of certain characteristics in an object. For example: “This word is not a verb.” A judgment has a subject (subject) and a predicate (predicate). Judgments are expressed in sentences, which can be complete (subject) or incomplete (predicate).
There are judgments general, private And single. In general judgments, something is affirmed or denied regarding all objects and phenomena united by a concept, for example: “All metals conduct electricity.” In private judgment we're talking about only about part of the objects and phenomena united by the concept, for example: “Some schoolchildren know how to play chess.” A single judgment is a judgment in which we are talking about some individual concept, for example: “Moscow is the capital of Russia”, “Pushkin is a great Russian poet”.
There are two main ways of forming judgments: directly - what we perceive is expressed in words. Indirectly - from one judgment, on its basis, we come to another judgment, as a result of inference. The truth of judgments is verified by a person’s social practice.
Inference - this form of thinking in which a person, comparing and analyzing various judgments, derives a new judgment from them. The judgment from which we draw a conclusion is called premises, and the new judgment is called a conclusion. A typical example of inference is the proof of geometric theorems.
A person uses mainly two types of inferences - inductive And deductive, but they also distinguish inference by analogy - conclusions based on partial similarities between objects.
Induction – derivation of a particular judgment from a general one.
Deduction – derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.
Types of thinking. Classification of thinking by for various reasons
In psychology, there are several classifications of types of thinking. The most common is to distinguish types of thinking on various grounds.
1. In form - objective-effective, visual-figurative, abstract-logical (abstract, logical, judging by Mayer).
2. By the nature of the problems being solved - theoretical (theoretical conceptual, theoretical figurative) and practical.
3. According to the degree of development - discursive, intuitive.
4. According to the degree of novelty and originality - reproductive (reproducing), productive (creative).
1. These types of thinking can be considered as (object-actional, visual-figurative, verbal-logical) - three stages of the development of thinking in ontogenesis. And also, depending on what place the word, image and action occupy in the thought process, how they relate to each other, three types of thinking are distinguished: concrete-effective, or practical, concrete-figurative and abstract. These types of thinking are also distinguished on the basis of the characteristics of the tasks - practical and theoretical.
Subject-effective– a mental task is solved directly in the process of activity. Practical thinking is both historically and ontogenetically the most early appearance human thinking. It was with this type that the development of thinking in a person began in the process of the emergence of his work activity, when mental activity had not yet separated from objective-practical activity. The development of thinking in ontogenesis begins with this species. Initially, the child solves problems by directly interacting with the object. However, it is a mistake to think that this type of thinking is a primitive form of thinking. Having arisen at the dawn of mankind and appearing in every person in the first years of his life, it persists and develops throughout the history of mankind, at all age levels of each person. This type of thinking is indispensable when it is advisable to solve a mental problem directly in the process of practical activity.
Visual-figurative, or artistic thinking, is characterized by the fact that here the content of the mental task is based on figurative material. This type of thinking manifests itself when a person, solving a problem, analyzes, compares, and strives to generalize various images of objects, phenomena, and events.
Abstract, or verbal-logical, thinking is characterized by the fact that the problem here is solved in verbal form. Using the verbal form, a person operates with the most abstract concepts that do not have figurative expression: price, cost, etc.
Conclusion: All three types of thinking are closely related to each other. Many people have equally developed concrete-actional, concrete-imaginative and theoretical thinking, but depending on the nature of the problems that a person solves, first one, then another, then a third type of thinking comes to the fore.
If thinking is examined in the process of its development in children, then one can find that concrete-actional thinking arises first, then concrete-figurative and, finally, abstract-logical thinking. But the characteristics of each of these types of thinking in children are somewhat different, their connection is simpler.
2. Practical thinking – setting goals, developing a plan, carried out under time pressure. The main difference between theoretical and practical thinking is that they are related to practice in different ways. The work of practical thinking is aimed at solving particular, specific problems; the work of theoretical thinking is aimed at finding general patterns. Practical thinking is woven directly into practice and is constantly tested by practice, while theoretical thinking is tested by practice in the final result.
Theoretical conceptual thinking - this is thinking, using which a person, in the process of solving a problem, turns to concepts, performs actions in the mind, without directly dealing with the experience gained through the senses. He discusses and searches for a solution to a problem from beginning to end in his mind, using ready-made knowledge obtained by other people, expressed in conceptual form, judgments, and inferences. Theoretical conceptual thinking is characteristic of scientific theoretical research.
Theoretical figurative thinking differs from conceptual thinking in that the material that a person uses here to solve a problem is not concepts, judgments or inferences, but images. They are either directly retrieved from memory or creatively recreated by the imagination. This kind of thinking is used by workers in literature, art, and in general people of creative work who deal with images. In the course of solving mental problems, the corresponding images are mentally transformed so that a person, as a result of manipulating them, can directly see the solution to the problem that interests him.
3. Discursive – stage-by-stage development of the thought process. Intuitive – minimal awareness, rapidity of the thought process, non-step-by-step development.
4. Reproductive – application of ready-made knowledge and skills. Creative – aimed at creating new ideas or improving an old task.
Conclusion: all types of thinking are interdependent, transform into each other, depend on each other, in one type of thinking there may be elements of other types of thinking.
